ATOM – 2024-25 ODD SEM 6. What is phase velocity and group velocity?

[ANS: “The velocity of individual waves forming the wave

ENGINEERING PHYSICS packet is called the wave velocity or phase velocity” It is

(BAS-101) denoted by v P and is given by 𝑣𝑝 = 𝜔 = 𝐸

𝑘 𝑝

B TECH: 1st Year, 1st SEM

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
UNIT-1: QUANTUM MECHANICS
1. What is the Compton's effect?
ANSWER: Compton scattering, discovered by Arthur Holly “The average velocity of all individual waves forming the
Compton, is the inelastic scattering of a photon by a charged wave packet is known as the group velocity.”
particle, usually an electron. It results in a decrease in energy v g and given by:𝑣 𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝐸
(increase in wavelength) of the photon (which may be an X-ray It is denoted by 𝑔 = =
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑝
or gamma ray photon), called the Compton effect. The increase Where ω is the angular frequency =2πν and k is the propagation
′ ℎ
in wavelength is given by: 𝜆 − 𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) constant given by 𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆, λ being the wavelength. Eis the
𝑚0 𝑐
energy of the particle and p is the momentum of the particle.]
7. Why is the physical significance of the wave function (  )?
[ANS: The wave function  itself, has no direct physical
significance but the square of its modulus gives the probability of
finding the particle.
Probability = |𝜓𝜓 ∗ |2
UNIT-2: ELECTROMAGNTIC FIELD THEORY
8. Why Maxwell modify Ampere's law? OR
Why Maxwell proposed that Ampere's law require
modification?
2. Explain the presence of unmodified scattered radiation
ANSWER: Maxwell found that the Ampere’s circuital law is
along with the modified radiation for non-zero scattering
logically inconsistent with time varying fields. To make this law
angle.
valid for both type of fields, Maxwell introduce a new concept of
ANSWER: When an incident photon instead of striking a free
displacement current and modified Ampere’s law by replacing J by
electron, strikes a bound electron, the electron does not
(Jc + Jd). i.e.
detached by the collision of photon but remains bound so that
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 = 𝐽𝑐 + 𝐽𝑑 Ampere’s law after Maxwell modification
the atom as a whole recoil.
ℎ 9. What is the Poynting vector? Write its magnitude and
Therefore, shift is given by: 𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑀0 𝑐 dimension.
Where Mo is the mass of an atom. for example: For aluminum ANSWER: The pointing vector represents the em energy flow per
target, 𝑀0 = 27𝑚𝐻 = 27 × 1840 𝑚0 Thus the shift in unit area per unit time along the propagation of the wave. It is given
′
wavelength 𝜆 − 𝜆 =
ℎ
=
ℎ
= 5 × 10−7 Å by the cross product of the field vectors i.e. 𝑆 = 𝐸 × 𝐻
𝑀0 𝑐 27×1840𝑚0 𝑐 The unit of S is Watt/m2 or Joule/sec- m2 and the dimension
Hence change in wavelength is negligible for all values of θ. is[𝑀𝑇 −3 ].
3. Why Compton's effect is not observed for the visible light? 10. What is the Poynting Theorem?
Explain. ANSWER: John Henry Poynting, the famous British physicist
ANSWER: We know that the maximum shift in the wavelength stated thatThe time rate of em-energy within a certain volume plus
′ ℎ 2ℎ
is: 𝜆 − 𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = = 0.05Å the time rate of em-energy flowing out through the boundary
𝑚0 𝑐 𝑚0 𝑐
surface, is equal to the power transferred into the emfield.i.e.
Hence the maximum shift possible is 0.05Å.
𝜕
For visible light, whose wavelength is about 5000Å, the −∫ 𝛻. 𝑆 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸. 𝐽𝑑𝑉 + {∫ 𝑈𝑒𝑚 } 𝑑𝑉
maximum shift in the wavelength is 0.001% of the incident 𝑉 𝑉 𝜕𝑡 𝑉
wavelength which is undetectable. 11. What is the displacement current?
4. What are the matter waves or de Broglie waves? OR Write ANSWER: The displacement current is that current which comes
some properties/ characteristics of matter waves. into play in the region in which the electric field and hence the
[ANS: de Broglie matter waves have the following properties: 1- electric flux is changing with time. It is represented by 𝑖𝑑 and is
𝜕𝐸
Lighter particles have greater wavelength than heavier particles. given by 𝑖𝑑 = ℇ𝐴 { }
𝜕𝑡
2- The smaller the velocity of the particle, the greater is the 12. What is the skin depth or penetration depth?
wavelength associated with it. ANSWER: The skin depth or the penetration depth is the distance
5. What is wave function? Give its properties. over which a plane em wave is attenuated by 1/e of its initial
[ANS: The quantity whose variations make up the matter waves
amplitude at the surface. It is denoted by 𝛿 and for good conductor
is called the wave function.
1 2
Properties: it is given by 𝛿 = = √
𝛽 𝜇𝜎𝜔
It should be normalized
It should be single valued UNIT-3: INTERFERENCE & DIFFRACTION
It should be continuous and finite
 13. Explain why two independent sources could not produce
coherent sources?
[ANSWER: Since the light from two independent sources is not
in phase due to atomic transitions.
14. Explain the necessity of broad source in interference due to
division of amplitude?
[ANSWER: The whole interference pattern of a film by a broad
source can be seen by placing the eye at a suitable position.
22. Why He-Ne is superior than ruby LASER?
On the other hand the whole pattern due to point source can’t be
[ANSWER: (1) He-Ne has low power consumption (2) The
seen by placing eye at one place but one has to move the eye from
efficiency of He-Ne is more than ruby laser.
one point to other.
23. What is population inversion, pumping ,meta stable state?
15. Why an excessively thin film appears black in reflected light. [ANSWER: Population Inversion: It is the situation in which
[ANSWER: The path difference in reflected light is
there are more atom in the excited state and less no of atoms in
𝜆
𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 + ground state i.e. N1< N2.Pumping: It is the process to obtain and
2 maintain the population inversion. .Metastable State: It is an
𝜆
For thin film t = 0, then 𝛥 = ,Which is the condition of dark. exited state of an atom which has longer life time.
2
16. Explain the following effects in Newton’s ring experiment: 24. Distinguish spontaneous and stimulated emission?
(1) Introduction of liquid: Diameters of dark and bright rings [ANSWER: The stimulated emission provide highly coherent
are reduces and so whole pattern become more congested. beam while the radiation from spontaneous emission process is
(2) Removal of glass plate with mirror: The reflected and incoherent.
transmitted patterns are complementary to each other so
uniform illumination is observed.
17. Why Newton’s rings are circular?
[ANSWER: As the locus of equal film thickness is circle so the
pattern is in the form of rings.
18. What is the condition for missing spectra in grating?
[ANSWER: The condition for missing order is given by
𝑛 (𝑒 + 𝑑)
= 25. What is function of Cr+3 ions in ruby laser?
𝑚 𝑒
Here (e+d) = Grating element, e is the slit width and d is the slit [ANSWER: Cr+3 provide the active centers for lasing action. It
separation. has mata stable energy level and the electronic transitions between
19. Define resolving power of an optical instrument. different energy levels gives laser output.
[ANSWER: The ability of any optical instrument to resolve any 26. What is the principle of optical fiber?
closely spaced objects id called resolving power. [ANSWER: The principle of optical fiber is based on the
𝜆 phenomenon of total internal refraction (TIR).
= 𝑛𝑁 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 27. The overall performance of step index -single mode fiber is
𝑑𝜆
20. Write the Rayleigh criterion for the resolving power. best. Why?
[ANSWER: According to the Rayleigh two objects are said to be [ANSWER: For overall performance in terms of data rate and
jus resolved if the principal maxima of diffraction pattern due to attenuation, the single mode step index fiber has the best
one object falls exactly at the first minima adjacent to the principal characteristics because of:
maxima of the other object and vice versa. In step index -single mode n -n ≈ 0 and this
● core cladding
causes a large critical angle (almost 90 degree).
●
The size of core is greatly reduced so all light paths
through core are practically of same length.
The net effect of these two changes is that all light rays traveling
through core travel the same distance, thereby reducing the modal
dispersion.
28. What is acceptance angle and acceptance cone?
[ANSWER: The acceptance angle is defined as the maximum
angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis of the fiber and
propagate down the fiber.
NA= 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = 𝑛1 √2∆
UNIT-iV: FIBER OPTICS & LASER 29. What is fiber loss or fiber attenuation?
21. What is the stimulated emission of radiation in a LASER? [ANSWER: The loss of intensity of light signal from input to
[ANSWER: In certain material the upper stage has longer life output is called the attenuation. It is given by:
time of the order of 10-3 sec, known as metastable state and a 10 𝑃
Fiber Loss = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑜
𝐿(𝐾𝑀) 𝑃𝑖
material having metastable state is called as active material. If
atom in excited state are compelled or forced to jump down to 30. What is dispersion in Optical Fber?
ground state by photon of energy hv = E 2 – E1, then it jumps to [ANSWER: The term dispersion describes the pulse broadening
ground state along with the emission of photon having energy hv effect and produced by the properties of core material and the line
= E2 – E1,this process is called stimulated emission. width of light signal passing through the fiber.
 Three-dimensional(3D) structure or quantum dot: Quantization of
the particle motion occurs in all three direction.

