Summary 185

solutions of partial differential equations, the original problem that

Laplace was concerned with while developing the transform. Laplace
formulated the Laplace’s equation with applications to electromagnetic
theory, fluid dynamics, and astronomy. Laplace also made fundamental
contributions to probability theory.
Laplace and Fourier transforms are intimately related (see
Appendix A). The Fourier series and the Fourier transform, developed
in that order, provide methods for representing signals in terms of expo-
nential functions. Fourier series are used to represent a periodic signal
with discrete spectra in terms of a series. Fourier transforms are used to
represent a non-periodic signal with continuous spectra in terms of an
integral. The Fourier transform is named after the French mathemati-
cian Jean Batiste Joseph Fourier (1768–1830) who used Fourier series to
solve the heat conduction equation expressed in terms of Fourier series.
Laplace and Fourier were contemporaries and knew each other very
well. In fact, Laplace was one of Fourier’s teachers. Fourier accompa-
nied Napoleon on his Egyptian expedition in 1798 as a science advisor,
and is also credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect.
Transform methods provide a unifying method in applications to
solving many engineering problems. Linear transforms such as the
Laplace transform and Fourier transform are useful for studying linear
systems. While Fourier transforms are useful to study the steady-state
behavior, Laplace transforms are used for studying the transient and
closed-loop behavior of dynamic systems. The book by Gardner and
Barnes in 1942 was influential in popularizing the Laplace transform in
the United States.

SUMMARY

• The Laplace transform is the primary tool used to determine

the behavior of linear systems. The Laplace transform of a time
function (t) is given by
 ∞
L [ f (t)] = F(s) = f (t)e−st dt. (3.91)
0−
• This relationship leads to the key property of Laplace transforms,
namely,
L ḟ (t) = sF(s) − f (0− ). (3.92)
• This property allows us to find the transfer function of a lin-
ear ODE. Given the transfer function G(s) of a system and the
input u(t), with transform U(s), the system output transform is
Y (s) = G(s)U(s).
• Normally, inverse transforms are found by referring to tables,
such as Table A.2 in Appendix A, or by computer. Properties of
Laplace transforms and their inverses are summarized in Table A.1
in Appendix A.
186 Chapter 3 Dynamic Response
• The Final Value Theorem is useful in finding steady-state errors for
stable systems: If all the poles of s Y (s) are in the LHP, then
lim y(t) = lim s Y (s). (3.93)
t→∞ s→0

• Block diagrams are a convenient way to show the relationships

between the components of a system. They can usually be simplified
using the relations in Fig. 3.10 and Eq. (3.58); that is, the transfer
function of the block diagram

+
R1(s) © G1(s) Y1(s)
-

G2(s)

is equivalent to
G1 (s)
Y1 (s) = R1 (s). (3.94)
1 + G1 (s)G2 (s)
• The locations of poles in the s-plane determine the character of the
response, as shown in Fig. 3.16.
• The location of a pole in the s-plane is defined by the parameters
shown in Fig. 3.18. These parameters are related to the time-
domain quantities of rise time tr , settling time ts , and overshoot
Mp , which are defined in Fig. 3.23. The correspondences between
them, for a second-order system with no zeros, are given by
1.8
tr ∼
= , (3.95)
ωn
√
Mp = e−π ζ / 1−ζ ,
2
(3.96)
4.6
ts = . (3.97)
ζ ωn
• When a zero in the LHP is present, the overshoot increases. This
effect is summarized in Figs. 3.27, 3.28 and 3.29.
• When a real RHP is present, the step response starts off in the
“wrong direction,” and the response is more sluggish. This effect
is summarized in Fig. 3.31, and is called the nonminimum phase
behavior.
• When an additional stable pole is present, the system response is
more sluggish. This effect is summarized in Figs. 3.36, 3.37 and
3.38.
• For a stable system, all the closed-loop poles must be in
the LHP.
• A system is stable if and only if all the elements in the first column
of the Routh array are positive. To determine the Routh array, refer
to the formulas in Section 3.6.3.
 Problems 187

REVIEW QUESTIONS
3.1 What is the definition of a “transfer function”?
3.2 What are the properties of systems whose responses can be described by
transfer functions?
3.3 What is the Laplace transform of f (t − λ)1(t − λ) if the transform of f (t)
is F(s)?
3.4 State the Final Value Theorem (FVT).
3.5 What is the most common use of the FVT in control?
3.6 Given a second-order transfer function with damping ratio ζ and natural
frequency ωn , what is the estimate of the step response rise time? What
is the estimate of the percent overshoot in the step response? What is the
estimate of the settling time?
3.7 What is the major effect of a zero in the left half-plane on the second-
order step response?
3.8 What is the most noticeable effect of a zero in the right half-plane on the
step response of the second-order system?
3.9 What is the main effect of an extra real pole on the second-order step
response?
3.10 Why is stability an important consideration in control system design?
3.11 What is the main use of Routh’s criterion?
3.12 Under what conditions might it be important to know how to estimate a
transfer function from experimental data?

