Download the full version of the ebook now at ebookultra.

com

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica 15th Edition

Volume 1 Encyclopaedia Britannica

https://ebookultra.com/download/the-new-
encyclopaedia-britannica-15th-edition-
volume-1-encyclopaedia-britannica/

Explore and download more ebook at https://ebookultra.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

Britannica concise encyclopedia Encyclopaedia Britannica

https://ebookultra.com/download/britannica-concise-encyclopedia-
encyclopaedia-britannica/

ebookultra.com

Time Encyclopaedia Britannica

https://ebookultra.com/download/time-encyclopaedia-britannica/

ebookultra.com

The Britannica Guide to the 100 Most Influential

Scientists 2008 9th Edition Encyclopaedia Britannica

https://ebookultra.com/download/the-britannica-guide-to-the-100-most-
influential-scientists-2008-9th-edition-encyclopaedia-britannica/

ebookultra.com

The Britannica Guide to Genetics Britannica Guide To

Encyclopedia Britannica

https://ebookultra.com/download/the-britannica-guide-to-genetics-
britannica-guide-to-encyclopedia-britannica/

ebookultra.com
The Britannica Guide to the Islamic World Britannica

https://ebookultra.com/download/the-britannica-guide-to-the-islamic-
world-britannica/

ebookultra.com

Encyclopaedia Judaica Volume 1 Aa Alp 2nd Edition Fred

Skolnik

https://ebookultra.com/download/encyclopaedia-judaica-volume-1-aa-
alp-2nd-edition-fred-skolnik/

ebookultra.com

The Britannica Guide to Climate Change Encyclopedia

Britannica

https://ebookultra.com/download/the-britannica-guide-to-climate-
change-encyclopedia-britannica/

ebookultra.com

The Britannica Guide to Modern China First Edition

Britannica

https://ebookultra.com/download/the-britannica-guide-to-modern-china-
first-edition-britannica/

ebookultra.com

Britannica Student Encyclopedia in 16 vol Encyclopædia

Britannica

https://ebookultra.com/download/britannica-student-encyclopedia-
in-16-vol-encyclopaedia-britannica/

ebookultra.com
The New Encyclopaedia Britannica 15th Edition Volume
1 Encyclopaedia Britannica Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Encyclopaedia Britannica
ISBN(s): 9781593392925, 1593392923
Edition: 15
File Details: PDF, 92.39 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
Withdrawn and donated for sale
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2012

http://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedi001ency
 The New
Encyclopaedia
Britannica
Volume 1

MICROP^EDIA

Ready Reference

NORTH END

FOUNDED 1768

15TH EDITION

W'/j,

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Jacob E. Safra, Chairman of the Board

Jorge Aguilar-Cauz, President

Chicago
London/ New Delhi/ Paris/Seoul
Sydney/ Taipei/ Tokyo
First Edition 1768-1771
Second Edition 1777-1784
Third Edition 1788-1797
Supplement 1801
Fourth Edition 1801-1809
Fifth Edition 1815
Sixth Edition 1820-1823
Supplement 1815-1824
Seventh Edition 1830-1842
Eighth Edition 1852-1860
Ninth Edition 1875-1889
Tenth Edition 1902-1903

t ->
Eleventh Edition yA ft
© 1911
By Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Twelfth Edition (

© 1922
By Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Thirteenth Edition
© 1926
By Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Fourteenth Edition
© 1929, 1930, 1932, 1933, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943,
1944, 1945, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954,
1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964,
1965, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973
By Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Fifteenth Edition
© 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985,
1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997,
1998, 2002, 2003, 2005, 2007
By Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

©2007
By Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Macropaedia, Micropaedia, Propaedia, and

the thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Copyright under International Copyright Union

All rights reserved.

No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized

in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in U.S.A.

Library of Congress Control Number 2006921233

International Standard Book Number-10: 1-59339-292-3
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-59339-292-5

Britannica may be accessed at http://www.britannica.com on the Internet. / / ~-\

 Entr> titles for certain physical features, institutions,
How to use structures, events, and concepts are ordinarily inverted to
place the substantive word first. Thus, the Bay of Ben-
the MICROPAEDIA gal is entered as Bengal, Bay of; the Bank of England
as England, Bank of; the Tower of London as London.
lower of; the Siege of Vienna as Vienna, Siege of; and
the balance of power as power, balance of. If the name
1 he volumes of the micropaedia contain tens of
12 of a physical feature, institution, structure, event, or con-
thousands of shorter articles on specific persons, places, cept has two or more descriptors, it is entered under the
things, and ideas, arranged in alphabetical order. The descriptor appearing first. Thus, the Episcopal Church in

micropaedia can be used as an information resource on Scotland is entered as Episcopal Church in Scotland (not
its own: and it can function as support for the longer Scotland, Episcopal Church in); the Leaning Tower of
articles in the macropaedia (to which it refers whenever Pisa as Leaning Tower of Pisa; and the kinetic theory of
appropriate). The micropaedia in turn is supported by gases as kinetic theory of gases.
references in the index and by the lists of suggested The most Western persons are arranged so
entries for
readings in the propaedia. Finally, the micropaedia is that one can read a name in correct order by begin-
the portion of the Encyclopedia Britannica best suited ning after the first comma, proceeding to the end of
for the reader who wishes to browse among the countless the boldface type, returning to the beginning word or
subjects in all fields of human learning and history in all words, and proceeding forward to the first comma. Thus,
times and places. the entry March, Patrick Dunbar, 2nd Earl of, is read
"Patrick Dunbar, 2nd Earl of March"; the entry Orleans,
Louis, due d\ is read "Louis, due d'Orleans." Names of
Alphabetization Far Eastern origin are given in Oriental order, with the

Entry titles are alphabetized according to the English al- surname preceding the personal name (e.g., Tojo Hideki,
phabet. A to Z. All diacritical marks (such as in 6. 1, or n) Deng Xiaoping, Nguyen Cao Ky).
and foreign letters without parallels in English (such as ayin
['] and hamza [']) are ignored in the alphabetization. Apos-
Cross-references
trophes likewise are ignored. Titles beginning with num-
bers, such as 1812, War of, are alphabetized as if the Some cross-reference entries appear in the micropaedia
numbers were written out (Eighteen-twelve, War of). for the purpose of leading a reader from names that
Alphabetization proceeds according to the "word-by- arc familiar to alternate names that may not be. Cross-
word" principle. Thus, Mount Vernon precedes mountain; references also appear frequently within or at the ends
any John entry precedes John Henry, which in turn of standard entries, where they are identified by see, see
precedes Johne's disease. Any character or string of char- also, see under, q.v. (quod vide, "which see"), or qq.v.
acters preceding a space, hyphen, or dash is treated as (quae vide, "which see," plural).
a word and alphabetized accordingly. Thus, De Broglie Certain entries serve both as relatively brief essays on
precedes debenture, and jack-o'-lantern precedes jackal. general subjects and as cross-references to the same sub-
Titles with identical spellings are arranged in the follow- jects treated at greater length and in greater depth in the
ing order: (1) persons, (2) places, (3) things. macropaedia. Such an entry (e.g., igneous rock) begins
For many rulers and titled nobility, chronological order, with a definition of the subject and then provides the
as well as alphabetical order, governs placement. Rulers following cross-reference: "A brief treatment of igneous
of the same given name
(e.g., William) may be grouped rocks follows. For full treatment, see macropaedia:
from other entries, and indicated by
together, separate Minerals and Rocks.
the symbol • They may be subgrouped alphabetically by
. Entries on certain broad subjects (e.g., music) direct the
country and. within each country, arranged chronologi- reader to several relevant articles in the macropaedia
cally (William I, William II, etc.). Nobility or peers of the and also to thepropaedia for listings of related articles
same titled name (e.g., Essex, earls of) are similarly in the micropaedia.
grouped together, separate from other entries; they are
indicated by the symbol • and arranged chronologically.
Places with identical names are arranged in the alphabet-
Abbreviations
ical order of the countries where they are located. Iden- Abbreviations used in the micropaedia are given in a list

