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PEARSON
NEVER LEARNING
Introduction to Linear
Algebra for Science and
Engineering
Taken from:
Introduction to Linear Algebra for Science and Engineering, Second Edition
by Daniel Norman and Dan Wolczuk
Cover Art: Courtesy of Pearson Learning Solutions.
Taken from:
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
All trademarks, service marks, registered trademarks, and registered service marks are the
property of their respective owners and are used herein for identification purposes only.
Pearson Learning Solutions, 501 Boylston Street, Suite 900, Boston, MA 02116
A Pearson Education Company
www.pearsoned.com
PEARSON
Contents
iii
iv Contents
8.4 Applications of Quadratic Forms 388 9.4 Eigenvectors in Complex Vector Spaces 417
Small Deformations 388 Complex Characteristic Roots of a Real
The Inertia Tensor 390 Matrix and a Real Canonical Form 418
The Case of a 2 x 2 Matrix 420
Chapter 9 Complex Vector Spaces 395 The Case of a 3 x 3 Matrix 422
9.5 Inner Products in Complex Vector Spaces 425
9.1 Complex Numbers 395 Properties of Complex Inner Products 426
The Arithmetic of Complex Numbers 395 The Cauchy-Schwarz and Triangle
The Complex Conjugate and Division 397 Inequalities 426
Roots of Polynomial Equations 398 Orthogonality in C" and Unitary Matrices 429
The Complex Plane 399
9.6 Hermitian Matrices and Unitary
Polar Form 399 Diagonalization 432
Powers and the Complex Exponential 402
n-th Roots 404 Appendix A Answers to Mid-Section
9.2 Systems with Complex Numbers 407 Exercises 439
Complex Numbers in Electrical Circuit
Equations 408
Appendix B Answers to Practice Problems
9.3 Vector Spaces over C 411
and Chapter Quizzes 465
Linear Mappings and Subspaces 413
Complex Multiplication as a Matrix
Mapping 415 Index 529
A Note to Students
vi
A Note to Students vii
Linear algebra and its applications are a subject of continuing research. Linear algebra
is vital to mathematics because it provides essential ideas and tools in areas as diverse
as abstract algebra, differential equations, calculus of functions of several variables,
differential geometry, functional analysis, and numerical analysis.
Engineers
Suppose you become a control engineer and have to design or upgrade an automatic
control system. T he system may be controlling a manufacturing process or perhaps
an airplane landing system. You will probably start with a linear model of the sys
tem, requiring linear algebra for its solution. To include feedback control, your system
must take account of many measurements (for the example of the airplane, position,
velocity, pitch, etc.), and it will have to assess this information very rapidly in order to
determine the correct control responses. A standard part of such a control system is a
Kalman-Bucy filter, which is not so much a piece of hardware as a piece of mathemat
ical machinery for doing the required calculations. Linear algebra is an essential part
of the Kalman-Bucy filter.
If you become a structural engineer or a mechanical engineer, you may be con
cerned with the problem of vibrations in structures or machinery. To understand the
problem, you will have to know about eigenvalues and eigenvectors and how they de
termine the normal modes of oscillation. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are some of the
central topics in linear algebra.
An electrical engineer will need linear algebra to analyze circuits and systems; a
civil engineer will need linear algebra to determine internal forces in static structures
and to understand principal axes of strain.
In addition to these fairly specific uses, engineers will also find that they need
to know linear algebra to understand systems of differential equations and some as
pects of the calculus of functions of two or more variables. Moreover, the ideas and
techniques of linear algebra are central to numerical techniques for solving problems
of heat and fluid flow, which are major concerns in mechanical engineering. And the
ideas of Jjnear algebra underjje advanced techniques such as Laplace transforms and
Fourier analysis.
Physicists
Linear algebra is important in physics, partly for the reasons described above. In addi
tion, it is essential in applications such as the inertia tensor in general rotating motion.
