CHAPTER 1: COMPUTER NETWORKS AND THE INTERNET

Introduction:
Today’s Internet is arguably the largest engineered system ever created by mankind, with
hundreds of millions of connected computers, communication links, and switches; with
billions of users who connect via laptops, tablets, and smartphones; and with an array of new
Internet-connected devices such as sensors, Web cams, game consoles, picture frames, and
even washing machines. Given that the Internet is so large and has so many diverse
components and uses.

What is Internet?
There are a couple of ways to answer this question. First, we can describe the nuts and bolts
of the Internet, that is, the basic hardware and software components that make up the
Internet. Second, we can describe the Internet in terms of a net- working infrastructure that
provides services to distributed applications.

A Nuts-and-Bolts Description (Infrastructure based Internet)

 The Internet connects billions of computing devices worldwide, including traditional

computers, smartphones, and various non-traditional devices.
 The term "hosts" or "end systems" refers to all connected devices. Each End systems
are interconnected by a network of communication links and packet switches.

 Packet switches, such as routers and link layer switches, forward packets to their
destinations.
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 The sequence of links and switches a packet traverses is called a route or path
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through the network.

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

  Packet switched networks are compared to transportation networks, with packets
analogous to trucks and communication links to highways and roads.
 End systems access the Internet through various types of Internet Service Providers
(ISPs), including residential, corporate, university, WiFi, and cellular data ISPs.
 ISPs connect to content providers, and lower tier ISPs are interconnected through
national and international upper tier ISPs.
 Internet protocols, such as TCP and IP, govern data transmission within the Internet,
collectively known as TCP/IP. Internet standards, developed by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) and documented as requests for comments
(RFCs), ensure interoperability.
 There are nearly 9000 RFCs defining various Internet protocols, and other bodies
specify standards for network components, such as the IEEE 802 LAN Standards
Committee for Ethernet and WiFi.

A Services Description (Service based Internet)

 The Internet can be viewed as an infrastructure that serves applications.

 Internet applications include various services like messaging, mapping, streaming,
social media, etc.
 Internet applications are distributed and run on end systems, not within packet
switches.
 To create an Internet application, you need to write programs for end systems.
 End systems use a socket interface to instruct the Internet to deliver data to other end
systems. It has rules that must be followed.

A socket interface that specifies how a program running on one end system asks the Internet
infrastructure to deliver data to a specific destination program running on another end system.

A protocol defines the format and the order of messages exchanged between two or more
communicating entities, as well as the actions taken on the transmission and/or receipt of a
message or other event.

What is a Protocol?

Let’s consider another important buzzword in computer networking: protocol.

What is a protocol? What does a protocol do
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A Human Analogy
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Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

It is probably easiest to understand the notion of a computer network protocol by first
considering some human analogies, since we humans execute protocols all of the time.
Consider what you do when you want to ask someone for the time of day. A typical exchange
is shown in Figure 1.2. Human protocol dictates that one first offer a greeting “Hi” to initiate
communication with someone else. The typical response to a “Hi” is a returned “Hi”
message. Implicitly, one then takes a cordial “Hi” response as an indication that one can
proceed and ask for the time of day. A different response to the initial “Hi” might indicate an
unwillingness or inability to communicate. In this case, the human protocol would be not to
ask for the time of day. Sometimes one gets no response at all to a question, in which case
one typically gives up asking that per- son for the time. Note that in our human protocol,
there are specific messages we send, and specific actions we take in response to the received
reply messages or other events (such as no reply within some given amount of time). Clearly,
trans- mitted and received messages, and actions taken when these messages are sent or
received or other events occur, play a central role in a human protocol. If people run different
protocols (for example, if one person has manners but the other does not, or if one
understands the concept of time and the other does not) the protocols do not interoperate and
no useful work can be accomplished. The same is true in networking—it takes two
communicating entities running the same protocol in order to accomplish a task.