ticalplace-names in the same country are alphabetized that appears at the end of every micropaedia volume.
according to the alphabetical order of the state, province,
or other political subdivision where they are found.
Territorial boundaries

In articles and maps indicating disputed geopolitical

Entry arrangement
boundaries and territories, the attribution of sovereignty
The titles of entries are arranged according to the forms or administrative subordination to any specific area does
commonly found in indexes and dictionaries, with some not imply recognition of the status claimed by an admin-
special conventions. istering power.
a-ak (ancient East Asian music): see gagaku. The scion of a noble family, A-kuei directed 1 Aachen
Chinese military expeditions that quelled up-
a cappella (Italian: "in the church style"), per-
risings in the western provinces of Szechwan
formance of a polyphonic (multipart) musical
and Kansu. He also conquered Hi and Chi- occur sometimes with these meanings in non-
work by unaccompanied voices. Originally re-
nese Turkestan, areas on China's northwestern philosophical contexts. It should be remem-
ferring to sacred choral music, the term now
frontier that are today part of the Sinkiang bered that medieval logicians used the word
refers to secular music as well.
Uighur Autonomous Region. In addition, he "cause" in a syllogistic sense corresponding
The a cappella style arose about the time of
helped subjugate Myanmar (Burma), making to aitia and did not necessarily
Aristotle's
the composer Josquin des Prez, in the late
it a Chinese tributary state, and directed the mean by prius something earlier in time.
15th century, and reached preeminence with
campaign to stabilize China's position on the This point is brought out by the use of the
Palestrina in the late 16th century in the mu-
recently conquered island of Taiwan. He was phrase demonstratio propter quid ("demon-
sicthat he wrote for the Sistine Chapel of the
one of the emperor's most trusted ministers, stration on account of what") as an equivalent
Vatican. Because no independent instrumen-
and he served until his 80th year as a senior for demonstratio a priori and of demonstra-
tal parts were written, later scholars assumed
member of the government's administrative tio quia ("demonstration that, or because") as
that the choir sang unaccompanied, but the
cabinets, the Grand Council and the Grand an equivalent for demonstratio a posteriori.
evidence is now that an organ or other in-
Secretariat. Hence the reference is obviously to Aristotle's
struments exactly "doubled" some or several
distinction between knowledge of the ground
of the vocal parts. By the 17th century, a A-mdo, also called mdo-smad, one of three
or explanation of something and knowledge
cappella music was giving way to the cantata. regions into which the area of central Asia
of the mere fact.
for which parts were written specifically for inhabited by Tibetans is traditionally divided.
Latent in this distinction for Kant is the
instruments as well as for voices. During the 7th to 9th centuries, the cen-
antithesis between necessary, deductive truth
tralTibetan kingdom was extended until it
A-ch'eng, Pinyin acheng, formerly (until and probable, inductive truth. The former ap-
reached the Tarim Basin on the north, China
1909) ashihho, city in Heilungkiang sheng plies to a priori judgments, which are arrived
on the east, India and Nepal on the south, and
(province), China. Located southeast of Harbin at independently of experience and hold uni-
Kashmir on the west. The newly added do-
(Ha-erh-pin) in the basin of the A-shih River, versally; the latter applies to a posteriori judg-
minions to the east and northeast were called
it is a collecting and commercial centre for ments, which are contingent on experience
Mdo-Khams. The A-mdo region, constituting
a rich agricultural district that provides part and therefore must acknowledge possible ex-
the northeastern part of ethnic Tibet, reached
of Harbin's food supply. A-ch'eng is also an ceptions. In his Critique of Pure Reason Kant
from the Huang Ho (river) northeastward to
industrial centre with brickworks, engineering used these distinctions, in part, to explain
Mchod-rten dkarpo (now in Kansu province,
works specializing in electrical equipment and the special case of mathematical knowledge,
China). It passed under Ch'ing (Manchu) con-
other machinery, and various industries based which he regarded as the fundamental exam-
trol in 1724 following the suppression of a
on local agricultural production, such as brew- ple of a priori knowledge.
Mongol revolt and was officially incorporated
eries, sugar refineries, and a flax-processing Although the use of a priori to distinguish
into the Chinese provincial system as part of
plant. A-ch'eng also developed a small iron in- knowledge such as that which we have in
Tsinghai province in 1928.
dustry in the late 1950s. Most of its industries mathematics is comparatively recent, the in-
are closely integrated with those in Harbin. A-pao-chi, Pinyin abaoji, posthumous dy- terest of philosophers in that kind of knowl-
To the south of A-ch'eng are the remains of nastic name liao t'ai tsu, Pinyin liao tai edge is almost as old as philosophy itself. No
an ancient walled city known as Pai-ch'eng, zu (d. 926, China), leader of the nomadic one finds it puzzling that one can acquire
or Pei-ch'eng. This site is thought to be the Mongol-speaking Khitan tribes who occupied information by looking, feeling, or listening,
remains of Hui-ning, which was the capital of the northwest border of China. but philosophers who have taken seriously
the Chin (Juchen) dynasty from 1 122 to 1234 Elected to a three-year term as great khan of the possibility of learning by mere thinking
and a subsidiary capital after 1 173. Pop. (1989 the Khitans, A-pao-chi refused to resign at the have often considered that this requires some
est.) 188,600. end of his term but made himself king of the special explanation. Plato maintained in his
Khitan nation. After the collapse in 907 of Meno and in his Phaedo that the learning of
A-erh-chin Mountains, also called al- made himself
T'ang rule in China, A-pao-chi geometrical truths was only the recollection of
tyn tagh, Chinese (Wade-Giles) a-erh- emperor and by 916 had set up a Chinese- knowledge possessed in a previous existence
chin shan, or (Pinyin) altun shan, moun-
style dynasty, with his son as heir apparent. when we could contemplate the eternal ideas,
tain range in southern Sinkiang Uighur Au-
He organized his followers into fighting units or forms, directly. Augustine and his medieval
tonomous Region, China. Branching off from known as ordos (similar to what Westerners followers, sympathizing with Plato's intentions
the Kunlun Mountains, the range runs from
later called a horde) and then joined 1 2 ordos but unable to accept the details of his theory,
southwest to northeast to form the boundary
into an administrative district. declared that the ideas were in the mind of
between the Tarim Basin to the north and the
In 926, in return for aiding the founder God, who from time to time gave intellectual
minor basin of A-ya-k'o-k'u-mu Lake and the illumination to men. Rene Descartes, going
of the Later Chin dynasty (936-947) in the
Tsaidam Basin areas of interior drainage to Chin ruler's conquest of North China, A-pao- further in the same direction, held that all
the south.
chi was given the northeast corner of Hopeh the ideas required for a priori knowledge were
The range falls into three divisions. The province, an area inside the Great Wall en- innate in each human mind. For Kant the
southwest section, bordering the Kunlun, is
compassing the present site of Peking. After puzzle was to explain the possibility of a priori
extremely rugged and complex; some ranges
the death of A-pao-chi, the Khitans began to judgments that were also synthetic (i.e., not
and peaks rise to heights of more than 20,000 take on further Chinese mannerisms, and in merely explicative of concepts), and the solu-
feet (6,100 m) and are covered with perpetual
947 they proclaimed the Liao dynasty (947- tion that he proposed was the doctrine that
snows. The central portion, forming the bor-
1125), naming A-pao-chi as their dynastic space, time, and the categories (e.g., causal-
der of the western Tsaidam Basin, is lower, av-
founder with the posthumous title of T'ai Tsu ity), about which we were able to make such
eraging about 13,000 feet (4,000 m) in height,
(Grand Progenitor). judgments, were forms imposed by the mind
and is much narrower. The eastern section, in on the stuff of experience.
which the range joins the Nan Mountains, is A-p'i-ta-mo chii-she lun (Buddhist com-
In each of these theories the possibility of
again higher, with peaks of 16,500 feet (5,000 pendium): see Abhidharmakosa.
a priori knowledge is explained by a sugges-
m); it is structurally more complicated, con-
a posteriori knowledge, knowledge derived tion that we have a privileged opportunity for
sisting of a series of short ranges, the axes of
from experience, as opposed to a priori knowl- studying the subject matter of such knowl-
which gradually adapt to the main northwest- edge (q. v.). edge. The same conception recurs also in the
to-southeast axis of the Nan system.
very un-Platonic theory of a priori knowledge
There are very few rivers, because the area is a priori knowledge, in Western philosophy
firstenunciated by Thomas Hobbes in his De
one of extreme aridity, particularly in its cen- since the time of Immanuel Kant, knowledge
Corpore and adopted in the 20th century by
tral section. In the west various small streams that is independent of all particular experi-
the logical empiricists. According to this the-
run off into the Takla Makan Desert in the ences, as opposed to a posteriori knowledge,
ory, statements of necessity can be made a
north, into the A-ya-k'o-k'u-mu Lake to the which derives from experience alone. The
priori because they are merely by-products of
south, or into the western Tsaidam Basin. The Latin phrases a priori ("from what is before")
our own rules for the use of language.
main pass is the Tang-chin Pass at the eastern and a posteriori ("from what is after") were
end, which is crossed by a motor road between used in philosophy originally to distinguish be- A&P: see Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Com-
eastern Sinkiang (via Kansu province), the tween arguments from causes and arguments pany, Inc.
Tsaidam Basin, and the Tibetan Autonomous from effects.
AA: see Alcoholics Anonymous.
Region (via Tsinghai province). The first recorded occurrence of the phrases
is in the writings of the 14th-century' logician AAA: see Agricultural Adjustment Adminis-
A-Ku-Ta (founder of Chin dynasty): see T'ai- Albert of Saxony. Here, an argument a priori tration: Amateur Athletic Association.
tsu.
is said to be "from causes to the effect" and
Aabenraa (Denmark): see Abenra.
A-kuei, Pinyin agui (b. Sept. 7, 1717, an argument a posteriori to be "from effects
China—d. Oct. 10, 1797, Peking), famous to causes." Similar definitions were given by Aachen, Dutch aken,
French aix-la-
general and official during the middle years of many later philosophers down to and includ- chapelle, Nordrhein-Westfalen Land
city,

