SCI 401

General Chemistry

Amando, Alyssa M.

Banila, Elisha Hariette G.

Ciabal, Quisha Mei R.

Delgado, Claire L.

Magtibay, Dave J.

Batangas State University

September 30, 2024

Introduction

Chemistry is a physical science that describes all matter and deals with the composition,

properties, and the changes it undergoes. Driven by curiosity, a series of laws and theories about

an atom’s properties have been formulated even within the smallest and unseen objects, revealing

the essence of everything. Thus, this field of study supports the role of science in its contribution

to one’s everyday activities.

Stoichiometric Calculation

Stoichiometry, derived from the Greek words stoicheion meaning “element” and metron

meaning “measure,” is a section of chemistry that involves the relationship between the reactants

and products to determine the desired quantitative data. A balanced chemical equation and the

law of conservation of mass helps in predicting the amount of product in a chemical reaction

through the amount of reactants. The reaction is responsible for ensuring that the number and

types of atoms must start and end with the same amount. In line with this, stoichiometric

calculation is done through knowing the known values, writing the balanced equation,

performing a series of conversion of grams of known values to moles, and calculating the

unknown.

In a stoichiometric calculation, mass relationships play a significant role. It is the process

of converting the mass of the given substance to the number of moles using its molar mass, using

the mole ratio derived from the coefficients of the involved substances in a balanced equation,

and converting the moles of the sought substance into mass through its molar mass. Additionally,

if the reaction starts to involve a given amount of two reactants, a reactant is considered to be the

limiting reactant if it is consumed completely in the reaction. On the other hand, the excess
reactant is the unreacted amount after the reaction. The theoretical yield is also obtained based on

the amount of the limiting reagent and the percent yield is the ratio (in percent) between the

actual and theoretical yield.

Figure 1. Analogy for limiting and excess reactants. The slices of bread limit the number of

sandwiches that can be formed.

Though it may be abstract and invisible to the naked eye, the construction of the different

products we use in real life are formed through various chemical processes involving

stoichiometric calculation. Without stoichiometry, the chemical industry will be destructive,

inefficient, and harmful, making it incapable to exist. Everything our senses could and could not

perceive are made up of chemicals. All matter, including us, is composed of chemicals and all

chemical reactions can be balanced and calculated. Stoichiometry can provide quantifiable

solutions to our real world problems and can even save lives. For instance, an airbag, made up of

sodium azide (NaN3), potassium nitrate (KNO3), and silicon dioxide (SiO2) inflates as a result of

the formation of nitrogen gas (N2) from a series of chemical reactions. Three substances—NaN3,

KNO3, and SiO2—must have the correct ratio for the system to work properly and fast,

maximizing the formation of N2. Each of the three chemicals’ amount should be calculated based

on the amount and pressure of the N2 to inflate and deploy the airbag accurately.
 Generally, these calculations are being used practically, remaining unnoticed. Applying

stoichiometry is fundamental as it broadens one’s ability to determine what will occur in a

reaction and the amount that is being produced. As it encompasses different fields of discipline

such as the involvement of experiments, energy production, medicine, and environmental

science, people fail to consider the advantages and support that stoichiometric calculation brings,

promoting conciseness and balance in every measurement where a single point or number of

molecules gives a relatively large difference. These applications emphasize the necessity of

being associated with stoichiometry in people’s lives and one could only understand its relevance

by seeing the bigger picture about how all of these notions fit together.

Consider the production of aluminum oxide as the aluminum metal reacts with oxygen in

the air, preventing the corrosion of aluminum in cookwares.

4 𝐴𝑙 + 3𝑂2 → 2 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3

If 27.0 grams of Al (MM = 26.982 g/mol) and 27.0 grams of O2 (MM = 32.0 g/mol) are

used in the reaction, which is the limiting and the excess reagent? What is the theoretical yield of

the reaction? The molar mass of Al2O3 is 101.964 g/mol.

There are two approaches by which the limiting and the excess reagents may be

identified. The first approach examines the amount of reactants available for the reaction and

initially assumes one substance as the limiting reagent. For the given reaction, the amount of O2

needed to completely react with 27.0 g of Al is calculated, assuming that Al is the limiting

reagent.

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 32.0 𝑔 𝑂2

mass O2 needed = 27.0 g Al × 26.982 𝑔 𝐴𝑙
× 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙
× 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
= 24.0 g
 Based on the result, Al is the limiting reagent because its complete consumption will

require less (24.0 g) than the given amount (27.0 g) of O2.