PROBLEMS
Problems for Section 3.1: Review of Laplace Transforms
3.1 Show that, in a partial-fraction expansion, complex conjugate poles have
coefficients that are also complex conjugates. (The result of this relation-
ship is that whenever complex conjugate pairs of poles are present, only
one of the coefficients needs to be computed.)
3.2 Find the Laplace transform of the following time functions:
(a) f (t) = 0.5 + 2.5t
(b) f (t) = 1.5 + 9t + 0.3t2 + δ(t), where δ(t) is the unit impulse function
(c) f (t) = 5.5e−t + 3e−2t + 2.5t2 e−3t
(d) f (t) = (2t + 1)2
(e) f (t) = cosh 0.2t
3.3 Find the Laplace transform of the following time functions:
(a) f (t) = 8 sin 0.75t
(b) f (t) = cos 1.5t + 4 sin 1.5t + 1.7e−0.5t cos 1.5t
(c) f (t) = 0.4t3 + 1.8et sin 2.2t
3.4 Find the Laplace transform of the following time functions:
(a) f (t) = t cos t
(b) f (t) = t sin 0.9t
188 Chapter 3 Dynamic Response
(c) f (t) = te−0.1t + 2t cos 0.6t
(d) f (t) = 3t2 − 2t sin 1.3t + 5t cos 7.2t
(e) f (t) = t2 cos t + t2 sin 0.9t
3.5 Find the Laplace transform of the following time functions (* denotes
convolution):
(a) f (t) = sin 5t cos t
(b) f (t) = 2 + 3 sin2 4t + 5 cos2 t
(c) f (t) = (sin t)/t
(d) f (t) = sin t ∗ cos 2t
t
(e) f (t) = sin(t − τ ) sin τ dτ
0
3.6 Given the Laplace transform of f (t) is F(s), find the Laplace transform
of the following:
(a) g(t) = f (t) cos t
t t1
(b) g(t) = f (τ )dτ dt1
0 0
3.7 Find the time function corresponding to each of the following Laplace
transforms using partial-fraction expansions:
5
(a) F(s) = s(s+7)
6
(b) F(s) = s(s+1)(s+2)
(c) F(s) = 8s+2
s2 +s+20
(d) F(s) = 5s+3
(s+1)(s2 +2s+30)
(e) F(s) = s+4
s2 +2
(f) F(s) = s+1
s(s2 +4)
(g) F(s) = s+9
s2 (s+1)
(h) F(s) = 5
s5
(i) F(s) = 18
s4 +9
(j) F(s) = e−3
s3
3.8 Find the time function corresponding to each of the following Laplace
transforms:
(a) F(s) = 1
s(s+2)2
(b) F(s) = s2 +s+1
s3 −1
2(s2 +s+1)
(c) F(s) =
s(s+1)2
(d) F(s) = s3 +2s+4
s4 −16
2(s+2)(s+5)2
(e) F(s) =
(s+1)(s2 +4)2
(f) F(s) = s2 −1
(s2 +1)2
(g) F(s) = tan−1 1s
 Problems 189

3.9 Solve the following ODEs using Laplace transforms:

(a) ÿ(t) + ẏ(t) + 3y(t) = 0; y(0) = 1, ẏ(0) = 2
(b) ÿ(t) − 2ẏ(t) + 4y(t) = 0; y(0) = 1, ẏ(0) = 2
(c) ÿ(t) + ẏ(t) = sin t; y(0) = 1, ẏ(0) = 2
(d) ÿ(t) + 3y(t) = sin t; y(0) = 1, ẏ(0) = 2
(e) ÿ(t) + 2ẏ(t) = et ; y(0) = 1, ẏ(0) = 2
(f) ÿ(t) + y(t) = t; y(0) = 1, ẏ(0) = −1
3.10 Using the convolution integral, find the step response of the system
whose impulse response is given below and shown in Fig. 3.45:
 −t
te t ≥ 0,
h(t) =
0 t < 0.

Figure 3.45 0.4

Impulse response for 0.35

Problem 3.10 0.3

0.25
h(t)

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec)

3.11 Using the convolution integral, find the step response of the system
whose impulse response is given below and shown in Fig. 3.46:

t/3, 0≤t≤3
h(t) =
0, t < 0 and t > 3.