the Ch'ing dynasty. ing G.W. Leibniz, and the expressions still (North Rhine-Westphalia state), northwestern
 —
\aiun 2 Aachen is a rail the industrial and
hub and freesias, chrysanthemums, and potted plants
commercial centre of a coal-mining region; al- such as cyclamens and begonias. Many flow-
most c\cr\ branch ot the iron and steel indus- ers are exported by air, and there is a thriving
Germany. Its municipal boundaries coincide try functions in the vicinity. Other products trade in seeds and nursery plants. Pop. (1984
on the west with the frontiers of Belgium include textiles, furniture, glass, machinery, est.) 20,379.
and The Netherlands. It was a Roman spa. and needles and pins. Pop. (1989 est.) 233.- Aalst (Flemish), French alost, municipal-
called Aquisgranum. and rose to prominence 255.
ity, East Flanders province, north-central Bel-
in the 8th century as the favourite residence El Aaiun. gium, on the Dender River, 15 miles (24 km)
Vaiun (Western Sahara): see
of Charlemagne, becoming the second city of northwest of Brussels. The town hall (begun
his empire and a centre of Western culture Aakja-r. Jeppe
(b. Sept. 10, 1866, Aakjaer,

and learning. From the coronation of Otto I Den. —April 22, 1930, Jenle). poet and
d.