The light pulse width produced by an input pulse of zero line

width.” Dispersion is measured in the unit of time (nano second
or pico second.]
UNIT-5: SUPERCONDUCTIVITY & NANO TECHNOLOGY
1. Define superconductivity? How the resistivity depends on
temperature?
ANSWER: When the electrical resistance of a substance drops
suddenly to zero, when it is cooled below a certain temperature,
the phenomenon is known as superconductivity and such
materials are known as superconductor. The variation of
resistivity with temperature is shown in the figure: 7. What is the difference between Bottom-up Technique and
Top-down Technique?
ANSWER: Bottom-up Technique
This is the technique in which materials and devices are built up
atom by atom that is it technique to collect consolidate and fashion
individual atoms and molecules into a structure. This is carried
out by a sequence of chemical reaction controlled by a series of
catalyst. This process is used widely in biology.
2. What are the characteristics/general features of the Top-down Technique
superconductors? This is a technique in which materials and devices are synthesized
ANSWER: (i) Zero resistivity (ii) Ideal diamagnetism (iii) or constructed by removing existing material from larger entities.
Persistent current Therefore, in this technique, a large scale object or pattern is
3. What is the persistent current? gradually reduced in dimension or dimension to the nanoscale
ANSWER: The current flowing in the superconducting wire is pattern.
known as persistent current. 8. What are the carbon nano materials? Give its two physical
properties.
ANSWER: It is a new form of carbon, configurationally
equivalent to two dimensional graphene sheet rolled into a
cylindrical, just a few nanometers in diameter and several micron
long with a length to diameter ratio greater than 1,000,000. It
physical properties are (i) due to large surface-to-volume ratio,
31. Define Meissner’s effect. these structure has strong catalytic properties (ii) the ionization
ANSWER: The phenomenon of exclusion of magnetic flux or potential is found to be higher for nanotube structure than that of
ejection of lines of magnetic induction from the interior of bulk the bulk.
superconductor, when they are cooled below the transition ****************************************************
temperature is called Meissner’s effect.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
UNIT-1: QUANTUM MECHANICS
1. Obtain time independent and time dependent Schrodinger’s
wave equation. Explain ‘ψ’
[ANSWER: Schrödinger’s Time Independent Equation: Let
us consider a particle of mass m moving with velocity v. Let the
4. Define critical/transition/superconducting temperature of a 2 1 𝜕2 𝜓
equation of matter waves in 1-D is: 𝛻 𝜓 = ….(1)
𝑣 2 𝛿𝑡 2
superconductor.
ANSWER: The temperature below which a normal material turns Solution of equation (1) is 𝜓 = 𝜓0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝜓0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝜐𝑡…(2)
into a superconductor is called as critical temperature. Differentiating eq. (2), we get
𝜕𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓
5. What do you mean by high temperature superconductors? = 𝜓0 2𝜋𝜐 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝜐𝑡 and = −𝜓0 (2𝜋𝜐)2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝜐𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝛿𝑡2
ANSWER: The superconductor which have relatively high 2
𝜕 𝜓 2 𝑣2 𝑣2
critical temperature, in general more than 40K, are known as high = −4𝜋2 𝜐 𝜓 =−4𝜋 2 𝜓 = −4𝜋 2 ℎ 2
𝜓
𝛿𝑡2 𝜆2 ( )
temperature superconductor. 𝑚𝑣
𝑚2 𝑣 4 𝑚2 𝑣 4
6. What are the quantum well, quantum wire and quantum dot? = −4𝜋 2 𝜓=− 𝜓 ..(3)
ℎ2 ℏ2
ANSWER: One-dimensional (1D) structure or quantum wire: 2
Putting the value from equation (3) in equation (1), we get 𝛻 𝜓 =
Quantization occurs in two directions, leading to free movement 𝑚2 𝑣
2
1 𝜕2 𝜓
along only one direction. =- 𝜓 2 ………..(4)
𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2 ℏ
Two-dimensional(2D) structure or quantum well: Quantization of Now we know that the total energy E = Kinetic energy + Potential
the particle motion occurs in one direction, while the particle is 1
energy = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑉𝑜 or 𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉𝑜)
free to move in the other two directions. 2
 2
Therefore, equation (4) may be modified as, 𝛻 𝜓 = V .V  c 2
2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉𝑜) 2 2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉𝑜) 3. Prove that, p g OR
− 𝜓 or 𝛻 𝜓 + 𝜓 = 0……..(5)
ℏ2 ℏ2 Show that the phase velocity is greater than velocity of light
Equation (5) is known as Schrödinger’s time independent but the group velocity is equal to the particle velocity.
equation. SOLUTION: When several progressive waves of slightly
Schrödinger’s Time Dependent Equation: different wavelength travel along a straight line in one direction,
Let us start with Schrödinger’s time independent equation giving the resultant wave obtained due to the superposition travel in the
by equation (5) form of group of waves, which is called the wave packet.
2
2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉𝑜) ℏ “The velocity of individual waves forming the wave packet is
𝛻2 𝜓 + ℏ2
𝜓 = 0or
2𝑚
𝛻 2 𝜓 + (𝐸 − 𝑉𝑜) 𝜓 = 0
ℏ2
or[− 2
𝛻 𝜓 + 𝑉𝑜] 𝜓 = 𝐸 𝜓 or H 𝜓 = 𝐸 𝜓 ….(6) called the wave velocity or phase velocity” It is denoted by v P
2𝑚 𝜔 𝐸
ℏ2 and is given by 𝑣𝑝 = =
Here 𝐻 = − 𝛻 2 𝜓 + 𝑉𝑜 𝑘 𝑝
2𝑚
“The average velocity of all individual waves forming the
Equation (6) is known as Schrödinger’s time dependent equation.
wave packet is known as the group velocity.”
2. A particle of mass m is moving in a 1-D potential of sides L
defined as: 𝑉(𝑥) = [0 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑥 > 𝐿 ∞ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ It is denoted by
v g and given by: 𝑣 =
𝑑𝜔
=
𝑑𝐸
𝑔
𝑥 < 𝐿 Solve the Schrödinger’s equation, obtain energy eigen 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑝
values and normalized wave function for the particle.
SOLUTION: 1-D Potential Well Problem:
Let us consider a particle moving inside a box along positive X-
axis between x = 0 and x = L . The potential V of the particle in
1-D box is V(x) = 0 for 0<x<L
= ∞ for x ≤ 0 and x ≥ L
As particle cannot move outside the box, so its wave function
ψ = 0 for x ≤ 0 and x ≥ L
So wave equation for free particle within the box ( V = 0) is
𝜕2 𝜓 2𝑚𝐸
+ 2 𝜓 =0 …. (1) DERIVATION:
𝜕𝑥2 ℏ
The general solution of this 𝐸 ℎ 𝐸 𝑚𝑐2 𝑐2
Since vp =νλ = ( ( )( ) = = =
differential equation is ℎ 𝑝 𝑝 𝑚𝑣 𝑣

2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚𝐸 Now we know that 𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4