If O2 is initially assumed as the limiting reagent, the amount of Al needed to completely

consume the 27.0 g of O2 is calculated below:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙 26.982 𝑔 𝐴𝑙

amount Al needed = 27.0 g O2 × 32.0 𝑔 𝑂2
× 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
× 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙
= 30.4 g

Consistent with the result of the first assumption, Al is the limiting reagent. If all 27.0 g

Al is used up, only 24.0 g of the original 27.0 g O2 is consumed; an excess of 3.0 g is left after

the reaction.

The reaction yield for Al2O3 can now be calculated based on the amount of Al, the

limiting reagent.

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3 101.964 𝑔 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3

amount Al2O3 produced = 27.0 g Al × 26.982 𝑔 𝐴𝑙
× 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙
× 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3
= 51.02 g

To check if the reaction is consistent with the law of conservation of mass,

4 𝐴𝑙 + 3𝑂2 → 2 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3

24.0 g + 27.0 g = 51.0 g

The second approach to solving the problem requires calculating the reaction yield from

each of the given amounts of the reactants.

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3 101.964 𝑔 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3

amount Al2O3 produced from O2 = 27.0 g O2 × 32.0 𝑔 𝑂2
× 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
× 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3
= 57.4 g

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3 101.964 𝑔 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3

amount Al2O3 produced from Al = 27.0 g Al × 26.982 𝑔 𝐴𝑙
× 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙
× 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙2𝑂3
= 51.0 g

The reactant that gives a lower reaction yield is the limiting reagent. In this case, it is Al.

The reaction yield is therefore 51.0 g of Al2O3. The excess reagent is O2.
 Any of the two approaches may be used to solve stoichiometric problems; both will yield

the same results.

Find the percent yield of the reaction if the actual yield is 0.0164 kilograms.

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑔)

percent yield of Al2O3 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑔)
× 100

16.4 𝑔
= 24.0 𝑔
× 100

= 68.3%

Energy Change

Energy change in chemical reaction refers to the various energies that can be part of the

reactant side which absorbs energy or the product side that releases energy. Changes in energy

only happen during the reaction. One of the best examples is the law of Conservation of Energy

where energy can neither be created nor destroyed, whether in physical or chemical processes.

The law states that the entire energy in the universe is conserved or constant. The universe

consist of two parts: the system and the surroundings. The system consists of all matter, while

the surroundings are everything that is not part of the system, wherein the exothermic and

endothermic processes enter. During an endothermic process, the system gains energy from the

surroundings and in the product side because it gives off heat energy during the reaction as bonds

are formed. On the other hand, an exothermic process when the system releases energy into the

surroundings and in the reactant side because it needs energy or it absorbs energy during the

reaction to break bonds and allow the reaction to continue. Thus, energy is simply exchanged

between the system and its surroundings.

 Figure 1: Endothermic and Exothermic Reaction from the Universe

Figure 2: (A) Exothermic Process (B) Endothermic Process

The study on how energy moves and changes within the physical systems or simply, the

study of the relationship between energy and work is called Thermodynamics .Enthalpy is a

central factor of thermodynamics, it has the ability to identify if the reaction will be exothermic

or endothermic. When the value for the change in enthalpy is negative, then it is exothermic

while, endothermic is the opposite of the exothermic which is the positive values. According to

Ketron Mitchell-Wynne, PhD, et al. (n.d.), in order to understand the enthalpy, the first law of

thermodynamics should be familiarized, this law shows the interactions of heat, work,

temperature, and energy with each other.

 Figure 3: Equation of Enthalpy

Figure 4: First Law of Thermodynamics

Entropy as a measurement of disorder is a common misconception of other textbooks but

the real definition of entropy is a measure of how the energy of a system disperses into different

possible ways that system can contain energy. It states that, as the randomness increases, the

entropy increases as well. It is usually expressed in Joules per Kelvin (J/K). Moreover, the

second law of thermodynamics shows that the state of entropy of the entire universe is an

isolated system that will always increase over time.

Figure 5: Entropy

Furthermore, the second law of thermodynamics is also the derivation of Gibbs Free

Energy, which is the combination of enthalpy and entropy in a single value.

Entropy at molecular level:

 1. The entropy of the liquid state is greater than the entropy of the solid state, but the

entropy of the gaseous state is greater than the liquid state. While the entropy increases

when solid reactants from liquid products.

2. As solute particles become separated from one another, entropy is increasing in

dissolving.

3. As entropy increases, the temperature increases as well.

4. Entropy increases in chemical reactions when the total number of product molecules is

greater than the total number of reactant molecules.