in 936 until the 16th century, most German novelist, leading exponent of Danish regional
kings were crowned at Aachen. Fortified in literature and of the literature of social con-
the late 12th century and granted municipal sciousness.
rights in 1166 and 1215, Aachen became a Aakjaer grew up in the Jutland farming area
free imperial city c. 1250. and so was well aware of the harsh conditions
endured by farm labourers in his country. His
early novels deal primarily with this theme. As
a young man he went to study in Copenhagen,
earning his living as a proofreader and later
as a journalist. Vredens born, et tyendes saga
(1904; "Children of Wrath: A Hired Man's
Saga"), which is considered to be his most
powerful novel, was a strong plea for the bet-
terment of the farm labourer's lot. The book
initiated much public discussion and helped
lead the way to some minimal reforms. He
was best-known, however, for his poems, es-
pecially those collected in Frifelt (1905; "Free
Fields") and Rugens sange (1906; "Songs of
the Rye"). A number of modern Danish com-
Elisenbrunnen, a spa. with Aachen cathedral in the
background. Aachen, Ger. posers have set Aakjaer's poems to music; his
"Jens Vejmand" (music by Carl Nielsen) is
virtually a modern folk song. Only a few of
It in the 16th century be-
began to decline his poems have been translated into English.
cause of insecure position near the French
its
Aalborg (Denmark): see Alborg.
frontier and its distance from the centre of
the Holy Roman Empire. The coronation site Aalen, city, Baden- Wurttemberg Land (state),
was changed to Frankfurt am Main in 1562. southern Germany, on the Kocher River, at
Aachen was the scene of several peace confer- the northern foot of the Schwabische Alb
ences, including those ending the War of De- (Swabian Alps), 30 miles (48 km) north of
volution (1668) and the War of the Austrian Ulm. It originated around a large Roman fort,
Marketplace. Aalst, Belgium, with (centre) the belfry
Succession (1748). Occupied by the French in much of which remains; nearby are the re-
of the town hall
1794 and annexed by France in 1801, it was mains of the Roman limes (frontier wall). It
Beeldbank & Uilgeefprojeklen B V , Amsterdam
given to Prussia after the Congress of Vienna became a free imperial city in 1360 and was
(1814-15). The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, severely damaged by fire in 1634. It passed in the middle of the 12th century), with its
sealed in 1818, was one of those that regulated to Wurttemberg in 1802. The old city hall 52-bell carillon, is the oldest in Belgium, and
the affairs of Europe after the Napoleonic dates from 1636 and the church of Sankt its archives include 12th-century manuscripts.
Wars. The city was occupied for a period by Nikolaus from 1765. The Limesmuseum of Ravaged by fire in 1360, the town hall was
the Belgians after World War I; it suffered Roman relics was opened in 1964. In 1975 the subsequently rebuilt and its 1 3th-century bel-
severe damage in World War II and was the adjoining city of Wasseralfingen was annexed fry .restored in the 15th century. The first
first large German city to fall to the Allies to Aalen, enlarging it by nearly a. third. A printing shop in the Low Countries was es-
(Oct. 20, 1944). communications centre, Aalen also has metal, tablished there in 1473 by Thierry Martens
The noteworthy medieval churches of St. textile, and chemical industries. Pop. (1989 (later a professor at the Catholic University of
Foillan, St. Paul,and St. Nicholas were de- est.) 62,812. Louvain). The French took Aalst in 1667 dur-
molished or heavily damaged in World War ing the War of Devolution that gave southern
Aalsmeer, gemeente (municipality), Noord-
II, but there has been much reconstruction. Flanders to France. The Germans occupied
holland provincie (province), western Nether-
The Rathaus (town hall), built c. 1530 on the
the town in both world wars. Industry is domi-
lands, 8 miles (13 km) southwest of Am-
ruins of Charlemagne's palace and containing nated by the manufacture of textiles, clothing,
sterdam, on the Ring Canal and Westeinder
the magnificent hall of the emperors, has been and textile machinery. The surrounding region
Lake, a remnant of Haarlem Lake. The older
restored. supplies hops for long-established breweries.
part of the town is on peaty soil at about
The cathedral suffered relatively little dam- The unfinished Gothic St. Martin's Church
sea level, surrounded by polders with loamy
age. It incorporates two distinct styles: the (begun c. 1480) has vault paintings, a pic-
soil 9-15 feet (3-5 m) below sea level. Once
Palace Chapel of Charlemagne (built 790- ture by Rubens, and a remarkable tabernacle
known for its eels, whence its name (aal, "eel";
805), modeled on S. Vitale at Ravenna, is (1605) containing sculptures executed by Hi-
meer, "lake"), it is the flower-growing cen-
Carolingian-Romanesque; and the choir (c. eronymus Duquesnoy the Elder. Pop. (1983
tre of The Netherlands, with numerous nurs-
1355) is Gothic. In the gallery (Hochmiinster) est.) mun, 78,068.
eries, the largest flower auction in the world,
around the chapel is the marble Konigsstuhl
and a state experimental station for floricul- Aalto, (Hugo) Alvar (Henrik) (b. Feb.
(royal chair) of Charlemagne, long used for
ture. Blooms include carnations, roses, lilacs, 1898, Kuortane, Fin., Russian Empire
coronations. Charlemagne's tomb is marked 3,

by a stone slab over which hangs a bronze d. May 11, 1976, Helsinki), Finnish architect,
chandelier presented by Frederick I Barbarossa city planner, and furniture designer, whose
in 1 168. The rich cathedral treasury contains international reputation rests on a distinctive
examples of fine medieval workmanship and blend of modernist refinement, indigenous
sacred relics that are displayed to pilgrims materials, and personal expression in form
about every seven years. and detail. His mature style is epitomized by
Other notable landmarks are the Suermondt the Saynatsalo, Fin., town hall group (1950-
Museum of Art and the fountain, surmounted 52).
by a statue of Charlemagne, in the market Early work. Aalto's architectural studies at
square. The Aachen Museum of the Interna- the Technical Institute of Helsinki in Ota-
tional Press deals with newspapers from the niemi, Fin., were interrupted by the Finnish
16th century on. There are numerous edu- War of Independence, in which he partici-
cational institutions, including the Rhenish- pated. Following his graduation in 1921, Aalto
Westphalian Technical University, founded toured Europe and upon his return began
in 1870. The sulfur springs are much- practice in Jyvaskyla, in central Finland. In
frequented; Schwertbad-Quelle, in the suburb 1927 he moved his office to Turku, where
Float in the Bloemencorso. an annual flower festival
of Burtscheid, is the warmest spring in Ger- held in September in Aalsmeer. The Netherlands he worked in association with Erik Bryggman
many (169° F[76° C]). The J Allan Cash Photolibrary
until 1933, the year in which he moved to
 that serve both structural and aesthetic ends. 3 aardvark
In 1935 the Artek Company was established
by Aalto and Mairea Gullichsen, the wife of
the industrialist and art collector, to manufac- compulsively innovative, neither was it static.
ture and market his furniture. The informal His late designs showed an increased com-
warmth of Aalto's interiors is best seen in the plexity and dynamism that some regarded as
much admired country home Villa Mairea, incautious. In particular, his work of the late
which he built for the Gullichsens near Noor- 1960s and early 1970s was marked by splayed,
markku, Fin. diagonal shapes and clustered, overlapping
Mature style. The decade of the 940s was
1 volumes. Energy and imagination were ever
not productive; it was disrupted by war and present. (H.F.K.)
saddened by his wife's death. In 1952 he major works. Turun SanomatBuilding, Turku,
married Elissa Makimemi, a trained architect, Fin. Library at Viipuri, now
(1930); Municipal
who became his new collaborator. Vyborg, Russia (designed 1927, built 1930-35,
Aalto's commissions after 1950, in addition destroyed 1943); Sulfate Paper Mill at Toppila,
to being greater in number, were more var- Fin. (1931); Sanatorium at Paimio, Fin. (1933);
ied and widely dispersed: a high-rise apart- cellulose factory at Sunila, Kotka. Fin. (1936-
ment building in Bremen (1958), a church 39; extended1951-54); Villa Mairea (Gullich-
in Bologna (1966), an art museum in Iran sen House) near Noormarkku, Fin. (1938-39);
Aalto, 1970
(1970). His continuing work in Finland, how- sawmill at Varkaus, Fin. (1945); Baker House (se-
By courtesy ot the Consulate Genera) ot Finland. New York City
ever, remained the measure of his genius. nior dormitory), Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
Helsinki. In 1925 he married Aino Marsio, a Many of his projects involved site planning of nology, Cambridge, Mass. (1947-48); town hall
fellow student, who served as his professional building groups. Two such projects were the group, Saynatsalo, Fin. (1950-52); House of Cul-
ture, Helsinki (1955-58); house for Louis Carre,
collaborator until her death in 1949. The cou- master plans of colleges at Otaniemi (1949-
Bazoches, Fr. (1956-58); church at Vuoksenniska,
ple had two children. 55) and at Jyvaskyla (1952-57). Aalto's expe-
Imatra, Fin. (1956-58); Nordjyllands Kunstmu-
The years 1927 and 1928 were significant in rience in planning originated early with such
seum. Alborg, Den. (1958-72); post and telegraph
Aalto's career. He received commissions for industrial commissions as the Sunila cellulose
office, Baghdad (1958); Community Centre, Wolf-
three important buildings that established him factory (1936-39, extended 1951-54), which burg, Ger. (1959-62); Community Centre, Seina-
as the most advanced architect in Finland included workers' housing and was a triumph joki. Fin. (1962; theatre added, 1967); Edgar J.
and brought him worldwide recognition as of comprehensive planning. Kaufmann Conference Rooms, Institute of Inter-
well. These were the Turun Sanomat Building The single work that epitomizes Aalto's ma- national Education, New York City (1964-65);
(newspaper office) in Turku, the tuberculo- ture style is perhaps the Saynatsalo town hall Mount Angel Abbey Library, near Salem, Ore.
sis sanatorium at Paimio, and the Municipal group. Modest in scale in its forest setting, (1967-70); Finlandia Hall, Helsinki (1971, en-
Library at Viipuri (now Vyborg). His plans it nonetheless asserts a quiet force. Its simple larged 1974); Taidemuseo, Jyvaskyla, Fin. (1973,
for the last two were chosen in a competi- forms are in red brick, wood, and copper, all later called the Alvar Aalto Museum).
tion, a common practice with public buildings traditional materials of Finland. Viewing it. bibliography. A definitive review of Aalto's
in Finland. Both the office building and the a person feels the achievement of a perfect work, extremely well illustrated with photographs
sanatorium emphasize functional, straightfor- building, in that the essence of the time, the and plans, is the two-volume work edited by Karl
ward design and are without historical stylis- place, the people, and their purpose is brought Fleig: Alvar Aalto (1963) and Alvar Aalto 1963-