Linear algebra is an absolutely essential tool in quantum physics (where, for exam
ple, energy levels may be determined as eigenvalues of linear operators) and relativity
(where understanding change of coordinates is one of the central issues).
Input/output models, described by matrices, are often used in economics, and similar
ideas can be used in modelling populations where one needs to keep track of sub
populations (generations, for example, or genotypes). In all sciences, statistical anal
ysis of data is of great importance, and much of this analysis uses Jjnear algebra; for
example, the method of least squares (for regression) can be understood in terms of
projections in linear algebra.
viii A Note to Instructors
Managers
A manager in industry will have to make decisions about the best allocation of re
sources: enormous amounts of computer time around the world are devoted to linear
programming algorithms that solve such allocation problems. The same sorts of tech
niques used in these algorithms play a role in some areas of mine management. Linear
algebra is essential here as well.
A Note to Instructors
Welcome to the second edition of Introduction to Linear Algebra for Science and
Engineering. It has been a pleasure to revise Daniel Norman's first edition for a new
generation of students and teachers. Over the past several years, I have read many
articles and spoken to many colleagues and students about the difficulties faced by
teachers and learners of linear algebra. In particular, it is well known that students typ
ically find the computational problems easy but have great difficulty in understanding
the abstract concepts and the theory. Inspired by this research, I developed a pedagog
ical approach that addresses the most common problems encountered when teaching
and learning linear algebra. I hope that you will find this approach to teaching linear
algebra as successful as I have.
• Vectors in JR.11 are now always represented as column vectors and are denoted
with the normal vector symbol 1. Vectors in general vector spaces are still
denoted in boldface.
• Some material has been reorganized to allow students to see important con
cepts early and often, while also giving greater flexibility to instructors. For
example, the concepts of linear independence, spanning, and bases are now
introduced in Chapter 1 in JR.11, and students use these concepts in Chapters 2
and 3 so that they are very comfortable with them before being taught general
vector spaces.
A Note to Instructors ix
• The material on complex numbers has been collected and placed in Chapter 9,
at the end of the text. However, if one desires, it can be distributed throughout
the text appropriately.
• It prevents students from mistaking linear algebra as very easy and very com
putational early in the course and then becoming overwhelmed by abstract con
cepts and theories later.
One example of this approach is our treatment of the concepts of spanning and
linear independence. They are both introduced in Section 1.2 in JR.n, where they can be
motivated in a geometrical context. They are then used again for matrices in Section
3.1 and polynomials in Section 4.1, before they are finally extended to general vector
spaces in Section 4.2.
• Topics are ordered to give students a chance to work with concepts in a simpler
setting before using them in a much more involved or abstract setting. For ex
ample, before reaching the definition of a vector space in Section 4.2, students
will have seen the 10 vector space axioms and the concepts of linear indepen
dence and spanning for three different vector spaces, and they will have had
some experience in working with bases and dimensions. Thus, instead of be
ing bombarded with new concepts at the introduction of general vector spaces,
students will j ust be generalizing concepts with which they are already familiar.
x A Note to Instructors
Pedagogical Features
Since mathematics is best learned by doing, the following pedagogical elements are
included in the book.
• Practice problems are provided for students at the end of each section. See "A
Note on the Exercises and Problems" below.
• Examples, theorems, and definitions are called out in the margins for easy
reference.
Applications
One of the difficulties in any linear algebra course is that the applications of linear
algebra are not so immediate or so intuitively appealing as those of elementary cal
culus. Most convincing applications of linear algebra require a fairly lengthy buildup
of background that would be inappropriate in a linear algebra text. However, without
some of these applications, many students would find it difficult to remain motivated
to learn linear algebra. An additional difficulty is that the applications of linear alge
bra are so varied that there is very little agreement on which applications should be
covered.
In this text we briefly discuss a few applications to give students some easy sam
ples. Additional applications are provided on the Corripanion Website so that instruc
tors who wish to cover some of them can pick and choose at their leisure without
increasing the size (and hence the cost) of the book.
