MATTER

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
We distinguish one form of matter from another by its properties
A substance is a definite variety of matter, all specimens of which have the same properties.

EXAMPLES OF SUBSTANCE
1. Aluminum
2. Iron
3. Rust
4. Salt
5. Sugar

MAJOR CLASSES OF PROPERTIES

1. Physical Properties
2. Chemical Properties

Physical Properties - describe a substance as it is.

TWO KINDS OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Specific Physical Properties
2. Accidental Physical Properties

SPECIFIC PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Density - the weight of a unit volume of a substance.
2. Specific Gravity-The ratio of the weight of a given volume of a substance to the weight of the same volume of
water at the same temperature.
3. Hardness-Ability of the substance to resist scratching. A substance will scratch any other substance which is
softer.
4. Odor- Many substances have characteristic odors. Some have pleasant odors, like methyl salicylate (oil of
wintergreen); some have pun- gent odors, like ammonia or sulfur dioxide (a gas which forms when the head of a
match burns); some have disagreeable odors, like hydrogen sulfide (a gas which forms in rotten eggs).
5. Color - You are familiar with the color of such substances as gold or copper. White substances are usually
described as colorless.

ACCIDENTAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES are such features as weight, dimensions, and volume. They have
nothing to do with the nature of the substance, but they enable us to find out how much of a given substance we have.

Chemical Properties - describe the ability of a substance to change into a new and completely different substance.
Chemical
Change or
Chemical
Reaction -
a
COMPOUNDS change from
one substance
to SUBSTANCES another.

ALL MATTER ELEMENTS

MIXTURES

ELEMENTS
Are the basic constituents of all matter. An element is the simplest form of matter. It cannot be formed from simplest
substances, nor can it be decomposed into simpler varieties of matter.

COMPOUNDS
 Is a pure substance made up of elements which are chemically combined.
 Can be decomposed into its elements only by some type of chemical change.
EXAMPLES:
1. Water
2. Sand
3. Rust
4. Ammonia
5. Sugar
6. Salt
7. Alcohol
8. Benzene

MIXTURES
 Most natural forms of matter are mixtures of pure substances.
 Is a combination of substances held together by physical rather than chemical means.
EXAMPLES:
1. Soil and most rock
2. Plants and animals
3. Coal and oil
4. Air and cooking gas
5. River and ocean

MIXTURE DIFFERS FROM COMPOUNDS IN THE FOLLOWING WAYS:

● The ingredients of a mixture retain their own properties.
● Mixtures have widely varying composition.
● Mixtures can be separated into their ingredients by physical means.

METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES

SORTING - this involves selections of the desired ingredient from the ways product in a fragmented mixture.

MAGNETIC SEPARATION - some iron ore is magnetic. This ore is scooped up in giant shovels from the earth, crushed,
and poured on to a magnetized belt.

DISTILLATION - this process takes advantage of difference in temperature of boiling (boiling point) between the
ingredients of a solution.

 The ingredient with the lowest boiling point boils away first, leaving the highest boiling residue behind.
 The low boiling ingredient is said to be more volatile than the residue. The ingredient which boils off as a gas is
then condensed back to a liquid by cooling and is collected in a new container.

EXTRACTION - the process of extraction involves the dissolving out of an ingredient from a mixture with a suitable
solvent.

GRAVITATION - this process takes advantage of differences in density or specific gravity of the ingredients in a mixture.

Physical Change - involves the alteration of the properties of a substance without affecting the substance itself.
Chemical Change - involves such a thorough change in substance that an entirely new substance is formed in the
process.

4 PRINCIPAL TYPES OF CHEMICAL CHANGE

1. Combination – is the direct joining of two or more simple substances, either elements or simple compounds, to
form a more complex compound.
2. Decomposition – is the breaking down of a compound into simpler compounds or into its elements.
3. Replacement – involves the substitution of one element for another in a compound.
4. Double displacement – the two compounds react to form two new compounds by exchanging parts.

Alkali – is a compound which is the opposite of an acid.

Neutralize – an acid to water and salt solution.

Energy – is the ability to do work.