tic references. They go beyond the simplified into focus by the awareness of the architect. 1970 (1971). A brief essay by Farederick Gutheim,
common Alvar Aalto (1960), contains descriptive and crit-
classicism in Finnish architecture of Aalto received many honours. He was a
ical comments as well as many photographs. A
the 1920s, resembling somewhat
the building member of the Academy of Finland (Suomen
similar book is George Baird, Alvar Aalto (1970).
designed by Walter Gropius for the Bauhaus Aketemia) and was its president from 1963
A substantial chapter on Aalto appears in Sigfried
school of design in Dessau. Ger. (1925-26). to 1968; he was a member of the Congres
Giedion, Space. Time and Architecture, 5th ed.
Like Gropius, Aalto used smooth white sur- Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne from
rev. (1967), and is an excellent critical treatment
faces, ribbon windows, flat roofs, and terraces 1928 to 1956. His awards included the Royal of Aalto's architecture. No purely biographical
and balconies. Gold Medal for Architecture from the Royal work exists.
The third commission, the Viipuri Munici- Institute of British Architects (1957) and the
pal Library, although exhibiting a similar de- Gold Medal from the American Institute of Aarau, capital of Aargau canton, northern

pendence on European prototypes by Gropius Architects (1963). Switzerland, at the southern foot of the Jura
and others, is a significant departure marking Assessment. Aalto, whose work exemplifies Mountains, on the right bank of the Aare
Aalto's personal style. Its spatially complex the best of 20th-century Scandinavian archi- River, west of Zurich. Founded about 1 240 by
interior is arranged on various levels. For the tecture, was one of the first to depart from the the counts of Kyburg. it passed to the Habs-
auditorium portion of the library Aalto de- stiffly geometric designs common to the early
burgs in 1264 and was taken by the Bernese
period of the modern movement and to stress in 1415. In 1798 it became the capital of
vised an undulating acoustic ceiling of wooden
informality and personal expression. His style the Helvetian Republic. Notable landmarks
strips,a fascinating detail that, together with
his use of curved laminated wood furniture of isregarded as both romantic and regional. He include several 13th-century towers, the town
his own design, appealed both to the public used complex forms and varied materials, ac- church (1471), the town hall (1762), and
and to those professionals who had held reser- knowledged the character of the site, and gave a cantonal library, containing a Bible with
vations about the clinical severity of mod- attention to every detail of building. Aalto marginal notes made by the religious reformer
em architecture. The warm textures of wood achieved an international reputation through Huldrych Zwingli. To the northeast is the
provided a welcome contrast to the general his more than 200 buildings and projects, ruined Habsburg, or Habichtsburg (Hawk's
ranging from factories to churches, a number Castle), the original home of the Habsburg
whiteness of the building. It was Aalto's par-
family. The medieval Lenzburg castle, located
ticular success here that identified him with of them built outside Finland.
the so-called organic approach, or regional in- Aalto's preliminary plans were freely east of Aarau. houses a historical museum
terpretation, of modern design. He continued sketched, without the use of T-square and tri- and a conference centre. There is considerable
in this vein, with manipulation of floor levels angle, so that the unfettered creative urge for industry in the newer parts; manufactures in-
and use of natural materials, skylights, and inventive shapes and irregular forms was al- clude electrical goods, bells, precision instru-
By the mid- 1930s Aalto was lowed full play before functional relationships ments, shoes, cotton textiles, and chemicals.
irregular forms.
recognized as one of the world's outstanding and details were resolved. The absence of the- The population is largely German speaking
modern architects; unlike many of his peers, oretical rigidity revealed itself in his final de- and nearlv 75 percent Protestant. Pop. (1987
which happily retained the spontaneity est.) 15,750.
he had an identifiable personal style. signs,
Finnish pavilions for two world's fairs (Paris, and individuality of his early sketches. As a aardvark, also called African ant bear
1937; New York City, 1939-40) further en- Swiss art historian expressed it, he dared "the (Orycteropus afer), heavily built mammal,
hanced Aalto's reputation as an inventive de- leap from the rational-functional to the irra- ranging south of the Sahara in forest or plain,
signer of free architectural forms. In these tional-organic." Since Aalto's staff was small that constitutes the family Orycteropodidae
designs, both chosen in competition, he con- (some six to eight architects), all of the work and the order Tubulidentata. The name aard-
tinued to use wood for structure and for sur- bore the imprint of his personality. vark —
Afrikaans for "earth pig" —
refers to its
face effects. Also during this period, in 1938, Aalto wrote little to explain his work, but stout, piglike body, up to 180 centimetres (6
the Museum of Modern Art in New York City his architecture conveyed a variable, lively feet) long, including the 60-cm tail. Its coat
held an exhibition of his work, showing furni- temperament, free from dogma and without varies from glossy black and full to sandy yel-
ture that he had designed and photographs of monotony. His work was said to express the low and scant. The aardvark has a long snout,
his buildings. spirit of Finland and its people, primitive rabbitlike ears, and short legs. The toes are
Aalto's experiments in furniture date from yet lyrical. His friendships with such artists long and equipped with large, flattened claws;
the early 1930s, when he furnished the sana- as Fernand I-eger, Jean Arp, and Constantin the second and third toes are united by a web
torium at Paimio. His furniture is noted for Brancusi may have nourished his fondness for of tissue.
its use of laminated wood in ribbonlike forms curvilinear shapes. While his work was never One young is bom in summer. The aardvark
aardwolf 4 [295 km]) entirely within Switzerland; it drains
an area of 6,865 square miles (17,779 square
km). The river rises in the Aare Glacier of
excavates a burrow, in which it rests by day. the Bernese Alps in Bern canton, below the
It ventures out at night to rip open ant and Finsteraarhorn and west of the Grimsel Pass,
termite nests and rapidly lap up the routed in the south-central part of Switzerland. As
insects, using its sticky 30-centimetre-long the Aare flows north past Meiringen, the river
tongue. Although not aggressive, the aardvark cuts through the scenic Aare Gorge. After
can fend off such formidable attackers as lions turning west, it expands into the glacial Lake
and leopards by parrying with its claws. Brienz. The river is canalized at Interlaken
above its entry into Lake Thun, at the lower
end of which the river flows northwest in a
deeply entrenched valley and almost encircles
the medieval core of the city of Bern. It turns
west to Lake Wohlen and then flows north
to Aarberg, where it is diverted west by the
Hagneck Canal into Lake Biel. Continuing
northeastward, the river parallels the foot of
Aaron, detail of a 3rd-century fresco
the Jura Mountains. Below Bragg, the Reuss
from the synagogue at Doura-Europus,
and Limmat rivers join the Aare before it en- Syria; in the National Museum,
ters the Rhine River at Koblenz, Switz. Damascus
Aargau (German), French argovie, canton, By courtesy o( the Direction Generale des
etdes Musees, Damascus
Antiquities

