Unit 4

Earthquake Hazards
Table of Contents
Introduction 3

Essential Questions 4

Lesson 1: Ground Shaking 5

Starting Out 5
Learn about It 6
Check Your Understanding 10
Explore Your World 11
Case Study 11

Lesson 2: Ground Rupture 12

Starting Out 12
Learn about It 13
Check Your Understanding 18
Explore Your World 19
Case Study 20

Lesson 3: Liquefaction 21

Starting Out 21
Learn about It 22
Check Your Understanding 25
Explore Your World 26
Case Study 26

Lesson 4: Earthquake-Induced Landslides 27

Starting Out 27
Learn about It 27
Check Your Understanding 33
Explore Your World 34

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 Case Study 34

Lesson 5: Tsunamis 35

Starting Out 35
Learn about It 36
Check Your Understanding 39
Explore Your World 40
Case Study 40

Real World Challenge 41

Check and Reflect 43

Wrap Up 44

Bibliography 45

Glossary 47

Answers to Check Your Understanding 58

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GRADE 11/12 |Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction

Unit 4

Earthquake Hazards
More than a thousand fatalities and billions of pesos worth of damage were reported on the
1990 Luzon earthquake. The 7.8 magnitude earthquake lasted for 45 seconds, destroyed
man-made structures and caused landslides and floods. Was it solely the severity of the
earthquake that has caused such an impact? What other factors have contributed to the
death toll and loss of property? In the succeeding lessons, we will be discussing earthquake
hazards, their effects, and how to manage them.

Fig. 1. Examples of impacts of earthquakes to structures and land surface.

clockwise from top left: P199, Loon 6 earthquake, CC BY-SA 3.0, P199, Tubigon 2 earthquake, CC BY-SA 3.0, P199, Catigbian 1
earthquake, CC BY-SA 3.0,P199, Loon 2 earthquake, CC BY-SA 3.0.

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 ● What are earthquake hazards?
● What are the factors that affect ground shaking?
● How are potential hazards identified?
● How do earthquake hazards affect infrastructure?
● How can hazard maps be used in preparing for earthquake hazards?
● What can be done as a safety measure before, during, and after an
earthquake-related hazard?

In this unit, you should be able to:

● identify potential earthquake hazards;
● recognize the natural signs of an impending tsunami;
● analyze the effects of the different earthquake hazards;
● interpret different earthquake hazard maps; and
● apply precautionary and safety measures before, during, and after an earthquake.

● Faults are breaks on the surface of the earth that generate earthquakes when it moves.
● The earth has three main layers: crust, mantle, and core.

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Earthquake is a natural event feared by many, even by those who have not recalled any
experience of it or its effects. Ground shaking and earthquake are usually used synonymously
because people perceive earthquake often when the ground below shakes without warning.
What are the factors that affect ground shaking?

A shake table is a device used to simulate the response of structures to shaking. In this
activity, you will construct your own shake simulation table using common household items.

You will need:

● 1 used manila folder,
● 16 popsicle sticks or barbecue sticks,
● small clump of modelling clay,
● 1 large empty box (shoe box or something similar).

The box represents the ground on which the building stands. Assemble your 4 buildings using
the used folder, sticks, and clay. Make sure that the base is fastened onto the box.

Simulate an earthquake. Hold the box with both hands and shake!

What happened to the makeshift building after the shaking?

How does it behave when shaken up and down and from side to side?
Will the outcome be different if you shook your table faster, or for a longer period of time?

What happens to things of the surface when there is an earthquake?

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An earthquake is a phenomenon caused by the sudden and rapid movement of large volumes
of rock along fractures on the surface of the earth called faults. The outermost shell of the
earth, which includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, consists of tectonic plates. These
are massive and irregularly shaped slabs of rock. Due to their roughness, the edges of these
plates get stuck while the plates continue moving. Eventually, when the plates move far
enough to overcome the friction of the fault and separate; the energy stored in the rocks is
released in the form of seismic waves.

As these waves travel through rocks beneath the earth, they radiate energy in all directions
like ripples on water. This produces the shaking felt on the surface.

There are two types of seismic waves: body waves and surface waves. Body waves are
seismic waves that travel through the interior of the earth.

Fig. 1.How P waves and S waves move the ground.

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Primary (P) waves are the first waves that reach the surface of the earth and make the
ground shake. They move the ground back and forth along the direction they are traveling.
The shaking from P waves is light or sometimes not felt.

Secondary (S) waves are body waves that vibrate perpendicular to their propagation
direction, producing an up and down motion. They move slower but shake the ground more
strongly than P waves.

Surface waves are waves that are trapped near the surface. Love waves are surface waves
that have a horizontal motion perpendicular to the direction they are traveling. Rayleigh
waves shake the ground in a rotational manner with no transverse motion.

Fig. 2.How Rayleigh and Love waves move the ground

We now know how different seismic waves move and shake the ground. But how do we
quantify their motion? The severity of an earthquake is measured based on the energy it
releases, or its magnitude, and its effects on people and man-made structures, or what we
call intensity.

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 ● P waves and S waves are seismic waves that move through the interior of the earth.
Love waves, and Rayleigh waves, on the other hand, are surface waves.
● P waves push and pull. S waves move the ground up and down. Love waves
resemble snakes. Rayleigh’s waves roll.