List of Applications
Computers
As explained in "A Note on the Exercises and Problems," which follows, some prob
lems in the book require access to appropriate computer software. Students should
realize that the theory of linear algebra does not apply only to matrices of small size
with integer entries. However, since there are many ideas to be learned in linear alge
bra, numerical methods are not discussed. Some numerical issues, such as accuracy
and efficiency, are addressed in notes and problems.
A Course Outline
The following table indicates the sections in each chapter that we consider to be "cen
tral material":
Supplements
We are pleased to offer a variety of excellent supplements to students and instructors
using the Second Edition.
T he new Student Solutions Manual (ISBN: 978-0-321-80762-5), prepared by
the author of the second edition, contains full solutions to the Practice Problems and
Chapter Quizzes. It is available to students at low cost.
MyMathLab® Online Course (access code required) delivers proven results
in helping individual students succeed. It provides engaging experiences that person
alize, stimulate, and measure learning for each student. And, it comes from a trusted
partner with educational expertise and an eye on the future. To learn more about how
A Note to Instructors xiii
• A Test Bank with a large selection of questions for every chapter of the text.
Pearson's technology specialists work with faculty and campus course designers to
ensure that Pearson technology products, assessment tools, and online course materi
als are tailored to meet your specific needs. This highly qualified team is dedicated to
helping schools take full advantage of a wide range of educational resources by assist
ing in the integration of a variety of instructional materials and media formats. Your
local Pearson Canada sales representative can provide you with more details about this
service program.
Acknowledgments
T hanks are expressed to:
Agnieszka Wolczuk: for her support, encouragement, help with editing, and tasty
snacks.
Mike La Croix: for all of the amazing figures in the text and for his assistance on
editing, formatting, and LaTeX'ing.
Stephen New, Martin Pei, Barbara Csima, Emilio Paredes: for proofreading and
their many valuable comments and suggestions.
Conrad Hewitt, Robert Andre, Uldis Celmins, C. T. Ng, and many other of my
colleagues who have taught me things about linear algebra and how to teach
it as well as providing many helpful suggestions for the text.
To all of the reviewers of the text, whose comments, corrections, and recommen
dations have resulted in many positive improvements:
xiv A Note to Instructors
Luigi Bilotto
Manuele Santoprete
Vanier College
Wilfrid Laurier University
Dietrich Burbulla
University of Toronto Alistair Savage
University of Ottawa
Dr. Alistair Carr
Monash University Denis Sevee
John Abbott College
Gerald Cliff
University of Alberta
Mark Solomonovich
Antoine Khalil Grant MacEwan University
CEGEP Vanier
Dr. Pamini Thangarajah
Hadi Kharaghani
Mount Royal University
University of Lethbridge
Institute of Technology
Murat Tuncali
Eduardo Martinez-Pedroza Nipissing University
McMaster University
Brian Wetton
Dorette Pronk
University of British Columbia
Dalhousie University
Dan Wolczuk
University of Waterloo
CHAPTER 1
Some of the material in this chapter will be familiar to many students, but some ideas
that are introduced here will be new to most. In this chapter we will look at operations
on and important concepts related to vectors. We will also look at some applications
of vectors in the familiar setting of Euclidean space. Most of these concepts will later
be extended to more general settings. A firm understanding of the material from this
chapter will help greatly in understanding the topics in the rest of this book.
p =(pi, p2)
P2 --- -
-- -- --
- -- ..
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0 Pi
Definition JR2 is the set of all vectors of the form [:�l where and
xi x2 are real numbers called
Remark
point P(p , p ). Graphically, this is often represented by drawing an arrow from (0, 0)
to (pi, p2),i 2
as shown in Figure 1.1.2. Note, however, that the points between (0, 0)
and (pi, p2)should not be thought of as points "on the vector." The representation of a
vector as an arrow is particularly common in physics; force and acceleration are vector
quantities that can conveniently be represented by an arrow of suitable magnitude and
direction.