𝜓 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛√ 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠√ 𝑥 (2) 𝑑𝐸
ℏ2 ℏ2 Differentiating w.r.t. p, we may obtain, 2𝐸 = 2𝑝𝑐 2 or
𝑑𝑝
Where A & B are constant 𝑑𝐸 𝑝𝑐 2 𝑚𝑣𝑐 2 𝑑𝐸
Applying boundary condition 𝜓 = = = = 𝑣 Hence vg = =𝑣
𝑑𝑝 𝐸 𝑚𝑐 2 𝑑𝑝
0 at x = 0 in equation (2) we get Therefore the group velocity is equal to particle velocity ( i.e.
0 = 0 + B implies that B = 0 𝑐2
vg = v )Hence vp = or vpvg = c2
𝑣𝑔
2𝑚𝐸
Thus equation (2) becomes 𝜓 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛√ 𝑥 …… (3)
ℏ2 UNIT-2: ELECTROMAGNTIC FIELD THEORY
Applying second boundary condition i.e. 𝜓 = 0 at x = L in 1. Write down Maxwell’s equations in integral form and convert
2𝑚𝐸 them into differential forms. Give physical significance of each
equation (3) we get 0 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛√ 𝑥 equation.
ℏ2
Implies that either A = 0 which is not acceptable as total wave ANSWER:
function becomes zero 1st Maxwell’s Equation: 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐷 = 𝜌
2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚𝐸 𝑛2 𝜋2 ℏ2
Statement: The net outward flux of electric displacement vector
𝑠𝑖𝑛√ 𝐿=0 ⇒ √ 𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋 OR 𝐸 = through any surface enclosing a volume is equal to the net charge
ℏ2 ℏ2 2𝑚𝐿2
known as energy eigen value for nth state density contained within that volume.
Thus the wave function ( oreigen function ) becomes Proof: According to Gauss’s law in electrostatics:
1
𝑛𝜋𝑥 ∫𝑆 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = Q
𝜓 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∈0
𝐿 Where Q is the total electric charge given by the sum of free charge
To find the value of A we apply normalization condition
𝐿 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 and the bound charge. In terms of charge density 𝜌, Q =
i.e.∫0 𝜓𝜓 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = 1or, ∫0 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑑𝑥 = 1 or,
𝐿 ∫𝑉 𝜌 dV From Eqs. 1 & 2, we get
𝐴2 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐴2 2
∫ (1 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1 or 𝐿 = 1 ⇒ 𝐴= √ ∫𝑆 ∈0 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = Q OR ∫𝑆 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑉 𝜌 dV
2 0 𝐿 2 𝐿
The Converting the surface integral into volume integral on the LHS, we
normalized obtain ∫𝑉 𝛻.D dV = ∫𝑉 𝜌𝑑𝑉
eigen Since the volume is arbitrary here so we can compare the integrand
function of
of both side: 𝛻 . D = 𝜌
the particle is
2nd Maxwell’s Equation: 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐵 = 0
𝜓= Statement: The net outward flux of magnetic induction vector
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 through any surface enclosing a volume is equal to zero.
√𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 Proof: Let us consider any arbitrary surface within em-field. The
no. of magnetic lines of force entering in this surface will exactly
equal to the no. of magnetic force lines leaving out. Therefore the
 net flux will be zero. Therefore𝜙 = 0 Proof: According to Ampere’s circuital law, the magneto motive
𝑂𝑅 ∫𝑠 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 =
force around a closed path is equal to current enclosed by the path.
0 Mathematically, we obtain
Where B is the magnetic flux density which is magnetic flux per
unit area. Converting the surface integral to volume integral ∫𝑙 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = i ------------- ( 1)
∫𝑉 𝛻.B dV = 0 Or 𝛻.B = 0
𝜕𝐵
3 Maxwell’s Equation: Curl E = -
rd
𝜕𝑡
Statement: The electromotive force around any closed loop through
any surface enclosing a volume is equal to the negative rate of Where H is the magnetic field strength and I is the current enclosed
change of magnetic flux linked with that loop. by the path. If J is the current density, then
Proof: From faraday’s induction law, the negative time rate of
i = ∫𝑆 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 ------------- ( 2)
change of magnetic flux linked with a circuit is equal to the emf
𝑑𝜙 𝑑{∫ 𝐵.𝑑𝑆 } From equations (1) & (2), we get ∫𝑙 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑆 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆
𝑒=− =− 𝑆 = ∮𝑙 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = - 𝜕/𝜕t ∫𝑆 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆 Converting the line integral to surface integral
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where E is the electric field strength and B is the magnetic flux 𝛻 ×H.dS = ∫𝑆 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆
∫𝑆
density. Converting the line integral to surface integral using stokes
theorem, Curl H = J ……..(3)
Taking div of this equation div (Curl H) = div J = 0
∫𝑆 (𝛻 ×E).dS = - ∫𝑆 − 𝜕𝐵/𝜕𝑡. 𝑑𝑆 OR 𝛻. 𝐸 = −𝜕𝐵/𝜕𝑡 Therefore according to Ampere’s law div J = 0 always, however
𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝜌
4th
Maxwell’s Equation: Curl H = J + continuity equation states that div J = 0 only if = 0, or 𝜌 =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Statement: The magnetomotive force around any closed loop 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. Hence Ampere’s law is valid only for static field. In order
through any surface enclosing a volume is equal to the conduction to make Ampere’s law logically consistent with time varying field,
current density plus the time rate of displacement vector linked with Maxwell replaced J by (Jc + Jd) in equation (3). Therefore Ampere’s
that loop. law after Maxwell modification becomes:
Proof: According to Ampere’s circuital law, the magneto motive Curl H = Jc + Jd …………(4)
force around a closed path is equal to current enclosed by the path. Here Jd is known as displacement current density. Again taking div
Mathematically, we obtain 𝜕𝐷
of eq.(4), we obtain Jd =
𝜕𝑡
∫𝑙 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = i ------------- ( 1) Therefore, the modified Ampere’s law becomes
𝜕𝐷
Curl H = Jc + Jd = Jc +
𝜕𝑡
3. Show that in free space the wave equations for the field vectors
Where H is the magnetic field strength and I is the current enclosed E and B of an em-field are given by:
by the path. If J is the current density, then 𝛻 2 E = µo ∈o 𝜕2 𝐸/𝜕t2 and 𝛻2 B = µo ∈o 𝜕2 𝐵 /𝜕t2
i = ∫𝑆 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 ------------- ( 2) Prove that the velocity of plane electromagnetic wave in vacuum
From equations (1) & (2), we get is given by: v = 1/√𝜇0 ∈0 = 𝑐
∫𝑙 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑆 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 OR
Converting the line integral to surface integral Show that in good conducting medium the wave equations for
2
the field vectors E and B of an em-field are given by: 𝛻 𝐸 −
∫𝑆 𝛻 ×H.dS = ∫𝑆 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕𝐸 2 𝜕2 𝐻 𝜕𝐻
Curl H = J ……..(3) 𝜇𝜀 2 − 𝜇𝜎 = 0 and 𝛻 𝐻 − 𝜇𝜀 2 − 𝜇𝜎 = 0 . OR
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Taking div of this equation div (Curl H) = div J = 0 Obtain the plane wave equations in non-conducting medium
1
Therefore according to Ampere’s law div J = 0 always, however (lossless dielectric) and show that 𝑣 =
𝜕𝜌 √𝜇𝜖
continuity equation states that div J = 0 only if = 0, or 𝜌 = i.e the speed of em wave is less than speed of light in vacuum in
𝜕𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. Hence Ampere’s law is valid only for static field. In order dielectric medium. Also find the expression for refractive index.
to make Ampere’s law logically consistent with time varying field, ANSWER: Maxwell’s equations are given by:
Maxwell replaced J by (Jc + Jd) in equation (3). Therefore Maxwell div E = 0, div H = 0,
modification becomes: Curl H = Jc + Jd ……(4) Curl E = -𝜇
𝜕𝐻
,
Here Jd is known as displacement current density. Again taking div 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐸
of eq.(4), we obtain Jd =
𝜕𝐷 Curl H =J+ = 𝜎𝐸+∈ …….(1) a,b,c,d
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑡
Therefore, the modified Ampere’s law becomes Taking the curl of eq.(1c), we get,
𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 𝜕 𝜕𝐸
Curl H = Jc + Jd = Jc + 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸) = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 {−𝜇 } = −𝜇 = −𝜇 {𝜎𝐸+∈ }
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
2. Explain the concept of displacement current and show that it led
to the modification of Ampere’s law. (4th Maxwell Eq) OR 𝜕𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
OR 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐸) − 𝛻 2 𝐸 = 𝜇𝜎 + 𝜀𝜇 = −𝛻 2 𝐸
Discuss the modification made by Maxwell in Ampere’s law 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
2 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕𝐸
taking the displacement current into consideration. Explain the OR 𝛻 𝐸 − 𝜇𝜀 − 𝜇𝜎 =0 …………….. (2)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡
displacement law and its implications. (4th Maxwell Eq) 2 𝜕2 𝐻 𝜕𝐻
ANSWER: The magnetomotive force around any closed loop Ll'ly we can obtain 𝛻 𝐻 − 𝜇𝜀 2 − 𝜇𝜎 = 0 ..(3)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
through any surface enclosing a volume is equal to the conduction Equations (2) and (3) are the wave equations in the conducting
current density plus the time rate of displacement vector linked with medium.