Network Protocols
A network protocol is similar to a human protocol, except that the entities exchanging
messages and taking actions are hardware or software components of some device (for
example, computer, smartphone, tablet, router, or other network-capable device). All activity
in the Internet that involves two or more communicating remote entities is governed by a
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protocol. For example, hardware-implemented protocols in two physically connected

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computers control the flow of bits on the “wire” between the two network interface cards;
congestion-control protocols in end systems control the rate at which packets are transmitted

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

between sender and receiver; protocols in routers determine a packet’s path from source to
destination. Protocols are running everywhere in the Internet. As an example of a computer
network protocol with which you are probably familiar, consider what happens when you
make a request to a Web server, that is, when you type the URL of a Web page into your
Web browser. The scenario is illustrated in the right half of Figure 1.2. First, your computer
will send a connection request message to the Web server and wait for a reply. The Web
server will eventually receive your connection request message and return a connection reply
message. Knowing that it is now OK to request the Web document, your computer then sends
the name of the Web page it wants to fetch from that Web server in a GET message. Finally,
the Web server returns the Web page (file) to your computer. Given the human and
networking examples above, the exchange of messages and the actions taken when these
messages are sent and received are the key defining elements of a protocol:

The Network Edge

 End systems, which include computers, smartphones, and other devices, are found at
the network edge.
 End systems are also known as hosts and run application programs.
 Hosts can be divided into clients (e.g., desktops, laptops, and smartphones) and
servers (more powerful machines).
 Servers store and distribute content, often in large data centres.
 Large companies like Google have multiple data centres worldwide with millions of
servers.

Access Networks

Having considered the applications and

end systems at the “edge of the
network,” let’s next consider the access
network—the network that physically
connects an end system to the first
router on a path from the end system to
any other distant end system.

Figure 1.4 shows several types of access

networks with thick, shaded lines, and
the settings (home, enterprise, and wide-
area mobile wireless) in which they are
used.
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They are the networks that physically

connect end systems to the first router on a path from the end system to any other distant end
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system. Examples: mobile network, national or global ISP, local or regional ISP, home networks
enterprise networks.

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

Home Access: DSL, Cable, FITH, Dial-Up and Satellite

Today, the two most prevalent types of broadband residential access are digital subscriber
line (DSL) and cable.

A residence typically obtains DSL access from the telephone company (telco) that provides
its wired local phone access. The customer's telco is therefore its ISP. DSL modem use the
existing telephone lines to exchange data with DSLAMs (digital subscriber line access
multiplexer) located in the telco local central office. The DSL modem takes digital data and
translates it to high-frequency tones for transmission over telephone wires, these analog
signals from many houses are translated back into digital format at the DSLAM. The use of
different frequencies allows the phone line to carry a high-speed downstream channel, a
medium-speed upstream channel and an ordinary two-way telephone channel. Hundreds or
even thousands of households connect to a single DSLAM.

DSL: 24 Mbps downstream and 2.5 Mbps upstream (MAX VALUES). Because of the
difference between these two values, the access is said to be asymmetric.

Cable Internet access makes use of the cable television company's existing cable television
infrastructure. Cable modems connect to CMTS (Cablem Modem Termination System)
which does the same job the DSLAM does for phone lines. The access is typically
asymmetric. CABLE: 42.8 Mbps downstream and 30.7 Mbps upstream (MAX VALUES).
Cable Internet access is a shared broadcast medium: each packet travels downstream on every
link to every home and viceversa. For this, if several users are simultaneously using the
downstream channel, the actual rate will be significantly lower.

Another up-and-coming technology that promises very high speeds is fiber to the home
(FTTH). The concept is simple: provide an optical fiber path from the Central Office (CO)

Access in the Enterprise and the Home: Ethernet and WiFi

On corporate and university campuses, and increasingly in home settings, a Local Area
Network (LAN) is used to connect an end system to the edge router. Ethernet is by far the
most prevalent access technology is corporate, university and home networks. Ethernet uses
twisted-pair copper wire to connect to an Ethernet switch which is connected into the larger
Internet. The Internet is increasingly accessed wirelessly: wireless users transmit/receive
packets to/from an access point connected into the enterprise's network which in turn is
connected to the wired Internet.

Wide-Area Wireless Access: 3G and LTE

Smartphones and Tablets employ the same wireless infrastructure used for cellular telephony
to send/receive packets through a base station operated by the cellular network provider.
Third generation (3G) wireless and fourth generation (4G) of wide-area network are being
deployed. LTE ("Long-Term Evolution") has its root in 3G and can potentially achieve rates
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in excess of 10 Mbps.
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Physical Media

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

A bit, when traveling from source to destination, passes through a series of transmitter-
receiver pairs, for each pair, the bit is sent by propagating electromagnetic waves or optical
pulses across a physical medium. This can take many shapes and forms and doesn't have to
be of the same type for each transmitter-receiver pair along the path. Physical media fall into
two categories:

 guided media: the waves are guided along a solid medium (fiber-optic cable, twisted-
pair copper wire, coaxial cable)
 unguided media: the waves propagate in the atmosphere and in outer space (wireless
LAN, digital satellite channel)