northern Switzerland. It borders Germany to

the north and is bounded by the half canton allowed to come near to Yahweh. Moses later
of Basel-Laandschaft and by the cantons of was ordered to "bring near" Aaron and his
Aardvark (Orycteropus ater)
Solothurn to the west, Luzern to the south, sons, and they were anointed and consecrated
Shoslal— EB Inc
and Zug and Zurich to the east. It has an area to be priests "by a perpetual statute." Aaron's
with of 542 square miles (1,405 square km) and sons were to take over the priestly garments
Though formerly classified the true
and armadillos in the or- forms the northeastern section of the great after him. Aaron is not represented as wholly
anteaters, sloths,
Swiss Plateau between the Alps and the Jura blameless. It was he who, when Moses was
der Edentata, aardvarks differ from them and
Mountains, taking in the lower course of the delayed on Mount Sinai, made the golden calf
from all other mammals in having perma-
Aare River, whence its name. Its valleys alter- that was idolatrously worshiped by the people.
nent teeth traversed by tubules that radiate
nate with pleasantly wooded hills. In 1415 the Once a year, on Yom Kippur (the Day of
from a central pulp cavity; hence, the ordinal
region was taken by the Swiss Confederation Atonement), Aaron was allowed to come into
name Tubulidentata. The tubulidentate line
from the Habsburgs, whose ancestral seat was the Holy of Holies, the most sacred part of
may be 60 million years old. The relationship
near Aarau (a. v.), now the cantonal capital. the tabernacle, or sanctuary, in which the
of tubulidentates to other orders of mammals
remains uncertain.
Bern kept the southwestern portion. In 1798 Hebrew tribes worshiped, bringing his offer-
the Bernese part became Aargau canton of the ing. Together with his sister, Miriam, Aaron
aardwolf (species Proteles cristatus), African Helvetic Republic, and the remainder formed spoke against Moses because he had married
carnivore generally placed in the family the canton of Baden. In 1803 the two halves a foreigner (a Cushite woman); but, as in
Hyaenidae but separated by some authorities (and Frick, ceded to the Helvetic Republic by the episode of the golden calf, the narrative
as the family Protelidae. The aardwolf, whose Austria in 1802) were united and admitted to tells how Aaron was merely reproved, though
name in Afrikaans means "earth wolf," re- the Swiss Confederation as Aargau canton. Miriam was punished, for the offense. In the
One of the most fertile parts of Switzer- rebellion of Korah the Levite, however, Aaron
land, Aargau includes among its principal stood firmly at the side of Moses. According
economic activities dairying, fruit and cereal to Numbers 20, Aaron died on the top of
growing, and straw plaiting. Industries include Mount Hor at the age of 123; in Deuteron-
electrical engineering, themanufacture of pre- omy 10, which represents another tradition,
cision instruments, textiles, cement, cigars, he is said to have died in Moserah and was
and the mining and refining of salt. Several buried there.
nuclear power stations are in operation at Aaron is a central figure in the traditions
Beznau. The picturesque landscape, ancient about the Exodus, though his role varies in
castles, and rich museums of the canton at- importance. At the beginning he seems to be
tract considerable tourist traffic, as do the coequal with Moses, but after the march out
hot springs at Schinznach Bad and Baden. of Egypt he is only a shadow at Moses' side.
The population is almost exclusively German- Moses is obviously the leading figure in the
speaking with a small Protestant majority. tradition, but it is also clear that he is pictured
Pop. (1989 est.) 484,308. as delegating his authority in all priestly and
cultic matters to Aaron and "his sons."
Aarhus (Denmark): see Arhus.
Aardwolf (Proteles cristatus) Aaron and the biblical critics. Scholars have
Simon Trevor — Bruce Coleman Ltd Aarlen (Belgium): see Arlon. long been aware that the figure of Aaron as it
is now found in the Pentateuch, or first five
Aaron (fl. c. 14th century bc), the traditional
sembles a small striped hyena. It is yellowish books of the Old Testament, is built up from
founder and head of the Jewish priesthood,
with vertical black stripes and a bushy, black- several sources or layers of traditions. Accord-
who, with his brother Moses, led the Israelites
tipped tail, and it bears a long, coarse mane ing to Julius Wellhausen, a German biblical
out of Egypt. The figure of Aaron as it is now
of erectile hairs along the length of its back. scholar, and his followers, the Yahwist source
found in the Pentateuch is built up from sev-
It has longer front than hind legs, large ears, was the oldest one, followed in order by
eral sources of traditions. In the Talmud and
a pointed muzzle, and weak jaws and teeth. Midrash he is seen as the leading personality the Elohist, Deuteronomist, and Priestly code.
Its length varies from 55 to 80 cm (22 to 32 Scholars have attributed the passages about
at the side of Moses. He has appeared in dif-
inches) exclusive of the 20- to 30-centimetre Aaron to one or the other of these sources.
ferent roles in Christian thought.
tail, and it weighs from 8 to 12 kg (17 to 26 Although their results differ, they do agree
Life. Aaron is described in the Old Testa-
pounds). in ascribing about 90 percent of the material
ment book of Exodus as a son of Amram and
The aardwolf lives on the open, grassy plains Jochebed of the tribe of Levi, three years older about Aaron to the Priestly source. According
of southern and eastern Africa. There are two to Wellhausen, Aaron was not mentioned at
than his brother Moses. He acted together
geographically separate populations, one cen- the Yahwist narrative, but he
all in may have
with his brother in the desperate situation of
tred in South Africa and the other extending been inserted by later redactors.
the Israelites in Egypt and took an active part
from central Tanzania northward to south- in the Exodus. Although Moses was the actual Other scholars, such as Sigmund Mowinckel,
ern Egypt. The aardwolf feeds largely on ter- believe that the narrative about the golden
leader, Aaron acted as his "mouth." The two
mites, particularly on the species Trinerviter- calf, which presents Aaron in an unfavourable
brothers went to the pharaoh together, and it
mes trinervoides. It is nocturnal, lives in a was Aaron who told him to let the people of light, was part of the ancient tradition in the
burrow, and is usually solitary but may forage Israel go, using his magic rod in order to show Yahwist work, being the only passage in it that
in small packs. The litter generally consists of mentions him. This narrative, according to
the might of Yahweh. When the pharaoh fi-
three or four young. The aardwolf is harmless these scholars, originally came from the north-
nally decided to release the people, Yahweh
and shy, when attacked, as by dogs, it emits a gave the important ordinance of the Passover, ern kingdom of Israel and described Aaron as
musky-smelling fluid and may fight. the ancestor of the priests in northern Israel;
the annual ritual remembrance of the Exo-
later it was rewritten in a way defamatory
Aare River, also spelled aar, tributary of dus, to Aaron and Moses. But Moses alone
went up on Mount Sinai, and he alone was to Aaron. But there are also features in the
the Rhine and the longest stream (183 miles
narrative that may indicate that a later source relationship between Moses and Aaron is also 5 Aasen, Ivar
(or traditionist), the Elohist, tried to excuse discussed in the Talmud. Some traditionists
Aaron and to put the main responsibility on have wondered why Aaron, and not Moses,