that loop. In a region of free space:∈=∈0 , µ = 𝜇0 , 𝜎 = 0,
Equations (2) and (3) becomes:
𝛻 2 E = µo ∈o 𝜕2 𝐸/𝜕t2 ……..(4)
 2 2𝑛𝜆
𝛻2 B = µo ∈o 𝜕 𝐵 /𝜕t2 …….(5) We know that the condition for dark rings is2𝜇𝑡𝑛 =
2
These are the wave equations for the E and H in free space. 𝑟𝑛2 2
𝐷𝑛𝐷 2𝑛𝜆 2
These equations may be compare with the general wave equation 2𝜇 =𝜇 = ⟹ 𝐷𝑛𝐷 = 𝑛 × 4𝜆𝑅/𝜇
2 2𝑅 4𝑅 2
with a velocity 𝑣, 𝛻 y – 1/𝑣 2 𝜕 2 y/𝜕𝑡2 = 0 𝐷𝑛𝐷 = √𝑛 × √4𝜆𝑅/𝜇
Comparing equation 4& 5, we get,
1 Clearly the diameter of dark rings are proportional to the square
𝑣= ……(6) root of natural numbers.
√𝜇0 ∈0
Putting ∈o = 8.86× 10−12 𝐹/𝑚 and 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 , we obtain 4. Define resolving power. Derive an expression for the resolving
1 power of a plane transmission grating.
𝑣= = 3 × 108 = 𝑐 [ANSWER: Resolving Power: The ability of any optical
√8.86×10−12 × 4𝜋×10−7
Therefore, in free space the em-wave travels with light speed. instrument to distinguish the images of two very close objects is
UNIT-4:INTERFERENCE & DIFFRACTION called the resolving power.
3. Describe and examine the formation of Newton’s rings in It is defined as ratio of the wavelength of any spectral lines to the
reflected monochromatic light. Obtain the expression for the smallest wavelength difference between very close lines for
diameters of bright and dark rings. 𝜆
which the spectral can just be resolved. Mathematically RP =
𝑑𝜆
[ANSWER: Newton’s rings are the special case of wedge shape
Expression for resolving power of grating:
thin film interference. When a plano-convex lens is paced on a
Let us consider there are two closely spaced object represented by
plane glass plate in such that the convex surface is in contact with
λ and λ + dλ are
the plate the a wedge shape film is produced between the gap.
placed in front of
grating, whose
diffraction patterns
are obtained on the
screen.
Therefore let nth
principal maxima due to λ + dλ fall in θ direction, then (e +d)
Theory of Interference: Sin θ = n (λ+ dλ) …….(1)
From wedge shaped interference we have that the path difference Also the first minima adjacent to the nth order principal maxima
between interfering reflected waves is ∆= 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑟 + 𝜃) +
𝜆 N(e + d) Sin θ = m λ = (nN+1) λ ……(2)
2 Equating equation 1 and 2, nN (λ+ dλ) = (nN+1) λ
For normal incidence i = r = 0 and for small wedge angle 𝜆
𝜃 ≅ 0 𝑠𝑜 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (𝑟 + 𝜃) = 1 OR = 𝑛𝑁 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝜆
𝜆
Therefore ∆= 2𝜇𝑡 + 5. What do you understand by missing spectra? Obtain a
2
condition for the missing spectra in N- slit diffraction pattern.
Condition for Maxima:
We know that the maximum intensity is obtained at those points at What particular spectra would be absent if the width of the
2𝑛𝜆 transparencies and opacities of the grating are equal.
which the path difference is an even multiple of λ/2. i.e. 𝛥 = Here [ANSWER: In grating spectra for normal for certain value of θ,
2
n = 1,2,3,4….. if the maxima of the interference due to N-slits falls exactly at the
𝜆 2𝑛𝜆 minima due to single slit diffraction pattern, then the maxima will
Therefore ∆= 2𝜇𝑡 + = ⇒ 2𝜇𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1)𝜆/2
2 2 disappear from the resultant pattern. This phenomenon is called
Condition for Minima: Missing Spectra OR Absent Spectra.
We know that the maximum intensity is obtained at those points at The condition for the principal maxima is given by
(2𝑛+1)𝜆
which the path difference is an odd multiple of λ/2. i.e. 𝛥 = (e + d) Sin θ1 = n λ
2
𝜆 (2𝑛+1)𝜆 2𝑛𝜆 The condition for the minima due to single slit diffraction is given
Therefore ∆= 2𝜇𝑡 + = 𝑂𝑅 2𝜇𝑡 =
2 2 2 by: e Sin θ2 = m λ
Expression For Diameters: At a certain point on screen, if the two conditions are
Let us consider a plano-convex lens of radius of curvature R placed on
simultaneously satisfied then θ1 = θ2i.e(e + d) Sin θ = n λ
a plane glass plate at O. Let any nth order ring from the X and Y at (𝑒+𝑑) 𝑛
which the thickness of film is tn. and e Sin θ = m λ OR =
𝑒 𝑚
From Geometry 𝑋𝐵 × 𝐵𝑌 = This is the condition for the spectrum of order n to be
𝐴𝐵 × 𝐵𝑂 missing/absent. For example
𝑟𝑛 × 𝑟𝑛 = (2𝑅 − 𝑡𝑛) × 𝑡𝑛 If d = e, n = 2m = 2,4,6,……………. orders are missing
If d = 2e, n = 3m = 3,6,9…….. orders are missing
𝑟𝑛2 = 2𝑅𝑡𝑛 − 𝑡𝑛2 ≅ 2𝑅𝑡𝑛 ⟹ 𝑡𝑛 6. What do you mean by the dispersive power of plane
𝑟𝑛2 transmission grating? Derive an expression for it.
= OR
2𝑅
Let us now obtain the diameters of Bright rings and darks rings: Two spectral lines have wavelengths λ and λ + dλ, respectively.
Diameter of Bright Rings Show that if dλ< λ, their angular separation dθ in grating
(2𝑛−1)𝜆 𝑑𝜆
We know that the condition for bright rings is2𝜇𝑡𝑛 = spectra is given by: 𝑑𝜃 =
2 (𝑒+𝑑)2
𝑟𝑛2 2
𝐷𝑛𝐵 (2𝑛 − 1)𝜆 √ −𝜆2
2 𝑛2
2𝜇 =𝜇 = ⟹ 𝐷𝑛𝐵 = (2𝑛 − 1) × 2𝜆𝑅/𝜇
2𝑅 4𝑅 2 [ANSWER: The dispersive power of the grating is defined as
𝐷𝑛𝐵 = √2𝑛 − 1 × √2𝜆𝑅/𝜇 the rate of change angle of diffraction with the change in
Clearly the diameter of bright rings are proportional to the square wavelength used.
root of odd natural numbers.
Diameter of Dark Rings
 If the wavelength changes from λ to ( λ + dλ) and the Therefore 𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 Cos 𝑟 =
2𝑛𝜆
Here n = 1,2,3…….
2
corresponding change in the angle of diffraction is from θ to θ +
Condition for Minima:
dθ, then the dispersive power is defined as dθ/dλ. (2𝑛+1)𝜆
Expression for Dispersive Power: The grating equation Therefore 𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 Cos 𝑟 = Here n = 1,2,3…….
2
(e + d) Sin θ = nλ From these results it is obvious that the two patterns thus obtained
Differentiating this equation w.r.t. λ, we obtain are complementary to each other.
𝑑𝜃 𝑛 𝑛 UNIT-4: OPTICAL FIBER & LASERS
= = 8. Derive relation between Einstein’s coefficients and discuss the
𝑑𝜆 (𝑒 + 𝑑)𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (𝑒 + 𝑑)√1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑛 1 results.
= = [ANSWER: If N1be the number of atoms per unit volume in the
(𝑒 + 𝑑) 2
2
𝑛 𝜆2 √ −𝜆2 collection of energyE1 then the absorption rate of transition shall
(𝑒 + 𝑑)√1 − 2 𝑛 2
be proportional to both N1 and the number of photons available
(𝑒 + 𝑑)
per unit volume Uvat correct frequency v . The absorption rate is
7. Discuss the thin film interference in transmitted and reflected
given by𝑃12 = 𝑁1 𝐵12 𝑈𝑣 … … . . (1)
light and show that the two interference patterns are
And the total emission rate is given by
complementary to each other.
P21 = 𝑁2 {𝐴21 + 𝐵21 𝑢𝜈 }………2
[ANSWER: Let us consider a thin parallel film PQRS of
Constants B12, A21 and B21are called Einstein’s transition
thickness t and of medium index µ. Let a light ray from S made
coefficients.
fall on this film.
When atomic system is in thermal equilibrium with the radiation
After multiple
field, then rate of upward transition is equal to rate of downward
reflection and
transition, that is,𝑁1 𝐵12 𝑈𝑣 = 𝑁2 {𝐴21 + 𝐵21 𝑢𝜈 }
refraction, the rays 1
and 2 are obtained as u 𝐴
Solving for v : 𝑈𝑣 = 𝑁1 21
reflected and { }𝐵
𝑁2 12
−𝐵21
transmitted
The population density N in a given state depends on the energy
component. As the
rays 1 and 2 satisfy E of the state and temperature T given by Boltzmann’s
𝑁
the conditions for equation: 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝑇 so 1 = 𝑒ℎ𝜈/𝐾𝑇
𝑁2
superposition so interference pattern is obtained on the both sides. 𝐴21 𝐴21 1
(A) Interference in reflected light: Hence 𝑈 𝑣 = = .
𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝐾𝑇 𝐵12 −𝐵21 𝐵21 𝑒 −𝐸/𝑘𝑇 (𝐵12 /𝐵21 )−1
The path difference between ray 1 and 2 in reflected light is ∆= From Planck’s radiation law we know that radiation field density:
(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶)𝐹𝐼𝐿𝑀 − 𝐴𝑀𝐴𝐼𝑅 = µ(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶)𝐴𝐼𝑅 − 𝐴𝑀𝐴𝐼𝑅 number of photons per unit volume in the frequency range v and
= µ(𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) − 𝐴𝑀 ……….(1) v  dv is given by𝑈𝜈 = 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
3
. ℎ𝜈
1
𝑐
Calculation of AB and BC: 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1
𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈3
In right triangle ∆, Cos r = BE/AB ⇒ AB = BE /Cos r = t/ Cos r On Comparing = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵12 = 𝐵21
𝐵21 𝑐
Also AB = BC ⇒ BC = t /Cos r ⇒AB+ BC = 2 t/ Cos r From these results
Calculation of AM: 1. Stimulated emission and absorption are competing processes.
Using the right triangle AMC, Sin i = AM/AC ⇒AM = AC Sin i 2. The rate of spontaneous emission is far larger than stimulated
emission.
= (AE + EC) Sin i =(AE + EC) µ Sin r
3. The ratio ofA21 and B21 is proportional to cube of frequency
AM = (t Tan r + t Tan r )µ Sin r of the transition.
= 2µt Tan r Sin r = 2µtSin2r/Cos r 9. Describe construction and working of He-Ne/Ruby Laser.
𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝑟 [ANSWER: A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses a
Therefore 𝛥 = 2µ − 2µ𝑡 𝑟 = 2𝜇𝑡 Cos 𝑟
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠 synthetic ruby crystal as its gain medium. The first
Using Stokes approach for path difference in reflected light, the working laser was a ruby laser made by Theodore H. "Ted"
𝜆 Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories on May 16, 1960. .