0 = (0, 0)
Definition
Addition and Scalar
If 1 = [:� l [��l t JR,
y = and E then we define addition of vectors by
Multiplication in :12
X +y =
[Xi]+ [y'] [Xi Yl]
=
+
+
X2 Y2 X2 Y2
and the scalar multiplication of a vector by a factor oft, called a scalar, is defined by
tx = t [Xzxi]= [txtxi2]
The addition of two vectors is illustrated in Figure 1.1.3: construct a parallelogram
with vectors 1 and y as adjacent sides; then 1 + y is the vector corresponding to the
vertex of the parallelogram opposite to the origin. Observe that the components really
are added according to the definition. This is often called the "parallelogram rule for
addition."
Section 1.1 Vectors in JR2 and JR3 3
EXAMPLE I
(3, 4)
Let x = [-�] and y = [n Then (-2, 3)
0 X1
(1.S)J
X1
(-l)J
Figure 1.1.4 Scalar multiplication of the vector J.
4 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces
EXAMPLE2
Let a= [n [ �]
v=
-
.and w= [-�l Calculate a+ v, 3w, and 2V- w.
Solution: We get
a+v= [ i ] [ �] [!]
+
-
=
3w=3
-
[ �] [ � ]
= -
EXERCISE 1
Let a= [ � l [� ]
_ v= .and w = rn Calculate each of the following and illustrate with
a sketch.
will call the set {e1, e } the standard basis for IR.2. (We shall discuss the concept of
2
a basis fmther in Section 1.2.) The basis vectors e1 and e are important because any
2
vector v= [�� ] can be written as a sum of scalar multiples of e1 and e in exactly one
2
way:
Remark
In physics and engineering, it is common to use the notation i [�] and j = [�]
instead.
We will use the phrase linear combination to mean "sum of scalar multiples."
So, we have shown above that any vector x E IR.2 can be written as a unique linear
combination of the standard basis vectors.
One other vector in IR.2 deserves special mention: the zero vector, 0= [� ] .Some
important properties of the zero vector, which are easy to verify, are that for any
xEJR.2,
(1) 0 +x x =
(2) x + c-1)x = o
(3) Ox= 0
Section 1.1 Vectors in JR.2 and JR.3 5
This line is parallel to the line with equation xrJ. tEJR. because of the parallelogram
=
rule for addition. As shown in Figure 1.1.5, each point on the line through ff can be
obtained from a corresponding point on the line x = rJ by adding the vector ff. We
say that the line has been translated by ff. More generally, two lines are parallel if the
direction vector of one line is a non-zero multiple of the direction vector of the other
line.
X2
. line x = rJ+ ff
EXAMPLE3
A vector equation of the line through the point P(2, -3) with direction vector [ �]
-
is
6 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces
EXAMPLE4 Write the vector equation of a line through P(l, 2) parallel to the line with vector
equation
x= t [�] , tEIR
Solution: Since they are parallel, we can choose the same direction vector. Hence, the
vector equation of the line is
EXERCISE 2 Write the vector equation of a line through P(O, 0) parallel to the line with vector
equation
x = jJ + tJ becomes
{ X1 = Pl + td 1
t EIR
X2 = P2 + td2,
This is referred to as the parametric equation of the line. The familiar scalar form
of the equation of the line is obtained by eliminating the parameter t. Provided that
di* 0, d1 * 0,
X1 - Pl X2 - P2
--- -r- ---
di - - d1
or
d1
x2 = P2 + (xi - Pi)
di
What can you say about the line if d1 = 0 or d2 = O?
EXAMPLES Write the vector, parametric, and scalar equations of the line passing through the point
. .
So, the parametnc equat10n 1s
. { XI = 3 - St
tER
X2 = 4 + t,
The scalar equation is x2 = 4 - - !Cx1 3).