Figure 3.46 1.5

Impulse response for

Problem 3.11
1.0
h(t)

0.5

0.0
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time (sec)

3.12 Consider the standard second-order system

ωn2
G(s) = .
s2 + 2ζ ωn s + ωn2
190 Chapter 3 Dynamic Response
(a) Write the Laplace transform of the signal in Fig. 3.47.
(b) What is the transform of the output if this signal is applied to G(s)?
(c) Find the output of the system for the input shown in Fig. 3.47.

Figure 3.47 u(t)

Plot of input signal for 1
Problem 3.12

1 2 3
Time (sec)

3.13 A rotating load is connected to a field-controlled DC motor with negli-

gible field inductance. A test results in the output load reaching a speed
of 1 rad/sec within 1/2 sec when a constant input of 100 V is applied to
the motor terminals. The output steady-state speed from the same test
is found to be 2 rad/sec. Determine the transfer function V(s) of the
f (s)
motor.
3.14 For the system in Fig. 2.57, compute the transfer function from the motor
voltage to position θ2 .
3.15 Compute the transfer function for the two-tank system in Fig. 2.61 with
holes at A and C.
3.16 For a second-order system with transfer function

5
G(s) = 2 ,
s +s+4

Determine the following:

(a) The DC gain and whether the system is stable.
(b) The final value of the output if the input is applied with a step of 2
units or R(s) = 2s .

3.17 Consider the continuous rolling mill depicted in Fig. 3.48. Suppose the
motion of the adjustable roller has a damping coefficient b, and the force
exerted by the rolled material on the adjustable roller is proportional to
the material’s change in thickness: Fs = c(T − x). Suppose further the
DC motor has a torque constant Kt and a back emf constant Ke , and the
rack-and-pinion has effective radius of R.
(a) What are the inputs to this system? The output?
(b) Without neglecting the effects of gravity on the adjustable roller,
draw a block diagram of the system that explicitly shows the follow-
ing quantities: Vs (s), I0 (s), F(s) (the force the motor exerts on the
adjustable roller), and X (s).
(c) Simplify your block diagram as much as possible while still identify-
ing each output and input separately.
 Problems 191
La Ra
Fm +
+ io(t)

ya(t) ys(t)

-
-

1:N
Rack and
Gear ratio
pinion

Vertically
adjustable
roller
Motion of
material
out of rollers
Thickness x
Thickness T
Fixed
roller

Figure 3.48
Continuous rolling mill

Problems for Section 3.2: System Modeling Diagrams

3.18 Consider the block diagram shown in Fig. 3.49. Note ai and bi are
constants. Compute the transfer function for this system. This special
structure is called the “control canonical form”, and will be discussed
further in Chapter 7.

Figure 3.49 b1
Block diagram for +
Problem 3.18 b2 © Y(s)
+ +
+ X1 X2 X3
1 1 1
U(s)
+
© + s s s b3
+
-a1

-a2

-a3

3.19 Find the transfer functions for the block diagrams in Fig. 3.50.
192 Chapter 3 Dynamic Response
Figure 3.50 G2
Block diagrams for 1
Problem 3.19 1 1
R S G1 S Y
2

(a)

G7
1
1 1 1
R S G1 G3 S G4 G6 S Y
2 2
G2 G5

(b)

G7

G6
1 1
1 1 1
R G1 S G2 G3 S G4 G5 S Y
2 2

(c)

3.20 Find the transfer functions for the block diagrams in Fig. 3.51,
using the ideas of block-diagram simplification. The special structure in
Fig. 3.51(b) is called the “observer canonical form”, and will be discussed
in Chapter 7.
3.21 Use block-diagram algebra to determine the transfer function between
R(s) and Y(s) in Fig. 3.52.
 3.22 Find the transfer functions for the block diagrams in Fig. 3.51, using
Mason’s rule.
 3.23 Use Mason’s rule to determine the transfer function between R(s) and
Y (s) in Fig. 3.52.

