POINTERS TO REVIEW • Pollutants, such as sulfur and nitrogen, from

fossil fuel burning, create sulfuric and nitric acid.

✓ WASTE MANAGEMENT
Sulfuric and nitric acids are the two main
✓ PHYSICAL WEATHERING
components of acid rain, which accelerate
✓ CHEMICAL WEATHERING
chemical weathering.
✓ EARTH’S INTERIOR
• Hydrolysis: Molecules of minerals chemically
✓ MAGMATISM
combine with water molecules. The process of
✓ METAMORPHISM
hydrolysis is vitally important to feldspars. Clay
✓ TYPES OF STRESS
began as feldspars and was dissolved through the
WASTE GENERATION & MANAGEMENT reaction process of hydrolysis. So, hydrolysis
converts feldspars to clay.
Point Source Pollution- coming from a single point, such
• Carbonation: Carbon dioxide in the air can react
as a factory or sewage treatment plant. It is easier to
with water to form carbonic acid. When it
trace as they can be linked to specific discharge points
precipitates, this weak acid enters the cracks in
brought by industrialization.
rocks chemically reacting with it.
Non-Point Source Pollution- runoff (excess water that • Oxidation: Occurs when free ions of oxygen join
flows over the land surface instead of being absorbed with iron (or magnesium) rich minerals to create
into groundwater or evaporating) from urban and new minerals like hematite and limonite. Free
suburban areas. Discarded trash can become a oxygen within rainwater combines with iron to
component of non-point source pollution runoff. create new minerals. The red color of rust is
because of the presence of iron
Organic domestic waste poses a serious threat, since
they ferment, creating conditions favorable to the EARTH’S INTERIOR
survival and growth of microbial pathogens.

Waste dumped near a water source also causes

contamination of the water body or the groundwater
source.

Disposal of hospital and other medical waste requires

special attention since this can create major health
hazards.

WEATHERING

Physical weathering- breaks down rocks physically into

Why is the earth’s interior hot?
smaller pieces without changing their chemical
composition. • Primordial heat: the internal heat energy that
accumulated throughout the Earth's early
• Temperature change: rock surface expands when
formation and dispersion 4 billion years ago. The
heated and contracts when cooled. Mineral grains
energy deposited during a planet's early
are loosened and weakened, eventually breaking
creation, known as accretional energy, is the
down the rock.
primary source of its internal heat. The kinetic
• Freeze & thaw: water expands when it freezes,
energy of colliding particles is converted to
which makes the accumulated water in rock pores
thermal energy stored in the core.
and slits expand.
• Frictional heating: The frictional heat left over
• Moving water: the action of waves chips away
from the collisions of large and small particles
and produces cracks in rocks.
that created Earth in the first place caused the
Chemical weathering- alteration of rocks through subsequent frictional heat of redistribution of
chemical reactions, leading to the formation of new
minerals and structures.
 dense material within Earth by gravitational
forces (e.g., sinking of iron to form the core).
• Radiogenic heat: Radioactive decay of isotopes is
a natural process; unstable elements like 238U
(Uranium) or 40K (Potassium) stabilize with time
and produce what we call daughter products:
206Pb (Lead) for Uranium and 40Ar (Argon) for
Potassium. This process produces heat,
representing 90% of the total heat inside the
Earth.

How is magma formed?

• At about 30-65 km below the earth’s surface, the

temperature is high enough to melt rocks into
magma. The reason why it is difficult to drill holes
into the crust is that the temperature rises about
30 degrees for every kilometer.
• The asthenosphere which is between 100-350km
deep is so hot that most of the rock is melted. It
flows very slowly because it is under intense
pressure. Magma reaches temperatures
between 600 degrees to 1400 degrees Celsius.
• Magma develops within the upper mantle and
• Mohorovicic discontinuity (Moho), the interface
between the crust and the mantle. crust where the temperature and pressure
conditions favor the molten state. Magma
• Gutenberg discontinuity, the interface between collects in areas called magma chambers.
the mantle and outer core. • The pool of magma in a magma chamber is
layered. The least dense magma rises to the top
• Lehman discontinuity, located between the
while the densest sinks at the bottom of the
liquid outer core and the solid inner core.
chamber.
MAGMATISM • During an eruption, ash and light-colored rocks
are emitted from the least dense top layer
Flux melting- When a substance such as water is added
magma chamber, and the released magma from
to hot rocks, the melting points of the minerals within
the lower part of the chamber is dark, dense
those rocks decrease. If a rock is already close to its
volcanic rock.
melting point, the effect of adding water can be enough
to trigger partial melting. The added water is a flux, and METAMORPHISM
this type of melting is called flux-induced melting. In
other words, it enables melting at lower temperatures
when volatile gases are added to mantle material.

Decompression melting - involves the upward

movement of Earth's mostly solid mantle. This hot
material rises to an area of lower pressure through the
process of convection. Areas of lower pressure always
have a lower melting point than areas of high pressure.
This reduction in overlying pressure, or decompression,
enables the mantle rock to melt and form magma.
 amphiboles. These minerals will occur as alternating
layers of black and white visible crystals. This type of rock
may also form from the metamorphic alteration of a felsic
igneous rock. In either case, the rock is called
a gneiss (pronounced "nice") and it displays a crystalline
texture.

TYPES OF STRESS

As metamorphism begins, the clay particles or flakes are

slowly heated and "squished" by the increasing pressure.
Generally, the pressure imposed on the clay minerals is
stronger in two directions than in others, and a
compressional force begins to affect the minerals. Lower
pressures cause only a slight change in the clay flakes in
Compression stress
that they are compressed very close together and
become much more densely packed. • A type of stress that causes the rocks to push or
Some of the clay flakes may begin to recrystallize into squeeze against one another. Mountains are a
result of high-impact compression stress caused
very small crystals of mica minerals. Any water remaining
when two plates collide.
in the clay is driven off. During this process, a more dense
platy metamorphic rock called slate will form. This rock Tension stress
very closely resembles shale; the difference can be
determined by the fact that slate will "clink" like fine • Tension is the opposite of compression. It forces
china when it is dropped, and only the shale will smell the rocks to pull apart. Two separate plates can
"muddy" when it is wet. Because the clays have begun to move farther away from each other, or the ends
recrystallize into micas in slate, this rock has a of one plate can move in different directions.
microcrystalline texture.
Shear stress
As the process of metamorphism continues, additional
pressure and temperature will cause the minerals to • Shear stress usually happens when two plates
continue to recrystallize and become larger. The next rub against each other as they move in opposite
stage in this transition will be the formation of directions. The friction of shear stress at the
edges of the plate can cause earthquakes.
a phyllite, which has slightly larger (but still microscopic)
mica crystals than the slate. Because of the slightly larger
crystals, the microcrystalline phyllite will display a
characteristic "sheen" that resembles the shine of satin.

Continuing to increase the temperatures and pressures

will allow the minerals to recrystallize into still-larger
crystals. At this stage, the mica crystals will
become visible on the surface of the rock (as other
minerals), and the rock will be called a schist and have
what we describe as a crystalline texture.

Finally, temperatures and pressures may increase to the

point that the mica crystals can recrystallize into higher-
temperature and pressure minerals such as feldspars and