The Network Core

Packet Switching

In a network application, end systems exchange messages with each other. To send a
message from a source end system to a destination end system, the source breaks long
messages into smaller chunks of data known as packets. Between source and destination,
each packet travels through communication links and packet switches (for which there are
two predominant types, routers and link-layer switches). Packets are transmitted over each
communication link at a rate equal to the full transmission rate of the link. So, if a source end
system or a packet switch is send a packet of L bits over a link with transmission rate R
bits/sec, then the time to transmit the packet is L/R seconds.

Store-and-forward Transmission

Most packet switches use store-and-forward transmission at the inputs to the links. Store-
and-forward transmission means that the packet switch must receive the entire packet before
it can begin to transmit the first bit of the packet onto the outbound link. The link must buffer
("store") the packet's bits and only after the router has received all of the packet's bits can it
begin to transmit ("forward") the packet onto the outbound link.

Queuing Delays and Packet Loss

Each packet switch has multiple links attached to it. For each attached link, the packet switch
has an output buffer (or output queue) which stores packets that the router is about to send
into that link. If an arriving packet needs to be transmitted onto a link but finds the link busy
with the transmission of another packet, the arriving packet must wait in the output buffer.
Thus, packets suffer output buffer queuing delays which are variable and depend on the level
of congestion in the network. Since the amount of buffer space is finite, an arriving packet
may find the buffer completely full. In this case, packet loss will occur, either the arriving
packet or one of the already queued packets will be dropped.

Forwarding tables and routing protocols

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In the Internet, every end system has an address called an IP address. When a source end
system wants to send a packet to a destination end system, the source includes the

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

destination's IP address in the packet's header. Each router has a forwarding table that maps
destination addresses (or portions of the destination addresses) to that router's outbound links.
When a packet arrives at the router, the router examines the address and searches its
forwarding table, using this destination address, to find the appropriate outbound link. A
number of special routing protocols are used to automatically set the forwarding tables.

Circuit Switching

In circuit-switched networks, the resources needed along a path(buffers, link transmission

rate) to provide for communication between the end systems are reserved for the duration of
the communication sessions. When two hosts want to communicate, the network establishes a
dedicated end-to-end connection between them.

Multiplexing in Circuit-Switched Networks

A circuit in a link is implemented with either frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) or

time-division multiplexing (TDM). With FDM, the frequency spectrum of a link is divided
up among the connections established across the link. The width of the band is called the
bandwidth. For a TDM link, time is divided into frames of fixed duration, and each frame is
divided into a fixed number of time slots.

Packet Switching Versus Circuit Switching

Packet switching is more flexible, uses resources efficiently and is simpler to implement
(even if it requires congestion control). Circuit switching offers performance guarantees but
uses resources inefficiently

A Network of Networks

To create the Internet, ISPs must be interconnected, thus creating a network of networks.
Much of the evolution of the structure of the Internet is driven by economics and national
policy, rather than by performance consideration.

Today's Internet is complex, consisting of a dozen or so tier-1 ISPs and hundreds of

thousands of lower-tier ISPs. The ISPs are diverse in their coverage, with some spanning
multiple continents and oceans, and others limited to narrow geographic regions. The lower-
tier ISPs connect to the higher-tier ISPs and the higher-tier ISPs interconnect with one
another. Users and content providers are customers of lower-tier ISPs and lower-tier ISPs are
customers of higher-tier ISPs. Recently, major content providers (Google) have also created
their own networks and connect directly into lower-tier ISPs where possible.
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Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

Delay, Loss and Throughput in Packet-Switched Networks

Computer networks necessarily constrain throughput (the amount of data per second that
can be transferred) between end system, introduce delays between end systems and can
actually lose packets.

Overview of Delay in Packet-Switched networks

As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to the subsequent host along his path, it
suffers from several types of delays at each node along the path.

Types of Delay

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Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

Processing Delay

The processing delay consists of the time required to examine the packet's header and
determine where to direct the packet. It may also include other factors, such as the time
needed to check for bit-level errors occurred during transmission. They typically are of the
order of microseconds or less. After processing the packet is sent to the queue preceding the
link to the next router

Queuing Delay

At the queue, the packet experiences a queuing delay as it waits to be transmitted onto the
link. It depends on the number of earlier-arriving packets, therefore if the queue is empty,
then the packet's queuing delay will be 0. Typically of the order of microseconds or
milliseconds.