Problems for Section 3.3: Effect of Pole Locations

3.24 For the electric circuit shown in Fig. 3.53, find the following:
(a) The time-domain equation relating i(t) and v1 (t);
(b) The time-domain equation relating i(t) and v2 (t);
(c) Assuming all initial conditions are zero, the transfer function vv2 (s)
1 (s)
and the damping ratio ζ and undamped natural frequency ωn of the
system;
(d) The range of C values that will result in v2 (t) having an overshoot of
no more than 20%, assuming v1 (t) is a unit step, L = 1.5 mH, and
R = 5.
 R
+
+ + + b3 b2 b1
R © G1 © G2 © Y
- + + + +
1 + 1 + 1
H2 © s © s © s Y
- - -
+
G3 © a3 a2 a1
+
H3

(a) (b)

b3 b2 b1

+ + +
1 + 1 + 1
-
© - s © s © s Y
-
a1

a2

a3

(c)

D(s)
+
+ + +
R(s) © A(s) © B(s) © Y(s)
- -
H(s)

G(s)

(d)
Figure 3.51
Block diagrams for Problem 3.20

Figure 3.52
H3
Block diagram for
Problem 3.21 +
G2 © G4
- - +
+
R(s) © G1 H2 © G6 Y(s)
- - +
+
G3 © G5

H4
194 Chapter 3 Dynamic Response
Figure 3.53 L R
Circuit for Problem 3.24 + +

y1(t) i(t) C y2(t)

- -

3.25 For the unit feedback system shown in Fig. 3.54, specify the gain K of
the proportional controller so that the output y(t) has an overshoot of
no more than 12% in response to a unit step.

Figure 3.54 + 1
R(s) © K
s(s + 5)
Y(s)
Unity feedback system
-
for Problem 3.25

3.26 For the unity feedback system shown in Fig. 3.55, specify the gain and
pole location of the compensator so that the overall closed-loop response
to a unit-step input has an overshoot of no more than 18% and a 1%
settling time of no more than 0.01 sec. Verify your design using Matlab.

Figure 3.55 Compensator Plant

+ K 150
Unity feedback system R(s) © Y(s)
s+a 0.5s + 150
for Problem 3.26 -

Problems for Section 3.4: Time-Domain Specification

3.27 Suppose you desire the peak time of a given second-order system to be
less than tp . Draw the region in the s-plane that corresponds to values of
the poles that meet the specification tp < tp .
3.28 A certain servomechanism system has dynamics dominated by a pair of
complex poles and no finite zeros. The time-domain specifications on the
rise time (tr ), percent overshoot (Mp ), and settling time (ts ) are given by:
tr ≤ 0.6 sec ,
Mp ≤ 17%,
ts ≤ 9.2 sec .
(a) Sketch the region in the s-plane where the poles could be placed so
that the system will meet all three specifications.
(b) Indicate on your sketch the specific locations (denoted by ×) that
will have the smallest rise time and also meet the settling time
specification exactly.
3.29 A feedback system has the following response specifications:
 Problems 195

• Percent overshoot Mp ≤ 16%

• Settling time ts ≤ 6.9 sec
• Rise time tr ≤ 1.8 sec
(a) Sketch the region of acceptable closed-loop poles in the s-plane for
the system, assuming the transfer function can be approximated as
simple second order.
(b) What is the expected overshoot if the rise time and settling time
specifications are met exactly?
3.30 Suppose you are to design a unity feedback controller for a first-order
plant depicted in Fig. 3.56. (As you will learn in Chapter 4, the config-
uration shown is referred to as a proportional–integral controller.) You
are to design the controller so that the closed-loop poles lie within the
shaded regions shown in Fig. 3.57.

Figure 3.56 + e(t) + Ka

R © © K
s+a
Y
Unity feedback system
- +
for Problem 3.30 KI
s

Figure 3.57 Im(s)

Desired closed-loop 4
u1
pole locations for
Problem 3.30 u2 2

-4 -2 Re(s)

-2

(a) What values of ωn and ζ correspond to the shaded regions in Fig.

3.57? (A simple estimate from the figure is sufficient.)
(b) Let Kα = α = 2. Find values for K and KI so the poles of the
closed-loop system lie within the shaded regions.
(c) Prove that no matter what the values of Kα and α are, the controller
provides enough flexibility to place the poles anywhere in the complex
(left-half) plane.
3.31 The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is

K
G(s) = .
s(s + 2)

The desired system response to a step input is specified as peak time tp =

1 sec and overshoot Mp = 5%.
196 Chapter 3 Dynamic Response
(a) Determine whether both specifications can be met simultaneously by
selecting the right value of K.
(b) Sketch the associated region in the s-plane where both specifications
are met, and indicate what root locations are possible for some likely
values of K.
(c) Relax the specifications in part (a) by the same factor and pick a suit-
able value for K, and use Matlab to verify that the new specifications
are satisfied.
3.32 A simple mechanical system is shown in Fig. 3.58(a). The parameters are
k = spring constant, b = viscous friction constant, m = mass. A step of
2 N force is applied as F = 2 × 1(t) and the resulting step response is
shown in Fig. 3.58(b). What are the values of the system parameters k, b,
and m?