final result is 𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 Cos 𝑟 +
2 Construction of Ruby Laser;
Condition for Maxima: The ruby laser consists of a ruby rod, which is made of chromium
2𝑛𝜆
We know for maximum intensity: 𝛥 = doped ruby material. At
2
𝜆 2𝑛𝜆 the opposite ends of this
Therefore 𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 Cos 𝑟 + 2 = 2
rod there are two silver
⇒ 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1)𝜆/2 Here n = 1,2,3…….
polished mirrors. Whose
Condition for Minima: one is fully polished and
(2𝑛+1)𝜆
We know that for minimum intensity𝛥 = Therefore 𝛥 = other is partially polished.
2
𝜆 (2𝑛+1)𝜆 Operation of Ruby Laser
2𝜇𝑡 Cos 𝑟 + =
2 2
⇒ 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = 2𝑛𝜆/2 Here n = 1,2,3…….
(B) Interference in transmitted light:
The path difference in transmitted light is 𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟
Now we are able to right the condition for maxima and minima:
Condition for Maxima:
 The optical pump raises the electrons from ground state E1 to E3. maximum number of guided modes possible in a multimode fiber.
At E3 these excited levels are highly unstable and so the electrons A single mode fiber has a core diameter of the order of 2 to 10µm
decays rapidly to the level of E2. This transition occurs with and the propagation of light wave is shown in figure. It has the
energy difference (E1– E2) given up as heat (radiation less distinct advantage of low intermodal dispersion over multimode
transmission). The level E2 is very important for stimulated step index fiber.
emission process and is known as Meta stable state. Electrons in A single mode step index fiber has a very thin core of uniform
this level have an average refractive index of a higher value which is surrounded by a
life time of about 5m.s cladding of lower refractive index. The refractive index changes
before they fall to ground abruptly at the core cladding boundary as shown in the figure: ]
state. After this the
population inversion can
be established between
E2 and E1. The
population inversion is
obtained by optical
pumping of the ruby rod
with a flash lamp. When the flash lamp intensity becomes large
enough to create population inversion, then stimulated emission
from the Meta stable level to the ground level occurs which result
in the laser output.
He-Ne LASER
The He-Ne laser was
the first gas laser to
be invented by Ali
Javan, William Multimode- graded index fiber: A graded index fiber is a
Bennet Jr. and Donal multimode fiber with a core consisting of concentric layers of
Herriot at Bell different refractive indices. Therefore, the refractive index of the
Laboratory, USA in core varies with distance from the fiber axis. It has a high value at
1962. the center and falls off with increasing radial distance from the
Construction: The axis as shown in the figure above.
active/gain medium of the laser is a mixture of helium and neon For overall performance in terms of data rate and attenuation, the
gases, approximately in the ratio of 5 : 1., contained at low single mode step index fiber has the best characteristics.
pressure (typically – 300 Pa) in a glass envelope. The energy of 11. Explain different types of signal loss in optical fiber.
pump source of the laser is provided by an electrical discharge of [ANSWER: The reduction in amplitude, intensity and power of
around 1000 the light signal during its propagation through thee optical fiber is
V through an known as the fiber loss or signal loss or attenuation.
anode and If Pi be the power input and Po be the output power, then the
cathode at signal loss or attenuation is given by:
each end of Attenuation (Loss) = -10 log Po/Pi (Decibels)
the glass tube. The loss increases with the length of fiber so it is in general
Working: The expressed as dB/km as
laser process 10
in a He-Ne 𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠) = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑃𝑜/𝑃𝑖
𝐿(𝑘𝑚)
laser starts with collision of electrons from the electrical discharge For an ideal fiber Pi = Po, so loss = 10 log 1 = 0 dB
with helium atoms in the gas. Collision of the excited helium The major contributor of loss of light in fiber during transmission
atoms with the ground state neon atoms results in transfer of are-
energy to the neon atoms, exciting neon electrons into the 5s level. (A) Material Loss: It is due to absorption of light by the fiber
The number of neon atoms entering the excited states builds up as material. It includes absorption due to light interacting with the
further collision between helium and neon atoms occur causing a molecular structure of material as well as loss due to material
population inversion between the neon 5s, 3p and other electronic impurities.
levels. Spontaneous and stimulated emission between the 5s The loss due to atomic structure itself is relatively small. However
(2P1/2) and 3p (2P1/2) states results in emission of 632.991 nm losses due to impurities
wavelength light, the typical operating wavelength of a He-Ne can be reduced by better
laser. manufacturing
10. What are the types of optical fiber? techniques.
OR (B) Scattering Loss: Light
What are light propagation modes of OF? is scattered by the
[ANSWER: OF can be classified into three groups according to molecules of the
the way of light propagation mode in core and index profile. These material due to
are structural imperfection
Multimode-step index fiber: it is known as step index fiber. A
multimode step index fiber is shown in figure, the core diameter
of which is around 50µm. Some physical parameters like relative
refractive index, index difference, core radius etc determines the
 and impurities. The scattered light does not propagate through the 13. What do you mean by Meissner’s effect? Explain how
fiber and therefore lost out. Meissner effects prove the super conductor to be a perfect
When light is scattered by an obstruction, it produces power loss. materials? What are type –I and type –II superconductors?
In OF, obstruction refers ANSWER: On the basis of magnetizing behavior, superconductors
to the density variation can be classified as Type –I (or soft) and Type – II (or hard)
which produces change superconductors.
in refractive index. Type – I (or Soft Superconductors) :- The superconductors which
Scattering can also be show a sudden sharp fall in the magnetization with increase in
due to macro bends i.e. applied magnetic field at a particular value (Hc) are known as Type
fiber deformation. This – I superconductors. These superconductors exhibit perfect
type of fiber loss can be made negligible by better manufacturing diamagnetism below critical field Hc i.e. follow Meissner’s effect
1 strictly. These materials loose superconductivity at lower fields, so
techniques. In general Scattering loss ∝ 4
𝜆
due to this these are called soft superconductors. The value of Hc for
Where λ is the wavelength of light.
these is the order of 0.1 Tesla.
(C) Wave guide and Bending Loss: This type of light signal loss are
Example:- Lead, Tin, Mercury etc.
due to imperfections and deformations (micro and macro bends)
in fiber structure which cause radiation of light away from the
fiber.
The figure shows the light loss caused by a change in diameter.
Clearly in the absence of deformation, the light would have been
confined in the fiber. A very small change in core size (i.e. micro
bends) also cause radiation loss as well as back scattering. All of Type – II (or Hard Superconductors) :-The superconductors
the above losses are dependent on wavelength of light used. which show a non – linear smooth fall in magnetization with
Combining all of loss increase in applied field, i.e. these materials are not observed to
phenomenon, we find only a follow the Meissner effect strictly. These materials have two values
small loss in the following of critical field, one is that, at which magnetization starts decreasing
regions for glass fiber: (Hc1) and another is that where it is completely zero (Hc2). For H<Hc1
(a) 0.80-0.90 micro meters range is the material exhibit perfect diamagnetism, as the field is increased
known as “First loss window”. beyond Hc1, the flux begins to penetrate the specimen and for H =
(b) 1.26-1.34 micro meters range is Hc2, the complete penetration occurs, and materials becomes a
known as “Second loss normal conductor. The field Hc1 and Hc2 are known as lower and
window”. upper critical fields. The superconductors in the region between Hc1
(c) 01.50-1.63 micro meters range is and Hc2 are as a mixture of superconducting and normal states. The
known as “Third loss window”. critical fields for this type are the order of 10 tesla to 150 tesla.
Obviously, by care full selection Example:- Alloys and Transition metals.
of operating wavelength, the
above losses can be minimized.
12. Derive the expression for
Numerical
aperture,
Acceptance
angle,
acceptance cone
for an optical The repulsion of magnetic flux lines from the bulk of
fiber. superconductor is called Meissner Effect.”
[ANSWER: The When a specimen is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux
acceptance angle is defined as the maximum angle that a light ray lines pass through it, now if the temperature is decreased below the
can have relative to the axis of the fiber and propagate down the critical temperature, ‘or’ transition temperature (T c), it expels all the