Catalyst – is a substance which alters the speed or rate of a chemical.

STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Atom - the smallest particle of an element which has all the properties of an element

THREE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

1. PROTON - has a positive charge
2. ELECTRON - has a charge of
3. NEUTRONS - has no charge

Nucleus - protons and neutrons are found in tight cluster in the center of an atom.
Mass Number - one way to describe an atom is by its mass number, which is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in its nucleus.
Example:
What is the mass number of an atom containing:
a. 58 protons, 58 electrons and 82
neutrons? (58P + 82N = 140
[Cerium])
b. 17 protons, 17 electrons and 20
neutrons? (17P + 20N = 37
[Chlorine])

Atomic Number - the atomic number of

an element is the number of protons in
its nucleus.
Example:
a. This element has 58 protons.
(Cerium)
b. This element has 17 protons. (Chlorine)

Isotopes - ATOMS WITH THE SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS BUT DIFFERENT NUMBERS FOR NEUTRONS ARE
CALLED ISOTOPES.
Example:
How many neutrons are in each isotope of oxygen? write the symbol of isotope.
a. Oxygen – 16 – 8 = 8 Neutrons
b. Oxygen – 17 – 8 = 9 Neutrons
c. Oxygen – 18 – 8 = 10 Neutrons

Atomic Weights - an atomic weight of an element given in periodic table is a weighted average of the masses (in amu) of
its isotopes found on the earth.
Example:
Let’s examine chlorine. two isotopes of chlorine exist in nature. Chlorine-35 has mass of 34.97 amu and chlorine-37 has
a mass of 36.97 amu.
PERIODIC TABLE
 In the 1860s, the Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleyev (Mendeleeve) (1834 –1907), then professor of chemistry
at the University of St. Petersburg, produced one of the first Periodic Tables, the form of which we still use today.

Families or groups - the elements in the vertical columns.

Periods - the elements in the horizontal rows.
Main-group elements – the elements in the A groups (Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A–8A) of the Periodic Table.
Transition elements - the elements in the B columns (Groups 3 to 12 in the new numbering system) are called transition
elements.
Inner transition elements - elements 58 to 71 and 90 to 103 are not included in the main body of the table but rather are
shown separately at the bottom.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
• Metal
• Nonmetals
• Metalloids
• Halogens – group 7a
• Alkali Metals – group 1a except hydrogen
• Noble Gases – group 8a

Bohr Model
 The Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1915. It came into existence with the modification of
Rutherford’s model of an atom.

Arrangement of Electron in an Atom

• Principal energy level
• Shells
• Subshells (s,p,d,f or k,l,m,n,o,p)
• Orbitals
Electron configuration
of an atom is a description of the orbitals that its electrons occupy.

Orbital box diagram - we use a box to represent an orbital, an arrow with its head up to represent a single electron, and
a pair of arrows with heads in opposite directions to represent two electrons with paired spins.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

A phase is a homogeneous part of the system in contact with other parts of the system but separated from them by a
well-defined boundary.

TWO PHASES
1. Solid Phase (ice)
2. Liquid Phase (water)
CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF GASES, LIQUIDS, AND SOLIDS

STATE OF VOLUME/ DENSITY COMPRESSIBILITY MOTION OF

MATTER SHAPE MOLECULES
Gas assumes the Low Very compressible Very free motion
volume and
shape of its
container
Liquid has a definite High Only slightly Slide past one
volume but compressible another freely
assumes the
shape of its
container
Solid has a definite High Virtually Vibrate about
volume and incompressible fixed position
shape

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES - are attractive forces between molecules.

- hold atoms together in a molecule.
Intermolecular vs Intramolecular
● 41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water (inter)
● 930 kJ to break all O-H bonds in 1 mole of water (intra)
Generally, intermolecular forces are much weaker than intramolecular forces.
“Measure” of intermolecular force
 boiling point
 melting point
 DHvap
 DHfus
 DHsub

TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

1. Hydrogen Bond (strongest)
The hydrogen bond is a special dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond
and an electronegative O, N, or F atom. IT IS NOT A BOND.