Figure 3.58 x
b
(a) Mechanical system
F
for Problem 3.32;
(b) step response for k
Problem 3.32 No friction
(a)

0.12

0.1

0.08
x(t)

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (sec)
(b)

3.33 A mechanical system is shown in Fig. 3.59. The mass M = 18 kg and the
control force, u, is proportional to the reference input, u = Ar.
(a) Derive the transfer function from R to Y .
 Problems 197
Figure 3.59 y
Simple mechanical
system for Problem 3.33 k
M u

(b) Determine the values of the parameters k, b, A such that the system
has a rise time of tr = 0.7 s and overshoot of Mp = 14%, and zero
steady-state error to a step in r.
3.34 The equations of motion for the DC motor shown in Fig. 2.33 were given
in Eqs (2.65) as
 
Kt Ke Kt
Jm θ̈m + b + θ̇m = va .
Ra Ra
Assume that
Jm = 0.05 kg·m2 ,

b = 0.009 N·m·sec,

Ke = 0.07 V·sec,
Kt = 0.07 N·m/A,

Ra = 12 .
(a) Find the transfer function between the applied voltage va and the
motor speed θ̇m .
(b) What is the steady-state speed of the motor after a voltage va = 15 V
has been applied?
(c) Find the transfer function between the applied voltage va and the
shaft angle θm .
(d) Suppose feedback is added to the system in part (c) so it becomes a
position servo device such that the applied voltage is given by
va = K(θr − θm )
where K is the feedback gain. Find the transfer function between θr
and θm .
(e) What is the maximum value of K that can be used if an overshoot
M < 16% is desired?
(f) What values of K will provide a rise time of less than 5.2 sec? (Ignore
the Mp constraint.)
(g) Use Matlab to plot the step response of the position servo system
for values of the gain K = 0.6, 1, and 2. Find the overshoot and
rise time for each of the three step responses by examining your
plots. Are the plots consistent with your calculations in parts (e)
and (f)?
3.35 You wish to control the elevation of the satellite-tracking antenna shown
in Fig. 3.60 and Fig. 3.61. The antenna and drive parts have a moment
of inertia J and a damping B; these arise to some extent from bearing
198 Chapter 3 Dynamic Response
Figure 3.60
Satellite-tracking
antenna
Source:
fstockfoto/Shutterstock

Figure 3.61
Schematic of antenna
for Problem 3.35

and aerodynamic friction, but mostly from the back emf of the DC drive
motor. The equations of motion are

J θ̈ + Bθ̇ = Tc ,

where Tc is the torque from the drive motor. Assume

J = 600,000 kg·m2 B = 20,000 N·m·sec.

(a) Find the transfer function between the applied torque Tc and the
antenna angle θ .
(b) Suppose the applied torque is computed so θ tracks a reference
command θr according to the feedback law

Tc = K(θr − θ),

where K is the feedback gain. Find the transfer function between θr

and θ .
(c) What is the maximum value of K that can be used if you wish to have
an overshoot Mp < 10%?
(d) What values of K will provide a rise time of less than 80 sec? (Ignore
the Mp constraint.)
 Problems 199

(e) Use Matlab to plot the step response of the antenna system for K =
200, 400, 1000, and 2000. Find the overshoot and rise time of the
four step responses by examining your plots. Do the plots to confirm
your calculations in parts (c) and (d)?
3.36 Show that the second-order system
ÿ + 2ζ ωn ẏ + ωn2 y = 0, y(0) = yo , ẏ(0) = 0,
has the initial condition response
e−σ t
y(t) = yo  sin(ωd t + cos−1 ζ ).
1 − ζ2
Prove that, for the underdamped case (ζ < 1), the response oscilla-
tions decay at a predictable rate (see Fig. 3.62) called the logarithmic
decrement, δ.
yo 2π ζ
δ = ln = ln eσ τd = σ τd = 
y1 1 − ζ2
∼ y1 ∼ yi
= ln = ln ,
y1 yi
where
2π 2π
τd = =  ,
ωd ωn 1 − ζ 2
is the damped natural period of vibration. The damping coefficient in
terms of the logarithmic decrement is then
δ
ζ =  .
4π 2 + δ 2

Problems for Section 3.5: Effects of Zeros and Additional Poles

3.37 In aircraft control systems, an ideal pitch response (qo ) versus a pitch
command (qc ) is described by the transfer function
Qo (s) τ ωn2 (s + τ1 )
= .
Qc (s) s2 + 2ζ ωn s + ωn2

Figure 3.62
Definition of y0
logarithmic decrement
¢y1

y1 ¢y2

y2 t

td
200 Chapter 3 Dynamic Response
The actual aircraft response is more complicated than this ideal transfer
function: nevertheless, the ideal model is used as guide for autopilot
design. Assume that tr is the desired rise time and

1.789
ωn = ,
tr
1 2
= ,
τ tr
ζ = 0.89.