Section 1.1 Vectors in JR.2 and JR.3 7
r-if = fJ and t -
s= fJ for the same fJ
r-if=i'-s
EXAMPLE6 For points Q( l , 3 ) R(6,-l), S(-2,4), and T(3,0), we have that QR is equivalent to
,
ST because
S(-2,4)
8 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces
Remark
EXAMPLE 7 Find a vector equation of the line through P(l, 2) and Q(3, -1).
x=p+tPQ=[;]+t[_i]• tE�
Observe in the example above that we would have the same line if we started at the
second point and "moved" toward the first point--0r even if we took a direction vector
in the opposite direction. Thus, the same line is described by the vector equations
x=[_iJ+r[-�J. rE�
x=[_iJ+s[_iJ· sE�
x=[;]+t[-�], tE�
In fact, there are infinitely many descriptions of a line: we may choose any point on
the line, and we may use any non-zero multiple of the direction vector.
EXERCISE 3 Find a vector equation of the line through P(l, 1) and Q(-2, 2).
Section 1.1 Vectors in JR.2 and JR.3 9
It should be noted that we are adopting the convention that the coordinate axes
form a right-handed system. One way to visualize a right-handed system is to spread
out the thumb, index finger, and middle finger of your right hand. The thumb is
the x1 -axis, the index finger is the x2-axis, and the middle finger is the x3-axis. See
Figure 1.1.8.
2
We now define JR.3 to be the three-dimensional analog of JR. .
Definition
:l3
R3 is the set of all vectors of the form [�:l · where x1,x,, and x3 are ceal numbers.
Mathematically, we write
10 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces
Definition If 1 = [:n �n
jl and t E II., then we define addition of vectors by
[ l �l l l
Addition and Scalar
=
Multiplication in J.3
[
Xt Xt + Yt
x+y = X2 + Y2 = X2 + Y2
X3 3 X3 + Y3
[l l
and the scalar multiplication of a vector by a factor oft by
[
Xl tX1
tx = t x2 = tx2
X3 tX 3
Addition still follows the parallelogram rule. It may help you to visualize this
if you realize that two vectors in JR.
3 must lie within a plane in JR.3 so that the two
EXAMPLES
Let u = [ _i]. l-n
jl = and w
=
[H crucula� jl + U, -W, and -V + 2- W u.
Solution: We have
V +U
=
nHJ ni =
-w
-[�] {�]
l
=
-V + 2W-" =
-
- l 11+2 l�l-l J l =r m l :1 r-�l = + +
= =
Section 1.1 Vectors in JR.2 and JR.3 11
It is useful to introduce the standard basis for JR.3 just as we did for JR.2. Define
Remark
In physics and engineering, it is common to use the notation i = e1, j = e1, and k = e3
instead.
The zero vector 0 = [�] in R3 has the same properties as the zero vector in l!.2.
Directed line segments are the same in three-dimensional space as in the two
dimensional case.
A line through the point P in JR.3 (corresponding to a vector {J) with direction
vector J f. 0 can be described by a vector equation:
X = p + tJ, t E JR
It is important to realize that a line in JR.3 cannot be described by a single scalar linear
equation, as in JR.2. We shall see in Section 1.3 that such an equation describes a plane
in JR.3 .
EXAMPLE9 Find a vector equation of the line that passes through the points P(l, 5, -2) and
Q(4,-1,3).
line is
EXERCISE4 Find a vector equation of the line that passes through the points P(l, 2, 2) and
Q(l,-2,3).
12 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces
PROBLEMS 1.1
Practice Problems
Al Compute each of the following linear combinations A6 Consider the points P(2,3,1), Q(3,1,-2),
and illustrate with a sketch. R(l,4,0), S(-5,1,5). Determine PQ, PR, PS,QR,
(a)[�]+[�] and SR, and verify that PQ+QR= PR= PS+ SR.
A 7 Write a vector equation of the line passing through
(c)3 [- �] the given points with the given direction vector.
A2 Compute each of the following linear combina-
(a) P(3,4),J= [-�]
tions. (b) P(2,3),J = [=:J
(a)[-�]+[-�]
(c)-2 [ _;J (c) P(2,0,5),J= [-�]-11
(e) 23 [31] - 2 [11//43)
A3 Compute each of the following linear combina-
tions. AS
(d) P(4,1,5),J =
[ - r1
Write a vector equation for the line that passes
[!]-[J
(a) through the given points.