Transmission delays

If the length of the packet is L bits, and the transmission rate of the link is R bits/sec, then
the transmission delay is L/R. This is the amount of time required to push (transmit) all of
the packet's bits into the link. Typically on the order of microseconds to milliseconds.

Propagation Delay

The time required to propagate a bit from the beginning of the link to the next router is the
propagation delay. The bit propagates at the propagation speed of the link, which depends
on the physical medium of the link. The propagation delay is the distance between two
routers divided by the propagation speed of the link.

Total nodal delay:it is the summation of the previous delays

Queuing Delay and Packet Loss

The queuing delay depends can vary from packet to packet, therefore when characterizing
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queuing delay, one typically uses statistical measures, such as average queuing delay,
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variance of queuing delay, and the probability that the queuing delay exceeds some specified
value.

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

Packet Loss

A queue preceding a link has finite capacity. If a packet finds a full queue, then the router
will drop it, the packet will be lost. The fraction of lost packets increases as the traffic
intensity increases.

End-to-End Delay

Let's now consider the total delay, from source to destination (not only the nodal delay).
Let's suppose there are N-1 routers between the source host and the destination host, then the
nodal delays accumulate and give an end-to-end delay:

d(end_end) = N * [d(proc) + d(queue) + d(trans) + d(prop)]

Throughput in Computer Networks

Another critical performance measure in computer networks is end-to-end throughput. The

instantaneous throughput at any instant of time is the rate (in bits/sec) at which host B is
receiving a file. If the file consists of F bits and the transfer’s takes T seconds to transfer the
whole file, then the average throughput of the file is F/T bits/sec. For a simple two-link
network, the throughput is the min of all the throughputs that is the transmission rate of the
bottleneck link. Therefore, the constraining factor for throughput in today's Internet is
typically the access network.

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Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

 Classification of Computer Networks

Based on Transmission Mode

Transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There
are three types of transmission modes

Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Among the stations only
one can transmit and the other can only receive.
Half-Duplex: In half-Duplex mode, the communication is bidirectional. In this both station
can sent and receive but not at the same time.
Full-Duplex: In Full-Duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

Based on Geographical location

Local Area Networks (LAN)
LAN is a small high speed network. In LAN few numbers of systems are interconnected with
networking device to create network. As the distance increases between the nodes or system
it speed decreases. So it is limed to few meters only. Networks which cover close
geographical area. LAN used to link the devices in a single office, building or campus. It
provides high speeds over short distance. Systems are connecting directly to Network. The
LAN is owned by private people.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is collection of network (or LAN). This network speed is less than the LAN network
speed.WAN network connect systems indirectly. WAN spread over the world may be spread
over more than one city country or continent. Systems in this network are connected
indirectly. Generally WAN network are slower speed than LAN’s. The WAN network are
owned or operated by network providers. If it is owned by a single owner then it is called
Enterprise network. Often these types have combination of more than one topology.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Metropolitan area network is an extension of local area network to spread over the city. It
may be a single network or a network in which more than one local area network can share
their resources.
Based on Reliability
Reliability is maintained by authentication.
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Connection-oriented: This type of communication establishes a session connection before

data can be sent. This method is often called a "reliable" network service. It can guarantee
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that data will arrive in the same order.

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

Connection less: This type of communication does not require a session connection between
sender and receiver for data transfer. The sender simply starts sending packets to the
destination. A connectionless network provides minimal services
Topology
Topology refers to physical layout including computers, cables, and other resources; it
determines how components communicate with each other.
Today’s network designs are based on three topologies:
 Bus consists of series of computers connected along a single cable segment
 Star connects computers via central connection point or hub
 Ring connects computers to form a loop
All computers, regardless of topology, communicate by addressing data to one or more
computers and transmitting it across cable as electronic signals. Data is broken into packets
and sent as electronic signals that travel on the cable. Only the computer to which the data is
addressed accepts it.

Reference models
Reference models in computer networks are conceptual frameworks that provide a structured
approach to understanding and designing network architectures. They help network engineers
and developers organize and standardize network functions, protocols, and services. Here's a
brief overview of two widely used reference models:
1. OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model:
- Developed by ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
- 7 layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, Application
- Helps in designing, implementing, and troubleshooting computer networks
2. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Reference Model:
- Developed by DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency)
- 5 layers: Physical, Network Access, Internet, Transport, Application
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- Basis for the modern Internet architecture

These reference models enable communication between different network devices and
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systems, ensuring interoperability and facilitating network growth and evolution.