fiber. It is denoted by  max as shown in the figure.

magnetic flux lines from inside the specimen.

In the figure the light AB is entering in fiber core from air at angle
α. At point B, applying Snell’s law,
𝑛𝑜 × 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑛1 × 𝑆𝑖𝑛(90 − 𝜃)
Hence we get 𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝑀 + 𝐻) = 0OR M = -H
In order to fulfill the total internal reflection, we must have, 𝜃 ≥
Where, M = Intensity of magnetization due to applied magnetic field
𝜃𝑐 , where 𝜃𝑐 is the critical angle.
‘H’
Let the maximum value of α which makes 𝜃 ≥ 𝜃𝑐 is denoted by 𝑀
𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 . 𝑁𝑜 × 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 × 𝑆𝑖𝑛(90 − 𝜃𝑐 ) Susceptibility of magnetic materials is 𝜒𝑚 = = −1
𝐻
= 𝑛1 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛1 × √1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐 Since, the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic materials is also
𝑛22 negative, therefore the superconducting material is perfect
=𝑛1 × √1 − = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 diamagnetic in superconducting state.
𝑛12
𝑛
Here 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ( 2) = critical angle. ‘If a specimen of superconductor is placed in a strong magnetic
𝑛1 field, the specimen loses its property of superconductivity and
The quantity 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 is known as the numerical aperture (NA). becomes normal metal.’
Therefore, NA= 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
UNIT-5: SUPERCONDUCTIVITY & NANO TECHNOLOGY
 The decay of magnetic field with depth in the superconductor is give 𝜎
We know that for good conductor ≫> 1
𝜔𝜀
x / 
by London equation. H  H 0e Where, H = the value of Hence
𝜎
=
𝜎
=
2×102
≅ 300
𝜔𝜀 2𝜋𝑓×𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 2×3.14×109 ×8.85×10−12 ×12
field at depth x, H0 = the value of field at surface, x = penetration Hence the silicon sample is a good conductor.
depth and λ = London penetration depth. For x = λ, we have H = Calculation of Skin depth:
Ho/e. Thus the penetration depth ‘λ’ is the distance from surface The skin depth or penetration depth for good conductor is given
inside a superconductor over which the magnetic field drops to 1/e 1 2
of its value the superconductor. (Let 𝜇 = 𝜇0 ) 𝛿 = =√ =
𝛽 𝜇𝜎𝜔

√2/2 × 3.14 × 106 × 4 × 3.14 × 10−7 × 2 × 102 = 0.0356 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟

NUMERICALS ON INTERFERENCE
1. In Newton’s ring experiment diameter of 4th and 12th dark
The London penetration depth is independent from the frequency of rings are 0.400 cm and 0.700 cm .Deduce the diameter of 20th
applied field but shows a large variation with temperature. λ varies dark ring.
2
[ANSWER:𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑝𝜆𝑅……(1)
with temperature as per the following relation: 𝜆(𝑇) = 𝜆(0) [1 − n=4, n+p=12,𝐷4 = 0.4𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷12 =
−1/2 2 2 2
𝑇 4 0.7𝑐𝑚 𝐷12 − 𝐷4 = 4 × 8𝜆𝑅 and 𝐷20 −
( ) ] 𝐷 2
= 4 × 16𝜆𝑅
𝑇𝑐 4
Where, λT and λ0 are the penetration depth at T and 0 K respectively.
𝑚
1/2 n solving, D20  0.0906 cm
Further λ0 is defined as :𝜆(𝑜) = { 0 2} 2. Newton’s rings are observed normally in reflected light of
𝜇 𝑛 𝑒
0 𝑠
th
Where, m0 and e are the mass and charge of the electron and ns is wavelength λ=6000Ǻ. The diameter of the 10 dark ring is
the number of super electrons. 0.50 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens and the
**************************************************** thickness of the film.
2
NUMERICAL TYPE QUESTIONS [ANSWER:𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅 𝑂𝑅 𝑅 =
𝐷𝑛
4𝑛𝜆
𝑅 = (0.50)2 /4 × 10 ×
𝐷𝑛2
NUMERICAL ON ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY 6 × 10−5 =106cm and 𝑡 = = 3 × 10−4 𝑐𝑚
8𝑅
1. If earth receives 2cal/min/cm2 solar energy, what are the 3. Newton’s rings are observed by keeping a spherical surface of
amplitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors? 100cm radius on a plane glass plate. If the diameter of the
OR
If earth receives 1400 W/m2 solar energy, what are the 15 th bright ring is 0.590 cm and the diameter of the 5 th ring
amplitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors? is 0.336 cm, what is the wavelength of light used?
2
OR ANSWER:𝜆 = (𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛2 )/4𝑝𝑅
If earth receives 1.4K W/m2 solar energy, what are the D15  0.590cm, D 5  0.336cm, p  10, R  100cm
amplitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors?
5
SOLUTION: The energy flux per unit area per second is λ= 5.88  10 cm  5880Ǻ
S = 2cal min-1 cm-2 = 2×4.2×104/60joule m-2 sec-1 4. White light falls normally on a film of soapy water whose
S = EH = 2×4.2×10 /60 = 1400
4
------- (1) thickness is 1.5×10 -5 cm and refractive index 1.33. Which
But E/H = √µ𝑜/𝜀0 = 376.72 ----- (2) wavelength in the visible region will be reflected strongly?
On solving E = 726.2 Vm-1 and H = 1.928 A/ m [ANSWER: When light falls normally r = 0o on a film, the
(2𝑛+1)𝜆
Therefore the amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields of radiation condition of maxima is: 𝛥 = 2𝜇𝑡 Cos 𝑟 =
2
are 4t
Eo = E√2 = 726.2√2 = 1026.8 V/m and   7.98 x 10 -5 / (2n + 1)
2n  1
Ho = H√2 = 1.928√2 = 2.726 A/m
For n=0, λ= 7.98 x 10 -5 cm
2. A 1000 watt sodium lamp radiating its power. Calculate the
electric field and magnetic field strength at a distance of 2 from For n=1, λ= 2.66 x 10 -5 cmFor n=2, λ=1.598 x 10 -5 cm
the lamp.
SOLUTION: Poyntingvector S =
𝑃
=
1000
= 19.9044 For n=0, λ= 1.14 x 10 -5 cm
4𝜋𝑟 2 4𝜋22
But, we know that S = EH = 19.9044 ……..(1) Hence λ= 7.98 x 10 -5 is most strongly reflected.
Also E/H = √µ𝑜/𝜀0 = 376.6--------- (2) 5. Light of wavelength 5893A0 is reflected at nearly normal
On solving E = 86.59 V/m and H = 0.23 A/ m incidence from a soap film of refractive index 1.42. What is
Therefore the amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields of radiation the least thickness of the film that will appear (1)- dark and
are (2)bright
2𝑛𝜆
Eo = E√2 = 86.59√2 = 122.456 V/m [ANSWER: (i) For Minima: 2µ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 =
2
And Ho = H√2 = 0.23√2 = 0.325 A/m When light falls normally r=0o, cos r = 1, n=1 for least thickness,
3. Show that for frequencies < 109Hz, a sample of silicon will act as 𝜆 5893
good conductor. For silicon, one may assume ε/εo = 12 and σ = 2 𝑡= = = 2075 Å
2𝜇 2 × 1.42
mhos/cm. Also calculate the penetration depth for this sample at
frequency 106Hz.
(ii) Condition for bright film: 2𝜇𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1)𝜆/2
SOLUTION:
(2𝑛 − 1)𝜆 5893
To prove Good Conductor: 𝑡= = = 1037.5 Å
4𝜇 4 × 1.42
6. Two plane glass surfaces in contact along one edge are 1. An optical fiber has NA of 0.2 and a cladding refractive index
separated at the opposite edge by a thin wire. If 20 of 1.59. Determine the acceptance angle for the fiber in water
interference fringes are observed between these edges in which has refractive index of 1.33.
sodium light of λ=5890Ǻ of normal incidence, find the [ANSWER: Given that NA= 0.2, n2 = 1.59, no =1.33,
diameter of the wire. Acceptance angle- αmax = ?
𝑛𝜆 10−8
[ANSWER:𝑡 = = 20 × 5890 × = 5.89 × 10−4 𝑐𝑚 NA= √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 then, NA= √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 =0.2 , n1 = √ (NA)2+(n2)2,
2 2
7. Light of wavelength 6000 Å falls normally on a thin wedge n1 = √ (0.2)2+ (1.59)2 = 1.6025. When fiber is in water n0= 1.33
shaped film of refractive index 1.4 forming fringes that are 2 then NA= √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 / n0
mm apart. Find the angle of wedge in seconds. NNA= √(1.6025)2-(1.59)2/1.33 = 0.15. Now αmax = sin-1NA ,
[ANSWER: The fringe width is given by: 𝜃 =
𝜆
OR𝛽 =
𝜆 Sin-1(0.15) = 8.60.
2𝜇𝛽 2𝜇𝜃 2. An optical fiber has core and cladding indices 1.466 and 1.460
Given: λ2 = 6000 x 10-8 cm, μ= 1.4, β= 2 mm = 0.20 cm respectively and is operating at 1.3µm wavelength. Calculate:
θ= 10.71 x 10-5 rad = 10.71 x 10 -5 x 180/𝜋 (1) NA (2) Acceptance angle (3) critical angle (4) Fractional
θ= 0.0061o OR θ= 0.0061 x 60 x 60 sec = 21.96 sec. refractive index difference (5) V-number/Normalized
NUMERICALS ON DIFFRCTION frequency/Cut-off parameter (6) No of modes (7) maximum
1. Light of wavelength 5500Ǻ falls normally on a slit of width acceptable radius for single mode operation. Given the
22 10 5 cm . Calculate the angular position of the first two diameter of core is 50µm.
minima on either side of the central maximum. [ANSWER:
[ANSWER: Given that e = 22 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 = 22 × 10−7 𝑚and (1) NA= √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = [ (1.466)2- (1.460)2 ]1/2 = 0.1324,
λ = 5500Å In single slit for minima 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 (2) Acceptance Angle: αmax= Sin-1NA = Sin-1(0.1324) = 7.6140
(3) The Critical Angle: The critical angle is given by Sinθc =
sin   n / e n2/n1 , OR θc = Sin-1(n2/n1) , Sin-1(1.460/1.466)= 84.8140
𝜆 5500×10−8 𝑛 −𝑛
For first ordern=1𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = = = 0.25 𝑂𝑅 𝜃1 = (4) Fractional Refractive Index Difference: ∆= 1 2 =
𝑒 22×10−5 𝑛2
1
14.3 Second order n=2  2  sin (2 / e)  30
0 0.00410
(5) V-Number/Normalized frequency/ Cut-off Parameter
2. A single slit is illuminated by light composed of two 2𝜋𝑎 2×3.14×25×10−6
wavelengths 𝜆1 and𝜆2 . One observes that due to Fraunhofer (V):𝑉 = 𝑁𝐴 = × 0.1324 = 15.9898
𝜆 1.3×10−6
diffraction, the first minima obtained for𝜆1 coincides with the 𝑉2 (15.9898)2
(6) No of Modes: 𝑁𝑚 = = = 127.83 ≅ 127
second diffraction minima of𝜆2 . What is the relation 2 2
(7) Maximum Radius for Single Mode: We know that for single
between𝜆1 and𝜆2 .
mode operation V < 2.405 OR
[ANSWER: For single slit the minima occurs e sin   n 2𝜋𝑎
𝑁𝐴 =
2×3.14×𝑎
× 0.1324 < 2.405 OR a = 3.76×10-6m
𝜆 1.3×10−6
e sin 1  1 ………(1) and e sin  2  2 2 ….(2) NUMERICALS ON de’Broglie:
1. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with a proton
1  2   So e sin 1  1  2 2 So 2  1 / 2 moving with a velocity equal to (1/20) th velocity of light.
3. Find the minimum number of lines in a plane diffraction ℎ 6.62×10−34 ×20
Solution:-𝜆 = = = 2.64 × 10−14 𝑚
grating required to just resolve the sodium doublet (5890 Å 𝑚𝑣 1.67×10−27 ×3×108