(a) P(-1,2),Q(2,-3)
(b) P(4,1),Q(-2,-1)
(c) P(l,3,-5),Q(-2,1,0)
(d) P(-2,1,1),Q(4,2,2)
(e) P(!,t,1),Q(-l,l,�)
A9 For each of the following lines in JR. , determine a
2
vector equation and parametric equations.
(a) x2= 3x1 +2
A4 Ul Hl
Ut V = and W= Detenillne (b) 2x1 +3x2 = 5
AJO (a) Aset of points in IR.11 is collinear if all the points
(a) 2v- 3w lie on the same line. By considering directed
Cb) -3Cv +2w) +5v line segments, give a general method for deter
(c) a such that w- 2a = 3v mining whether a given set of three points is
(d) a such that a - 3v = 2a collinear.
(b) Determine whether the points P(l,2), QC4,1),
AS Ut V = m rn
and W = = Detennine and R(-5,4) are collinear. Show how you
decide.
(a) �v + !w (c) Determine whether the points S(1,0,1),
T(3,-2,3), and U(-3,4,-1) are collinear.
Cb) 2c v + w)- c2v - 3w)
(c) a such that w- a = 2V Show how you decide.
(d) a such that !a + �v = w
Section 1.1 Exercises 13
Homework Problems
B 1 Compute each of the following linear combinations B6 (a) Consider the points P(l,4,1), Q(4,3,-1),
[-�]- [�]
R(-1,4,2), and S(8,6,-5). Determine PQ,
[-�] + r-�]
and illustrate with a sketch.
(a) (b)
PR, PS, QR, and SR, and verify that PQ+QR=
PR= PS +SR.
(c) -3 [-�] (d) -3 [�]- [;] (b) Consider the points P(3,-2,1), Q(2, 7, -3),
R(3,1,5), and S(-2,4,-1). Determine PQ,
PK,
;1...,.
PS,
-+
QR,
-+
and SR, and verify that P Q+QR=
-+ -+
-t
2 [ =�J H [1 �] - ?a[�]
the given points with the given direction vector.
<{�]-[-�]
tions.
(c) P(2,3,-1), J=
P(3,1,2),J= [-�]
[=�l
(d)
(c) 4
BS Write a vector equation for the line that passes
f;�l Hl
through the given points.
+
l
(e) (a) P(3,1), Q(l,2)
[ 4J [-�1
(b) P(l,-2,1), Q(O, 0, 0)
1- (c) P(2,-6,3), Q(-1,5,2)
(f) (1 +�) 0 i (d) P(l,-1,i), Q(i, t. 1)
� -i 2
JR2, determine
{ � l {n
B9 For each of the following lines in a
_
(a) 2v- 3w BlO (You will need the solution from Problem AlO (a)
(b) -2(v- w) - 3w to answer this.)
(c)
(d) +
i1 such that w - 2i1 3v
i1 such that 2i1 3w= v
=
(a) Determine whether the points P(2,1,1),
[ �] -H
Q(l,2, 3), and R(4,-1,-3) are collinear. Show
[
how you decide.
BS Ut V = - and W= Deterrlline (b) Determine whether the points S(1,1, 0),
T(6,2, 1), and U(-4, 0,-1) are collinear. Show
(a) 3v- 2w how you decide.
(b) -iv+ �w
(c) i1 such that v+i1= v
(d) i1 such that 2i1 - w= 2v
14 Chapter 1 Euclidean Vector Spaces
Computer Problems
[=�u [ �:1
-36
Cl Let V, = V2 � - , and
v, =
[=m
Use computer software to evaluate each of the fol
lowing.
(a) 171!1 + sv2 - 3v3 + 42v4
(b) -1440i11 - 2341i12 - 919i13 + 6691/4
Conceptual Problems
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