Show that this ideal response possesses fast transient response with
minimal overshoot by plotting the step response for tr = 1.0 and 1.5 sec.
3.38 Approximate each of the following transfer functions with a second-order
transfer function.

(0.6s + 1)(0.35s + 1)
G1 (s) = ,
(0.38s + 1)(0.55s + 1)(s2 + 1.1s + 1)

(0.6s + 1)(0.35s + 1)
G2 (s) = ,
(0.38s + 1)(0.55s + 1)(s2 + 0.2s + 1)

(0.6s + 1)(−0.35s + 1)
G3 (s) = ,
(0.08s + 1)(0.55s + 1)(s2 + 1.1s + 1)

(0.6s + 1)(0.35s + 1)
G4 (s) = ,
(0.08s + 1)(0.55s + 1)(s2 + 1.1s + 1)

(0.01s + 1)(0.35s + 1)
G5 (s) = .
(0.38s + 1)(0.55s + 1)(s2 + 1.1s + 1)

3.39 A system has the closed-loop transfer function

Y (s) 1500(s + 30)

= T(s) = ,
R(s) (s + 1.5)(s + 16)(s + 31)(s + 10s + 50)

where R is a step of size 5.

(a) Given an expression for the form of the output time history as
a sum of terms showing the shape of each component of the
response.
(b) Given an estimate of the settling time of this step response.
3.40 Consider the system shown in Fig. 3.63, where

1 K(s + z)
G(s) = and Dc (s) = .
s(s + 3) s+p
 Problems 201

Find K, z, and p so the closed-loop system has a 10% overshoot to a step

input and a settling time of 1.5 sec (1% criterion).

Figure 3.63 +
R(s) © Dc(s) G(s) Y(s)
Unity feedback system
-
for Problem 3.40

 3.41 Sketch the step response of a system with the transfer function

s/2 + 1
G(s) = .
(s/40 + 1) (s/4)2 + s/4 + 1

Justify your answer on the basis of the locations of the poles and zeros.
(Do not find the inverse Laplace transform.) Then compare your answer
with the step response computed using Matlab.
3.42 A closed-loop transfer function is given:
 
s 2 + 0.1  s + 1 s + 1 s
10 10 2 0.1 + 1
H(s) =  s  s 2 s  .
s 2 s
4 + 4 +1 10 + 0.09 10 + 1 0.02 + 1

Estimate the percent overshoot, Mp , and the transient settling time, ts ,

for this system.
3.43 A transfer function, G(s), is given:
  s 
s 2
100 + 0.01 100 + 1
G(s) =    .
s 2 +  s + 1 s + 1  s 2 + 0.1  s + 1
10 10 5 100 100

If a step input is applied to this plant, what do you estimate the rise-time,
settling time, and overshoot to be? Give a brief statement of your reasons
in each case.
3.44 Three closed-loop transfer functions are given below.

Y (s) 2.7
= T1 (s) = 2 ,
R(s) s + 1.64s + 2.7

Y (s) 2(s + 1.5)

= T2 (s) = ,
R(s) 1.11(s + 1.64s + 2.7)
2

Y (s) 4.1
= T3 (s) = .
R(s) (s + 1.5)(s2 + 1.64s + 2.7)