and 5896 Å) in the (i) first order, (ii) second order. 2. Show that the de-Broglie wavelength for a material particle of
[ANSWER:R= λ/dλ=Nm, N=1/n(λ/dλ) rest mass 𝑚𝑜 and charge q accelerated from rest through a
For first order: n=1, Mean wavelength λ=(λ1+λ2) / 2= 5893 Å; potential difference of V volts relativistically is given by 𝜆 =
dλ=6 Å, N=982. ℎ𝑐
For second order: n=2, N=491. √2𝑚𝑜 𝑞𝑉(1+𝑞𝑉/2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 )
4. What must minimum number of lines per cm in a half inch Solution:-We know that the total energy of a particle is the sum
width grating to resolve the wavelength 5890 Å and 5896 Å. of kinetic energy and rest mass energy. Therefore
[ANSWER: R= λ/dλ=Nm, N=1/n(λ/dλ) E = Kinetic energy + Rest mass energy = k + moc2
For first order: n=1, Mean wavelength λ=(λ1+λ2) / 2= 5893 Å; ………(1)
dλ=6 Å, N=982 Also from relativistic mechanics, the total energy of the particle
Since the grating is half inch wide, therefore the number o lines is given by 𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4 ………(2)
per inch= 982 ×2 Comparing equation (1) and (2), 𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4 =
Minimum number of lines per cm=982 × 2/ 2.54 =773 (𝑘 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 2 )2
NUMERICALS ON LASER ℎ 2
Or { } 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 4 = (𝑘 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 2 )2
1. In a ruby laser , total number of Cr+3 ions is 2.8 ×1019. If the 𝜆
ℎ𝑐
laser emits radiation of wavelength 7000Ao, calculate the After solving, we may obtain 𝜆=
√𝐾(𝐾+2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 )
energy of laser pulse. ℎ
[ANSWER: Given n= 2.8 ×1019. And λ = 7000Ao So Energy If 𝐾 ≪ 𝑚0 𝑐 2 , then we obtain 𝜆 =
√2𝑚𝑘
of laser pulse = n(hν) = n(hc/λ) = 7.94J In the case of a charged particle, we put K = qe, and therefore the
ℎ𝑐
2. Calculate the population ratio of two states in He-Ne laser that above equation transform to 𝜆 = 𝑂𝑅 𝜆=
2
√𝑞𝑉(𝑞𝑉+2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 )
produces light of wavelength 6000Ao at 300K ℎ𝑐
[ANSWER:Given λ= 6000Aoand T = 300K. Population ratio of √2𝑚𝑜 𝑞𝑉(1+𝑞𝑉/2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 )
ℎ𝜈 ℎ𝑐
𝑁1 80 34 12
two states is = 𝑒 = 𝑒 = 𝑒 = 5.54 × 10 An electron has de – Broglie wavelength 2.0  10
𝑘𝑇 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑁2 3. m. Find
NUMERICALS ON OPTICAL FIBER its kinetic energy, also find the phase and group velocities of
its de – Broglie waves.
 Solution:-As wavelength is of order of 10-12m so relativistic The kinetic energy of the recoiled electron =ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 ′ = 100 −
approach may be used 97.45 = 2.54𝐾𝑒𝑣
ℎ𝑐
i.𝑒. 𝜆= 2
giving 2. Calculate the Compton's shift if X-rays of wavelength 1Å are
√𝐾(𝐾+2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 )
scattered from a carbon block. The scattered radiation is vied
K  4.68 10 14 J  293.64keV at 90 degree to the incident beam.
The rest mass energy of electron Eo = moc2= 512 KeV
Total energy of electron = E = K+Eo = (293.64 + 512)KeV = ANSWER: If 𝜆 and 𝜆′ be the wavelengths of incident and
ℎ
805.64 KeV scattered X-rays photons, then𝛥𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) =
𝑚0 𝑐
Now there are two methods
6.63×10−34
𝐸02 × (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠90) = 0.024285Å
(a) Using 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑐 √1 − 2
and vpvg = c , by putting the values of E 9.1×10−31 ×3×108
𝐸2
and EoGiving vp= 1.29 cand vg = 0.775c 3. Calculate the wavelength of scattered photon, if the incident
1 X-rays of wavelength 0.0015Å are scattered from a carbon
𝑚𝑜 𝑐𝜆 2 2
(b) Using 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑐 [1 + { } ] and vpvg = c2 and putting the value block. The scattered radiation is vied at 60 degree to the
ℎ
of λ, Giving vp= 1.29 c and vg = 0.775c incident beam.
NUMERICALS ON SCHRODINGER’s EQUATIONS: ANSWER: If 𝜆 and 𝜆′ be the wavelengths of incident and
1. A particle confined to move along X – axis has the wave scattered X-rays photons, then the Compton's shift (𝛥𝜆) is given
function 𝜓 = 𝑎𝑥 between 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1 and 𝜓 = 0 ℎ
by: 𝛥𝜆 = 𝜆′ − 𝜆 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
elsewhere. Find the probability that particle can be found 𝑚0 𝑐
between𝑥 = 0.45 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 0.35. Here 𝜆 = 0.0015Å and 𝜃 = 600 , 𝜆 = 𝜆 +
′ ℎ
(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
∗ 0.45 2 2 𝑚0 𝑐
Solution:-P = ∫ 𝜓𝜓 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0.35 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6.63 × 10−34
𝑎2 3 0.45 𝑎2 = 0.015 × 10−10 +
× (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠60)
= [𝑥 ]0.35 = [{0.45}3 − {0.35}3 ] = 0.016𝑎2 9.1 × 10−31 × 3 × 108
3 3 = 0.27142Å
NUMERICALS ON SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
2. Find the minimum energy (ground state energy) and the first
1. For a specimen of V3Ga, the critical fields are 1.4 × 105 𝐴/𝑚 and
excited state energy of an electron moving in one dimension
4.2 × 105 𝐴/𝑚 for the temperature 14K and 13 K respectively
in an infinitely high potential box of width 1Å.
𝑛 2 ℎ2
.Calculate the transition temperatures and critical fields at 0K
Solution:- We know that 𝐸𝑛 = 2 and 4.2K
8𝑚𝐿
For minimum energy taking n = 1, SOLUTION:Calculation of Tc and Hc(0):
𝑇2
𝑛 2 ℎ2 −18 The critical field Hc is given as 𝐻𝑐 (𝑇) = 𝐻𝑐 (0) [1 − 2]
𝐸1 = = 6.03 × 10 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑐
8𝑚𝐿2 Here we have given, At T = 14K, H (T) = 1.4 × 105 𝐴/𝑚 and at T c
2 −17 = 13K, Hc(T) = 4.2 × 105 𝐴/𝑚
For Ist excited state n = 2, 𝐸2 = 𝑛 𝐸1 = 2.412 × 10 𝐽 142
3. A particle is in motion along a line between x = 0 and x = a Therefore, 1.4 × 105 = 𝐻𝑐 (0) [1 − 2 ]….(1) and
𝑇𝑐
with zero potential energy. At points for which x < 0 and x > 5 132
a, the potential energy is infinite. The wave function is 4.2 × 10 = 𝐻𝑐 (0) [1 − 2 ] …….(2)
𝑇𝑐
𝑛𝜋𝑥 from, (1) & (2) T = 14.47K, and Hc(0) = 21.90 × 105 𝐴/𝑚
𝜓 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 c
𝐿 Calculation of Hc(4.2):
4.22
Normalized the wave function for the particle. Now, for T = 4.2K,𝐻𝑐 (𝑇) = 21.90 × 105 [1 − ] = 20.05 ×
14.472
5
Solution: we apply normalization condition : 10 𝐴/𝑚
𝐿 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
i.e.∫0 𝜓𝜓 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 = 1or, ∫0 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑑𝑥 = 1 or, 2. A lead wire has a critical magnetic field of 6.5 × 10 3 A/m at
𝐿
0K.The critical temperature is 7.18K. At what temperature the
𝐴2 𝐿 2𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐴2 2
∫ (1 −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1 or 𝐿 = 1 ⇒ 𝐴= √ critical field would drop to 4.5× 10 3 A/m. The diameter of the
2 0 𝐿 2 𝐿
wire is 2mm. What is the critical current density at room
Therefor the normalized eigen function of the particle is
temperature?
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥 SOLUTION:
𝜓 = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑇2
𝐿 𝐿 The critical field Hc is given as𝐻𝑐 (𝑇) = 𝐻𝑐 (0) [1 − ]
𝑇𝑐2
NUMERICALS ON COMPTON’S EFECT
Here we have given, Tc = 7.18K, Hc(T) = 4.5  10 A / m and ,
3
1. When X-rays of 100 keV strikes a target, they are scattered at
Hc(0) = 6.5  10 A / m.
3
an angle of 30 degree. Find the energy of recoiled electron. Hence, T = 3.98K
ANSWER: Here hv= 100 KeV, For electron 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 512𝐾𝑒𝑉 Ic 2rH c (T)
The kinetic energy of the recoiled electron =ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 ′ =? Jc    9  10 6 Am 2
1 1 ℎ
r 2
r 2

From Compton's shift − = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) ************************END***************************

𝜈′ 𝜈 𝑚0 𝑐 2
1 1 1
OR − = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
ℎ𝜈′ ℎ𝜈 𝑚0 𝑐 2
1 1 1 1 1
OR = + (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = + (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠30)
ℎ𝜈′ ℎ𝜈 𝑚0 𝑐 2 100 512
Hence ℎ𝜈 ′ = 97.45 𝐾𝑒𝑉