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

OSI Reference Model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference model is a conceptual framework used to
understand and implement standard protocols in different layers of a network. It divides
network communication into seven distinct layers, each with specific functions and protocols.
The OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
and helps ensure interoperability and standardization in network communications.
Here is an overview of the seven layers:

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THE PHYSICAL LAYER

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

The Physical Layer (Layer 1) is the foundation of the OSI model. It defines the physical
means of transmitting data between devices. It deals with the physical connection between
devices, including the transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical medium
(e.g., cables, radio waves).
Functions of Physical Layer
1. Bit-level transmission: Transmits raw bits over physical media.
2. Physical connectivity: Establishes and maintains physical connections.
3. Signal encoding: Converts digital signals into analog signals (and vice versa).
Physical Media:
1. Copper cables (twisted pair, coaxial)
2. Fiber optic cables
3. Wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, etc.)
4. Satellite
Devices at Physical Layer
1. Network Interface Cards (NICs)
2. Hubs
3. Repeaters
4. Modems
Protocols in Physical Layer
1. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
2. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
3. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
Key Concepts of Physical Layer are:
1. Bandwidth: Data transfer rate (bps, Mbps, Gbps)
2. Bit error rate: Errors during transmission
3. Signal attenuation: Signal degradation over distance
The Physical Layer provides the basic connectivity for data transmission, ensuring that bits
are transmitted reliably over physical media. It's the foundation for all higher-layer
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communications!
DATA LINK LAYER
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Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) is responsible for error-free transfer of data frames between
nodes on the same network. Here are some key aspects:
Data link layer Functions:
1. Framing: Divides data into frames with headers and trailers.
2. Error detection and correction: Ensures accurate data transfer using checksums and
acknowledgments.
3. Flow control: Regulates data transfer rates to prevent congestion.
4. Medium Access Control (MAC): Manages access to shared media, like Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
Data link layer Protocols:
1. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
2. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
3. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
4. HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)
Devices at Data link layer
1. Switches
2. Bridges
3. Network Interface Cards (NICs)
Data link layer Key Concepts:
1. MAC addresses: Unique identifiers for devices (48-bit or 64-bit)
2. Frame formatting: Header, payload, and trailer structure
3. Error detection methods: CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check), checksums
4. Flow control methods: Stop-and-wait, sliding window
The Data Link Layer ensures reliable data transfer between nodes on the same network,
providing error detection and correction mechanisms. It's essential for building a robust
network infrastructure!
MAC sub layer
The MAC (Media Access Control) sublayer is a part of the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) in the
OSI model. It's responsible for managing access to the physical medium, like Ethernet or Wi-
Fi. Here are some key aspects:
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Functions:
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1. Addressing: Uses MAC addresses to identify devices.

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

2. Frame formatting: Adds headers and trailers to frames.
3. Error detection: Uses checksums or CRC for error detection.
4. Access control: Manages access to shared media using protocols like CSMA/CD or
CSMA/CA.
Protocols:
1. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
2. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
3. Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
Key Concepts:
1. MAC addresses: 48-bit or 64-bit unique identifiers for devices.
2. MAC frame format: Header, payload, and trailer structure.
3. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection): Used in Ethernet.
4. CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance): Used in Wi-Fi.
The MAC sublayer ensures that devices can share the same physical medium efficiently and
reliably, managing access and detecting errors. It's a crucial part of the Data Link Layer!
NETWORK LAYER
The Network Layer (Layer 3) is responsible for routing data between networks, ensuring that
data is delivered to the correct destination.
Network layer Functions:
1. Routing: Determines the best path for data to travel between networks.
2. Addressing: Uses logical addresses (IP addresses) to identify devices.
3. Congestion control: Manages data flow to prevent network congestion.
4. Fragmentation: Breaks data into smaller packets for transmission.
Network layer Protocols:
1. IP (Internet Protocol): The primary protocol for routing data.
2. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for error reporting and diagnostics.
3. IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol): Used for multicast group management.
4. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): A routing protocol for intra-domain routing.
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5. BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): A routing protocol for inter-domain routing.