In each case, provide estimates of the rise-time, settling time, and

percent overshoot to a unit step input in r.
202 Chapter 3 Dynamic Response
3.45 Six transfer functions with unity DC gain are given below.
(a) Which transfer function(s) will meet an overshoot specification of
Mp ≤ 17%?
(b) Which transfer function(s) will meet a rise time specification of tr ≤
0.3 sec?
(c) Which transfer function(s) will meet a settling time specification of
ts ≤ 1.3 sec?
53.5
G1 (s) = 2 ,
(s + 7.31s + 53.5)
313
G2 (s) = ,
(s + 5.85)(s2 + 7.31s + 53.5)
313
G3 (s) = ,
0.5319(s + 11)(s2 + 7.31s + 53.5)
5.9(s + 9.1)
G4 (s) = ,
(s2 + 7.31s + 53.5)
9.8(s2 + 8s + 60)
G5 (s) = ,
(s + 11)(s2 + 7.31s + 53.5)
1.78(s2 + 8s + 60)
G6 (s) = .
(s + 2)(s2 + 7.31s + 53.5)
3.46 Consider the following two nonminimum-phase systems:
2(s − 1)
G1 (s) = − , (3.98)
(s + 1)(s + 2)
3(s − 1)(s − 2)
G2 (s) = . (3.99)
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3)
(a) Sketch the unit-step responses for G1 (s) and G2 (s), paying close
attention to the transient part of the response.
(b) Explain the difference in the behavior of the two responses as it
relates to the zero locations.
(c) Consider a stable, strictly proper system (that is, m zeros and n poles,
where m < n). Let y(t) denote the step response of the system. The
step response is said to have an undershoot if it initially starts off in
the “wrong” direction. Prove that a stable, strictly proper system has
an undershoot if and only if its transfer function has an odd number
of real RHP zeros.
3.47 Find the relationships for the impulse response and the step response
corresponding to Eq. (3.65) for the cases where
(a) the roots are repeated.
(b) the roots are both real. Express your answers in terms of hyper-
bolic functions (sinh, cosh) to best show the properties of the system
response.
(c) the value of the damping coefficient, ζ , is negative.
3.48 Consider the following second-order system with an extra pole:
ωn2 p
H(s) = .
(s + p)(s + 2ζ ωn s + ωn2 )
2
 Problems 203

Show the unit-step response is

y(t) = 1 + Ae−pt + Be−σ t sin(ωd t − θ),

where
−ωn2
A= 2
,
ωn − 2ζ ωn p + p2
p
B=  ,
(p2 − 2ζ ωn p + ωn2 )(1 − ζ 2 )
    
−1 1 − ζ2 −1 ωn 1 − ζ 2
θ = tan + tan .
−ζ p − ζ ωn

(a) Which term dominates y(t) as p gets large?

(b) Give approximate values for A and B for small values of p.
(c) Which term dominates as p gets small? (Small with respect to what?)
(d) Using the preceding explicit expression for y(t) or the step command
in Matlab, and assuming ωn = 1 and ζ = 0.7, plot the step response
of the preceding system for several values of p ranging from very
small to very large. At what point does the extra pole cease to have
much effect on the system response?
3.49 Consider the second-order unity DC gain system with an extra zero:

ωn2 (s + z)
H(s) = .
z(s2 + 2ζ ωn s + ωn2 )
(a) Show that the unit-step response for the system is given by
!
ω2
1 + 2n − 2ζzωn
z
y(t) = 1 −  e−σ t cos(ωd t + β1 ),
1 − ζ2
where  
−ζ + ωzn
β1 = tan−1  .
1 − ζ2
(b) Derive an expression for the step response overshoot, Mp , of this
system.
(c) For a given value of overshoot, Mp , how do we solve for ζ and ωn ?
3.50 The block diagram of an autopilot designed to maintain the pitch atti-
tude θ of an aircraft is shown in Fig. 3.64. The transfer function relating
the elevator angle δe and the pitch attitude θ is
(s) 50(s + 1)(s + 2)
= G(s) = 2 ,
δe (s) (s + 5s + 40)(s2 + 0.03s + 0.06)
where θ is the pitch attitude in degrees and δe is the elevator angle in
degrees. The autopilot controller uses the pitch attitude error e to adjust
the elevator according to the transfer function
δe (s) K(s + 3)
= Dc (s) = .
E(s) s + 10
204 Chapter 3 Dynamic Response
Using Matlab, find a value of K that will provide an overshoot of less
than 10% and a rise time faster than 0.5 sec for a unit-step change in
θr . After examining the step response of the system for various values
of K, comment on the difficulty associated with meeting rise time and
overshoot specifications for complicated systems.

Figure 3.64 + Control d Aircraft u

e e
Block diagram of ur © Dc(s) G(s)
autopilot for -
Problem 3.50

Problems for Section 3.6: Stability

3.51 A measure of the degree of instability in an unstable aircraft response
is the amount of time it takes for the amplitude of the time response to
double (see Fig. 3.65), given some nonzero initial condition.
(a) For a first-order system, show that the time to double is

ln 2
τ2 =
p

where p is the pole location in the RHP.