On the other hand, Gibbs free energy or spontaneity can be predicted through two

conditions: (1) constant temperature and (2) constant pressure.

A Non-spontaneous reaction (+) occurs when external energy needs to be applied in order to

continue the process, but, if the external energy stops the process will cease.

A spontaneous reaction (-) is considered to be natural because it occurs without applying external

energy.

The products and reactants remain constant when at equilibrium (0).

Figure 6: General Equation of Gibbs Free Energy

 Figure 7: Standard free-energy of reaction

The third law of thermodynamics also talks about the entropy which states that the

entropy of the system is equal to zero at the absolute temperature that is equal to 0K (Kelvin).

The concepts of energy change, enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs Free Energy (Spontaneity)

are important in the field of engineering because energy change can be used to identify

construction materials according to their durability, energy efficiency, and thermal properties that

test their sustainability in designs (e.g. infrastructure, building, etc.). These concepts can also be

used in determining the stability of the soil and the foundation of the infrastructure. It also helps

the civil engineers to be more innovative considering energy changes, thermodynamics, and its

laws in order to ensure that the materials that will be used in the field despite environmental

exposure are able to improve the durability, sustainability, and efficiency of an infrastructure

design.

Electrochemistry

Electrochemistry is the science that deals with the movement of an electron in a chemical

process. It focuses on the relationship between electricity and chemical reactions called

electrochemical reactions. Furthermore, this concept explains how chemical reactions form

electricity. The movement of electrons from one element to another forms electricity. This
happens in a reaction known as redox reaction or oxidation-reduction. Thus, electrochemistry

can be seen in various things mainly on materials that require electricity to function such as

torches, cellphones, and even watches.

A chemical reaction that occurs when the reactants go through a change in their oxidation

state refers to redox reaction. Oxidation state refers to the number of electrons that an element

loses with other atoms during a reaction. In line with this, the redox reaction consists of two

processes: the reduction process and the oxidation process. In this type of reaction, a reactant

goes through oxidation reaction while the other reactant goes through reduction reaction. The

change in the oxidation number of an element in a reactant side to the product side helps to

identify the element that went through oxidation or reduction. To identify the oxidation number

of elements, it is important to consider some rules. First, any element in its natural form has 0 as

its oxidation number. Then, if the element is an ion, its oxidation number is the same as the

charge. Lastly, metals on the group 1 have +1 as its oxidation number, while the group 2 has +2.

If an element loses electrons, it is an oxidation reaction, but if it gains electrons, it is a reduction

reaction.

Magnesium Hydride

Mg + H2 → MgH2

0 0 +2 -1
 In this example, we can see that the oxidation number of magnesium (Mg) on the reactant

side is 0 because it is in its natural form, but it changes into +2 on the product side indicating that

magnesium loses electrons. On the other hand, hydrogen (H) on the reactant side has an

oxidation number of 0 while on the product side, it has -1, meaning, it gains electrons. Therefore,

magnesium went through oxidation reaction while the hydrogen gas went through reduction

reaction.

In a redox reaction, it is important to know the capacity of an element to lose or gain

electrons. This characterization is also known as redox potential. It allows us to anticipate the

stability of various compounds. The redox potential helps in identifying the cell potential. To

calculate the cell potential of a chemical species, you have to subtract the standard reduction

potential of a cathode by the standard reduction potential of the anode. Cathode is the electrode

where reduction happens while the anode is the electrode where oxidation occurs. The electric

potential of the anode and cathode differs from each other which is referred to as the cell voltage.

This can be calculated using the standard reduction potential, where the EO represents the

standard reduction potential. Lastly, the standard cell potential is measured in volts (V). Below is

the formula to be used when calculating the cell potential:

EOcell = EO Cathode - EO anode

The cell potential helps in determining the spontaneity of a reaction. A spontaneous redox

reaction happens when there is no need for external forces to be applied in order for the reaction

to proceed. On the other hand, a non-spontaneous redox reaction happens when a reaction needs
external forces to take place. For example, the dissolution of sugar can happen naturally which

shows a spontaneous reaction, but it can also be dissolved through stirring where a

non-spontaneous reaction can be seen. In order to calculate the spontaneity of a redox reaction,

we need to use the Gibbs Free Energy equation.

GO = -nFEo cell where:

​n = number of electrons in the redox reaction

​F = Faraday’s constant (96,485 C/mol)

​EO cell = cell voltage

Engineering is the application of science and mathematics in solving various problems. It

focuses on creating different designs, techniques, and principles that can be used in everyday life.