Whether these are weak tremors or violent vibrations, ground shaking typically lasts for a few
seconds to a minute. However, there are rare instances wherein shaking exceeds 60 seconds.
An example of this is the 2004 Sumantran-Andaman earthquake, or the Indian Ocean
earthquake, which lasted for at least 10 minutes. This earthquake is also known to have
generated the longest surface rupture ever observed, and a devastating tsunami.

Frequency is the number of times a movement such as ground shaking is repeated within a
certain amount of time. High frequency earthquakes affect small buildings more than the high
rise ones. Think of it this way: a small boat will not be significantly rocked by a single huge
wave. However, if struck by rapid, successive waves, the boat can capsize. On the other hand,
large structures like skyscrapers will sway more when experiencing low-frequency earthquake
waves or a long, slow shaking.

Fig. 3. Buildings of different size respond to certain frequencies.

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As demonstrated in the warm up activity, ground shaking varies depending on (1) the type of
seismic wave involved, whether moving the box vertically and laterally, (2) the duration and
the frequency of the earthquake, like changing how long and how fast you shake the box.

The intensity of ground shaking is also influenced by the distance from the fault. Intuitively,
you would expect to feel ground shaking more strongly if you were closer to the fault. This is
true for most earthquakes, but you may also experience the same strength of shaking even if
you were farther because of the physical properties of the ground that the structure was built
on, and the structure itself.

When waves travel from hard (e.g. igneous rocks) to soft materials (e.g. limestone, sandstone,
alluvium) and lose velocity, they must undergo an increase in amplitude to maintain the same
amount of energy. Hence, shaking is felt more strongly in areas with soft rock, where seismic
waves move slower.

How a building is constructed can increase or decrease the damage from ground shaking as
well. Numerous studies on earthquakes that have occurred in different parts of the world
show that high mortality rates are a consequence of poorly constructed buildings. In 2010, a
magnitude 7 earthquake struck Haiti and left more than 316,000 dead or missing, 300,000
injured, and more than 1 million people homeless. Most of the buildings destroyed were
found to have been constructed without considering earthquake hazards. Columns had
minimal reinforcement which made the buildings vulnerable to earthquake damage.

Ground shaking is the primary cause of earthquake damage to man-made structures. It

causes buildings and other infrastructures to collapse which may result to injuries or
casualties. In cases where it breaks water dams, flash floods may occur. Fire is a secondary
hazard if the shaking sufficiently damages electric and gas lines. Ground shaking also triggers
other earthquake hazards such as landslides and liquefaction.

It is not impossible to minimize the damage caused by ground shaking. Thorough geologic site
investigation, stricter building code implementations, and earthquake-resistant construction
are some ways of doing this.

Knowing the characteristics of the ground you intend to build a structure on can help reduce
potential ground shaking damage. You may opt to avoid constructing in an area if the
underlying material amplifies ground shaking.

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A building code is a set of rules that set standards on the construction of buildings. If
properly implemented, it can ensure that buildings are constructed properly, can survive an
earthquake with minimal damage, and therefore, not endanger the occupants.
Earthquake-resistant buildings are by no means immune to earthquakes, but will sustain less
damage than their conventional counterparts.

A. Recall / Comprehension Questions

1. What are the types of surface waves?

2. Small buildings are more affected by _______ frequency earthquakes, while tall buildings
are more affected by _______ frequency earthquakes.
3. Which seismic wave is felt first?
4. What is the measure of an earthquake’s effect to people and properties?
5. What is the measure of an earthquake’s energy?

B. Application, Analysis

1. Why does the ground shake during an earthquake?

2. Why do soft underlying materials amplify ground shaking?
3. How does the quality of construction affect the building’s capacity to withstand
damages from ground shaking?
4. If an earthquake strikes the Philippines, which of the four seismic waves is sure to be
detected on the other side of the world? Briefly explain your answer.

C. Synthesis and evaluation

1. Which of the four seismic waves do you think would cause the most destruction? Why?

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The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PhIVOLCS) in collaboration with the
Association of Structural Engineers (ASEP) developed a method in evaluating the earthquake
safety of concrete hollow block (CHB) houses in the Philippines. This test shall assess how
much you know about your house and will improve your earthquake disaster awareness.

You may find the Self-check for Earthquake Safety of Concrete Hollow Block (CHB) Houses in
the Philippines in this website:
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/images/Flyer-How-Safe-Is-Your-House.pdf

Based on your score, what do you think should be the next step in preparing for ground
shaking? List down what you can do in order to minimize the damage to your house.

Prediction, Preparation, Predicament

On January 12, 2010, a magnitude 7 earthquake struck Haiti, claiming an estimated 300,000
lives and destroying nearly half of the structures within the area of the epicenter. The country
is poor with less than 10% and 3% having access to potable water and electricity, respectively.
There are only few seismologists, and limited data on previous earthquakes that can help them
prepare for future ones. The building code exists, but is outdated and not well-implemented,
which allowed the construction of buildings in places where they should not be made, and with
substandard materials.

Let us Investigate!
The Philippines has data on previous historical earthquakes and has agencies monitoring
movements of known active faults. Efforts have been made towards disseminating information
on disaster risk management. Comparing the conditions of the Philippines to pre-2010
earthquake Haiti, how do you think our country will fare in the event of a similar disaster?
How prepared is the Philippines?
What factors could lead to a repeat of the destruction caused by the 1990 Luzon earthquake or
to a devastation similar to that experience in Haiti?

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