(b) For a second-order system (with two complex poles in the RHP),
show that
ln 2
τ2 = .
−ζ ωn

Figure 3.65 Amplitude

Time to double
2A
A
0
-A Time

3.52 Suppose that unity feedback is to be applied around the listed open-
loop systems. Use Routh’s stability criterion to determine whether the
resulting closed-loop systems will be stable.
5(s+5)
(a) K(s)G(s) =
(s+1)(s3 +2s+5)

(b) K(s)G(s) = 0.2(s2 +0.95s+0.11)

2
s(s +0.36s+0.72)
(s3 +15.5s2 +12.2s+100)
(c) K(s)G(s) =
(s+1)2 (47.7s3 +23.4s2 +20.3s+1)
3.53 Use Routh’s stability criterion to determine how many roots with positive
real parts the following equations have:
(a) s4 + 5.2s3 + 18.9s2 + 43.2s + 45.4
 Problems 205

(b) s5 + 0.102s4 + 1.123s3 + 0.686s2 + 0.154s + 2

(c) s4 + 152s3 + 12s2 − 1932s − 4921
(d) 99s3 − s2 − 6s − 7
(e) s4 + 8s2 + 36
3.54 Find the range of K for which all the roots of the following polynomial
are in the LHP:

s5 + 5s4 + 10s3 + 10s2 + 5s + K = 0.

Use Matlab to verify your answer by plotting the roots of the polynomial
in the s-plane for various values of K.
3.55 The transfer function of a typical tape-drive system is given by
K(s + 6)
KG(s) = ,
s (s + 0.7)(s + 1.2)(s2 + 0.8s + 6)

where time is measured in milliseconds. Using Routh’s stability crite-

rion, determine the range of K for which this system is stable when the
characteristic equation is 1 + KG(s) = 0.
3.56 Consider the closed-loop magnetic levitation system shown in Fig. 3.66.
Determine the conditions on the system parameters (a, K, z, p, K◦ ) to
guarantee closed-loop system stability.

Figure 3.66 + e (s + z) u Ko
Magnetic levitation
R © K
(s + p) (s2 - a2)
Y
-
system for Problem 3.56

3.57 Consider the system shown in Fig. 3.67.

(a) Compute the closed-loop characteristic equation.
(b) For what values of (T, A) is the system stable? Hint: An approximate
answer may be found using

e−Ts ∼
= 1 − Ts,

or
1 − T2 s
e−Ts ∼
= ,
1 + T2 s
for the pure delay. As an alternative, you could use the computer
Matlab (Simulink) to simulate the system or to find the roots of the
system’s characteristic equation for various values of T and A.

Figure 3.67 + A
R © e-sT
s(s + 1)
Y
Control system for
-
Problem 3.57
206 Chapter 3 Dynamic Response
3.58 Modify the Routh criterion so that it applies to the case in which all the
poles are to be the left −α when α > 0. Apply the modified test to the
polynomial

s3 + (0.5 + K)s2 + (1 + 2K)s + 3K = 0,

finding those values of K for which all poles have a real part less than
−0.7.
3.59 Suppose the characteristic polynomial of a given closed-loop system is
computed to be

s4 +(11+K2 )s3 +(121+K1 )s2 +(K1 +K1 K2 +110K2 +210)s+11K1 +100 = 0.

Find constraints on the two gains K1 and K2 that guarantee a stable

closed-loop system, and plot the allowable region(s) in the (K1 , K2 ) plane.
You may wish to use the computer to help solve this problem.
3.60 Overhead electric power lines sometimes experience a low-frequency,
high-amplitude vertical oscillation, or gallop, during winter storms when
the line conductors become covered with ice. In the presence of wind,
this ice can assume aerodynamic lift and drag forces that result in a gal-
lop up to several meters in amplitude. Large-amplitude gallop can cause
clashing conductors and structural damage to the line support structures
caused by the large dynamic loads. These effects in turn can lead to power
outages. Assume the line conductor is a rigid rod, constrained to ver-
tical motion only, and suspended by springs and dampers as shown in
Fig. 3.68. A simple model of this conductor galloping is
D(α)ẏ − L(α)v nπ
mÿ + +T y = 0,
(ẏ2 + v2 )1/2 
where

m = mass of conductor,
y = conductor’s vertical displacement,
D = aerodynamic drag force,
L = aerodynamic lift force,
v = wind velocity,
α = aerodynamic angle of attack = − tan−1 (ẏ/v),

Figure 3.68 0L
+ D0 6 0
0a
Electric power-line
conductor
y
(np )
2
T
Wind y Spring
a Ice constant
a
y
a

x
Relative wind = y2 + y2
Conductor
 Problems 207

T = conductor tension,
n = number of harmonic frequencies,
 = length of conductor.

Assume L(0) = 0 and D(0) = D0 (a constant), and linearize the equation

around the value y = ẏ = 0. Use Routh’s stability criterion to show that
galloping can occur whenever
∂L
+ D0 < 0.
∂α