Additionally, electrochemistry focuses on the movement of electrons and it mainly deals with

how electricity is formed. It is the general idea that gives life to how appliances work or anything

that requires electricity to function. In the digital era, this notion plays a vital role in providing

the societal needs of an individual. In simple terms, electrochemistry is essential for everyone,

especially the engineers since it is a tool for creating and idealizing mechanisms or systems that

allows people to have an easier life.

Nuclear Chemistry

Nuclear chemistry is the study of determining the changes in the atomic nucleus of the

physical and chemical properties of elements. It discusses the release of energy in nuclear
reactions and how it is used. It also covers the study of the elements in the universe, design of

radioactive drugs, and more, and is referred to as radiochemistry. Nuclear reactions are the

process of transforming an element to another. This branch of chemistry studies how various

radiations, including gamma, beta, and alpha rays, alter the chemical and physical characteristics

of atoms inside the nucleus.

A nucleus of an atom takes up a small volume of atom with its protons and neutrons

depending on its given isotope. The number of protons and neutrons should be balanced, but

when too many protons or too many neutrons occur, it will result in nuclear instability. It is

radioactive, releasing electromagnetic radiation and subatomic particles. The reaction of the

unstable atoms is called radioactivity and the isotopes that have radiation are called

radioisotopes.

When a large unstable isotope is hit by neutrons that are fast moving particles, nuclear

fission occurs. It becomes divided into two smaller isotopes and produces a large amount of

energy from the lost mass because of the accelerated neutrons that the nucleus absorbed.

Uranium-235 is the most known nuclear power reactor today, and with the said process, when a

nucleus strikes the heavy atom, it will split into fission products, three fast-moving neutrons, and

a tremendous amount of energy will be formed. The fast-moving neutrons that are released create

projectiles that start other fission processes, referred to as chain reactions. A fission reaction is a

type of transformation that falls under the decomposition reaction category because it only

involves one reactant. Furthermore, it remains classified as a modified radioactive decay reaction

even if no radiation is produced during this nuclear activity.

On the other hand, nuclear fusion reaction occurs when two smaller nuclei crash into each

other to create a larger and stable atom. Fusion occurs when two low-mass isotopes, usually
hydrogen isotopes, combine in extremely high temperature and pressure conditions to produce a

neutron and a helium isotope. A large amount of energy is also released, which is larger than the

amount of the production from fusion. It is categorized as a pseudo-combination reaction

because of neutrons that are formed during the nuclear process. When two nuclei are physically

close to one another, they will resist each other since they are made up of protons and have

positive charges. The only way to overcome the repulsive force and collide the reactant nuclei is

by extreme velocities and temperature of one hundred million Kelvin, which is not attainable

under practical experiments.

Nuclear transmutation is a process of change of one element into another element. The

change in an atom’s neutron number at the atomic level is called transmutation reaction. It

happens naturally when an unstable isotope transforms to a stable isotope by radioactive decay or

through the stars' natural fusion processes. It can occur naturally or through man-made methods.

The changing of the nucleus happens in two ways, the radioactive decay or particles hitting the

nucleus. Through radioactive decay, the unstable isotope automatically changes the number of

protons and neutrons within the nucleus by alpha or beta decay and there is no outside particle

needed. On the other hand, when particles hit the nucleus, two protons and two neutrons will be

released when the nucleus rapidly releases a fast traveling helium nucleus.

Nuclear chemistry is relevant in the field of engineering, as the concepts of it were used in

the creation of nuclear power plants, which is important in the generation of electricity. Nuclear

fission is present in the power plants, as most of it uses uranium atoms as these atoms can be

easily split apart. As the neutron collides with a uranium atom it splits it and produces a huge
amount of energy in the form of heat and radiation. The aforesaid process continues until the

desired heat and radiation is reached; this process is called nuclear chain reaction.

Additionally, nuclear chemistry can also be used in the formation of radiation detectors that

are essential in the creation of power plants. With the use of the radiation detectors, any waste

from the power plants will be maintained and checked thoroughly. Engineers use the concepts of

nuclear chemistry to develop, design and conceptualize the radiation detectors. As radiation is

invisible to the naked eye, it provides protection to the surrounding people and places near it.

However, the residuals or waste in a nuclear power plant is dangerous to the health of the human

and environment itself. As it can lead to the destruction of the cells. Engineers are the ones to

prevent the spread of these radioactive waste, as they build different tools that can detect the

presence of radioactive waste.