the people. The Elohist narrator was credited was appointed high priest. The answer has by the Boston Braves of the National League,
with making Aaron the brother and helper been found in an indication that Moses was who assigned him to minor-league teams, first
of Moses, who stood at the side of Moses rejected because of his original unwillingness at Eau
Claire, Wis., then at Jacksonville, Fla.
in the conflict with the pharaoh and assisted when he was called by Yahweh. It also seems He joined the Braves, who meanwhile had
him as a leader in battles and in the cult. to have been hard for some traditionists to moved to Milwaukee, in 1954, thereafter play-
It may also be the Elohist who provides the accept that Aaron was described as older than ing mostly as an outfielder. In 1956 he won
unfavourable story about Aaron's objection to Moses. The death of Aaron is related in the the league batting championship with an av-
Moses' wife. On the other hand, it seems to Midrash Petirat Aharon. erage of .328 and in 1957, leading his team
be the same narrator who mentions Aaron at The first Christian communities admitted to victory in the World Series, was named
the side of Moses in the revolt at Meribah, that Aaron, "the sons of Aaron," or "the order the league's Most Valuable Player. Before the
but here also Aaron, together with Moses, is of Aaron" constituted symbols of the highest Braves moved end of 1965,
to Atlanta, at the
actually reproached. There is reason to be- priesthood. But in The Letter to the Hebrews, Aaron had hit 398 home on
runs. In Atlanta
lieve that Aaron was not mentioned in the Christ is described as a high priest according April 8, 1974, he hit his 715th, breaking Babe
Deuteronomist work by the original author to the order of Melchizedek, which was set Ruth's record, which had stood since 1935.
but that his name has been added by a redac- against "the order of Aaron." Of the Church After the 1974 season, he was traded to the
tor. The main bulk of the traditions about Fathers, Cyril of Alexandria says that Aaron Milwaukee Brewers of the American League.
Aaron and the frequent addition of "and was divinely called to a priesthood and that After the 1976 season, Aaron retired as a
Aaron" after the mention of Moses are found he was a type of Christ. Gregory the Great player and rejoined the Atlanta Braves as an
in the Priestly source, which was written at a translates the name Aaron as "mountain of executive. He was elected to the Baseball Hall
time when the priests had a more dominant strength" and sees in him a redeemer who of Fame on Jan. 13, 1982.
position in Judah than they had before the mediated between God and man. (A.S.K.) Aaron's batting records include totals of 755
exile. By then Moses had ceased to be the bibliography. North, "Aaron's Rise in
F.S. home runs, 1,477 extra-base hits, and 2,297
hero of the priests, and Aaron had taken over Prestige," in Zeitschrifi fur die alttestamentliche runs batted in. His other career statistics in-
that role. Wissenschaft, 66:191-199 (1954), is a short study clude 2,174 runs scored (second to Ty Cobb)
Many modern scholars speak of traditions of Aaron's position. Roland De Vaux, Ancient Is- and 12,364 times at bat in 3,298 games (sec-
where their predecessors spoke of sources, but, rael: Its Life and Institutions (1961, reissued 1973; ond to Pete Rose). His hits (3,771) were ex-
apart from this terminology, the view con- originally published in French, 2 vol., 1958-60); ceeded only by those of Ty Cobb and Pete-
cerning Aaron has not greatly changed. There and Aelred Cody, A History of Old Testament Rose. Aaron's lifetime batting average was
Priesthood (1969), include discussions of Aaron
have been new attempts, however, to see the .305.
and his place in ancient Israelite life and cult.
contrasting figures of Moses and Aaron in a
Walter Beyerlin, Origins and History of the Old- Aaron ben Elijah (b. 1328/30, Nicomedia,
new light. It has been suggested that the tra- est Sinaitic Traditions (1965; originally published Ottoman Empire [modern Izmit, Turkey]
ditions about Moses represent a southern Ju-
in German, 1961), focuses on the traditions be- d. 1369), theologian of Constantinople (now
daean tradition, while the old traditions about hind the story of Moses and Aaron. H.H. Rowley, Istanbul), the only scholar to seek a philo-
Aaron originated in the northern kingdom. Worship in Ancient Israel Its Form and Meaning sophical basis for Karaite beliefs. Karaism, a
It has also been indicated that the traditions (1967, reissued 1976), surveys the religious life in Jewish movement originating in 8th-century
about Moses are primarily concerned with a Israel, including Aaron and his role. Bertil E. Gart-
Iran, rejected the oral tradition and challenged
prophet, while those about Aaron are con- ner, The Temple and the Community in Qumran
the authority of the Talmud, the rabbinical
nected with priesthood. There may be a kernel and the New Testament (1965), treats the religious
compendium of law, lore, and commentary.
of truth in all these suggestions, as also in the cult in the Qumran society, in which "Aaron"
was synonymous with the chief priest. Heinrich
Aaron ben Elijah's views are summarized in
theory of Ivan Engnell that Moses represents
his compilation of Karaite lore, in three books.
the royal ideology while Aaron stands for Valentin, Aaron eine Studie zur vorpriesterlichen
In the first book, Etz hayyini (1346; "Tree of
priesthood, and priesthood alone. The stand- Aaron-Uberlieferung (1978), analyzes the various
interpretations of the biblical references about Life"), modeled after the 12th-century Jewish
ing struggle between the king and the leading
Aaron. philosopher Maimonides' March nevukhim
priests is reflected both in the laws and in the
(The C aide lor the Perplexed), he attempts to
narratives of the historical books. Aaron, Hank, byname of henry louis create a Karaite counterpart to Maimonides'
Aaron in later Jewish and Christian thought aaron Feb. 5,
(b. 1934, Mobile, Ala., U.S.), Aristotelian outlook. In the second book, Can
Aaron continued to live as a symbol in Jewish American professional baseball player who, Eden (1354; "The Garden of Eden"), he at-
religion and traditions, and the position of the during 23 seasons in the major leagues (1954- tempts to justify the Karaite code of law. The
priests was strengthened after the exile. Also, 76), surpassed batting records set by some third book, Keter Torah (1362; "Crown of
in the Qumran sect, a Jewish community that of the greatest hitters in the game, including Law"), is a commentary on the Pentateuch,
flourished in the era just before and contem- Babe Ruth, Ty Cobb, and Stan Musial. based on literal interpretations of the text.
porary with the birth of Christianity, Aaron Aaron, a righthander six feet tall and weigh-
was a symbol for a strong priesthood, as can ing 180 pounds, began his professional career Aaronic priesthood, in the Church of Jesus
be seen from the Dead Sea Scrolls. At the end in 1952, playing a few months as a shortstop Christ of Latter-day Saints, the lesser of the
of time, men of the community should be set with the Indianapolis Clowns of the Negro two categories of priests, concerned principally
apart, as a select group in the service of Aaron. American League. His contract was bought with church finances and administration. See
Only the sons of Aaron should "administer Mormon.
judgment and wealth," and, according to the AARP: see American Association of Retired
Manual of Discipline, two messiahs were ex-
Persons.
pected, one of Aaron, the priestly one, and
one of Israel. According to a fragment found Aasen, Ivar, in full ivar andreas aasen (b.