A & B are N, O, or F
Types of Intermolecular Forces

A H…B or
Why is the hydrogen bond considered a “special” dipole-dipole interaction? A H…A
Decreasing molar mass

Decreasing boiling point

2. Ion-Dipole Forces
- attractive forces between an ion and a polar molecule
 Ion-Dipole Interaction

3. Dipole-Dipole Forces
- attractive forces between polar molecules
Orientation of Polar Molecules in a Solid

4. Dispersion Forces – van der Walls forces/London forces (weakest)

- attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary dipoles induced in atoms or molecules

ion-induced dipole interaction

dipole-induced dipole interaction

4. Dispersion Forces Continued

Polarizability is the ease with which the electron distribution in the atom or molecule can be distorted.
Polarizability increases with:
● greater number of electrons
● more diffuse electron cloud
Dispersion forces usually increase with molar mass.

What type(s) of intermolecular forces exist between each of the following molecules?
HBr - is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces. There are also dispersion forces between HBr molecules.
CH4 - is nonpolar: dispersion forces.
SO2 - is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces. There are also dispersion forces between SO2 molecules.

PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
Surface tension is the amount of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area.

Strong intermolecular forces

 High surface tension

Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction

between like molecules.
Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules.

Adhesion

Cohesion

attracted to each other

Viscosity is a measure of fluid’s resistance to

attracted to glass flow.

Strong molecular forces

High viscosity

A crystalline solid possesses rigid and long-range order. In a crystalline solid, atoms, molecules or ions occupy specific
(predictable) positions.
An amorphous solid does not possess a well-defined arrangement and long-range molecular order.
A unit cell is the basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid.

At lattice points:
 Atoms
 Molecules
 Ions

Unit cell Unit cells in 3

1. Simple Cubic
2. Tetragonal
3. Orthorhombic
4. Rhombohedral
5. Monoclinic
6. Triclinic
7. Hexagonal

1. Simple Cubic
2. Body-centered cubic
3. Face-centered cubic

TYPES OF CRYSTALS
1. Ionic Crystals – ion-ion interaction are the strongest
(including the “intermolecular forces” (H bonding, etc.)
 Lattice points occupied by cations and anions
 Held together by electrostatic attraction
 Hard, brittle, high melting and electricity
 Poor conductor of heat and electricity

2. Covalent Crystals – stronger than IM forces but

generally weaker than ion-ion.
 Lattice points occupied by atoms
 Held together by covalent bonds
 Hard, high melting
 Poor conductor of heat and electricity
3. Molecular Crystals
 Lattice points occupied by molecules
 Held together by intermolecular forces
 Soft, low melting point
 Poor conductor of heat and electricity

4. Metallic Crystals – typically weaker that covalent, but can be low end covalent
 Lattice points occupied by metal atoms
 Held together by metallic bonds
 Soft to hard, low to high melting point
 Good conductor of heat and electricity

An amorphous solid does not possess a well-defined arrangement and long-range molecular order.
A glass is an optically transparent fusion product of inorganic materials that has cooled to a rigid state without
crystallizing.

Equilibrium vapor pressure is the vapor pressure measured when a dynamic equilibrium exists between condensation
and evaporation.

Dynamic Equilibrium

Rate of condensation = Rate of evaporation

Molar heat of vaporization (DHvap) is the energy required to
vaporize 1 mole of a liquid.
Clausius-
C= constant (depends on P &
Clapeyron
T) Equation
ln P = - DHva P = (equilibrium) vapor
pressure
p RT C
T = temperature

 The boiling point is the temperature at which the (equilibrium) vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external
pressure.
 The normal boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid boils when the external pressure is 1 atm.
 The critical temperature (Tc) is the temperature above which the gas cannot be made to liquefy, no matter how
great the applied pressure.
 The critical pressure (Pc) is the minimum pressure that must be applied to bring about liquefaction at the critical
temperature.
Molar heat of fusion (DHfus) is the energy required to melt 1 mole of a solid substance.
Molar heat of sublimation (DHsub) is the energy required to sublime 1 mole of a solid.
A phase diagram summarizes the conditions at which a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas.
The triple point is where all 3 phases meet