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Network layer Key Concepts:

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

1. IP addresses: 32-bit (IPv4) or 128-bit (IPv6) logical addresses.
2. Subnetting: Dividing IP addresses into smaller subnetworks.
3. Routing tables: Used to store routing information.
4. Network address translation (NAT): Translates private IP addresses to public IP addresses.
The Network Layer is responsible for routing data between networks, ensuring that data
reaches its destination. It's a critical layer for building scalable and efficient networks!
TRANSPORT LAYER
The Transport Layer (Layer 4) is responsible for providing reliable data transfer between
devices, ensuring that data is delivered in the correct order and without errors.
Functions:
1. Segmentation: Breaks data into smaller segments for transmission.
2. Connection establishment: Establishes, maintains, and terminates connections.
3. Reliable data transfer: Ensures data is delivered without errors or duplication.
4. Flow control: Regulates data transfer rates to prevent congestion.
5. Multiplexing: Allows multiple applications to share the same connection.
Protocols:
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Connection-oriented, reliable protocol.
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Connectionless, best-effort protocol.
3. SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol): Connection-oriented, reliable protocol.
Key Concepts:
1. Port numbers: Used to identify applications and services.
2. Socket programming: Used to establish and manage connections.
3. TCP/IP suite: TCP and IP protocols work together to ensure reliable data transfer.
4. Connection establishment: Three-way handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK) for TCP
connections.
5. Error detection and correction: Checksums, acknowledgments, and retransmissions.
The Transport Layer ensures reliable data transfer between devices, providing error detection
and correction mechanisms. It's essential for building robust and efficient networks!
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SESSION LAYER
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Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

The Session Layer (Layer 5) is responsible for establishing, managing, and terminating
connections between applications running on different devices.
Functions:
1. Session establishment: Establishes a dialogue between applications.
2. Session maintenance: Manages the session, including synchronization and recovery.
3. Session termination: Terminates the session when finished.
Protocols:
1. NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System)
2. SSH (Secure Shell)
3. TLS (Transport Layer Security)
Key Concepts:
1. Session IDs: Unique identifiers for sessions.
2. Dialog control: Manages the dialogue between applications.
3. Synchronization: Ensures data consistency during session.
4. Recovery: Handles errors and exceptions during session.
The Session Layer enables applications to communicate with each other, establishing and
managing sessions for efficient data exchange. It's essential for building robust and reliable
network applications!
Some examples of Session Layer protocols in action:
- SSH (Secure Shell) sessions for secure remote access
- NetBIOS sessions for Windows file sharing
- TLS (Transport Layer Security) sessions for secure web browsing (HTTPS)
PRESENTATION LAYER
The Presentation Layer (Layer 6) is responsible for converting data into a format that can be
understood by the receiving device.
Functions:
1. Data compression: Compresses data to reduce transmission size.
2. Data encryption: Encrypts data for secure transmission.
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3. Data formatting: Formats data into a compatible format.

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4. Data translation: Translates data from one format to another.

Protocols:

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

1. SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)
2. TLS (Transport Layer Security)
3. MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
4. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
Key Concepts:
1. Data encoding: Converts data into a transmittable format.
2. Data decoding: Converts received data back into its original format.
3. Compression algorithms: Reduce data size for efficient transmission.
4. Encryption algorithms: Secure data transmission with encryption.
The Presentation Layer ensures that data is presented in a format that can be understood by
the receiving device, enabling efficient and secure data exchange.
Examples of Presentation Layer protocols in action:
- SSL/TLS for secure web browsing (HTTPS)
- MIME for email attachments
- JPEG for image compression
APPLICATION LAYER
The Application Layer (Layer 7) is the topmost layer of the OSI model, providing services
and interfaces for applications to communicate with each other.
Functions:
1. Identifying communication partners: Determines the identity of communicating
applications.
2. Determining resource availability: Ensures resources are available for communication.
3. Synchronizing communication: Establishes a synchronized communication session.
Protocols:
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
4. DNS (Domain Name System)
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5. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

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Key Concepts:

Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu

1. Application services: Provides services like email, file transfer, and web browsing.
2. APIs (Application Programming Interfaces): Enables applications to communicate with
each other.
3. Application protocols: Defines the rules for application communication.
The Application Layer enables applications to communicate with each other, providing
services and interfaces for efficient data exchange.
Examples of Application Layer protocols in action:
- HTTP for web browsing
- FTP for file transfer
- SMTP for email
- DNS for domain name resolution
This is the final layer of the OSI model!

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Computer Networks (3rd B.Tech (CSE) Sem-I-BSec) Dr. N. Ramesh Babu