near Qumran, the priest would have the first Aug. 5,1813, Sunnmere, Nor. —
d. Sept. 23,
seat in the banquets in the last days and bless 1896, Kristiania [Oslo]), language scholar and
the bread before the messiah of Israel. Here dialectologist, who created the written stan-
"the sons of Aaron" have the highest position. dard of Nynorsk (New Norwegian), one of the
In Talmud and Midrash (Jewish commenta- two official languages of Norway.
tive and interpretative writings), Aaron is seen After studying Old Norwegian, Aasen un-
less as a symbol than as the leading personality dertook a survey of the contemporary Nor-
at the side of Moses. The relationship between wegian dialects. These he judged to be the
the two brothers is painted as prototypical in true offshoots of Old Norwegian, as distinct
the Haggada ("Narrative" —
the nonlegal parts from the Danish-influenced written language
of Talmud and Midrash). Rabbi Hillel, the of Norway. The results of his research were
great liberal sage, praised Aaron as peace- published in Del norske folkesprog grammatik
loving, a man of goodwill, who wanted to (1848; "Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects")
teach his fellowmen the Law. and Ordbog over del norske folkesprog (1850;
In Jewish exegesis little is said about him, "Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects"), texts
though he is mentioned as a man who created that prepared the way for the wide cultiva-
peace among men. Many attempts have been tion of Nynorsk. Advancing the view that
made to explain Aaron's participation in the the proper literary language of Norway was
episode of the golden
exegetes, Aaron had
calf.
to make
According to some
the calf in order
1 a purer Norwegian, rather than the official
Dano-Norwegian hybrid, Aasen composed po-
to avoid being killed. In the 11th century, the ems and plays in his composite dialect, while
French commentator Rashi contended that continuing to augment and refine his gram-
the calf was a symbol of the leader, Moses, Hank Aaron mar and dictionary. His definitive grammar
who was at that time on the mountain. The PictonaJ Parade was published in 1864, followed in 1873 by his
 —
VU 6 The abaca plant is closely related to and re- wipe the dust"; noun abaa. "dust"). As the
sembles the banana plant {Musa uipu-tituin). abacus came to be used solely for counting
The abaca plant grows from rootstock that and computing, its form was changed and im-
definitive dictionary ofNynorsk. With certain produces up to about 25 fleshy, fibrcless stalks, proved. The sand ("dust") surface is thought
modifications, the language Aasen fostered forming a circular cluster called a mat, or hill. to have evolved into the board marked with
(which bears the most resemblance to Nor- Each stalk is about 5 cm (2 inches) in diameter lines and equipped with counters whose po-
w.n\ western dialects) rapidly gained national and produces about 12 to 25 leaves with over- sitions indicated numerical values i.e ones, ,

prominence and eventually achieved co-offi- lapping leaf stalks, or petioles, sheathing the tens, hundreds, and so on. In the Roman aba-
cial status with Dano-Norwegian. Quite early plant stalk to form an herbaceous (nonwoody) cus the board was given grooves to facilitate
in his career (1842) Aasen received a stipend false trunk about 30 to 40 cm in diameter. moving the counters in the proper files. An-
to enable him to give his entire attention to The oblong, pointed leaf blade topping each other form, common today, has the counters
his linguistic investigations. petiole is bright green on the upper surface strung on wires.
and yellowish green below and grows to about
AAU: see Amateur Athletic Union of the
1 to 2.5 m
(3 to 8 feet) in length and 20 to 30
United States.
cm in width at its widest portion.
ABA: see American Basketball Association. The first petioles grow from the plant stalk
base; others develop from successively higher
Aba, city, Abia state, southern Nigeria. It
points on the stalk, so that the oldest leaves are
lies along the west bank of the Aba River,
on the outside and the youngest on the inside,
at the intersection of roads from Port Har-
extending to the top, which eventually reaches
court, Owerri, Umuahia, Ikot Ekpene, and
a height of 4 to 8 m. The position of the
Ikot Abasi (Opobo). Aba was a traditional
petiole determines its colour and the colour
market town for the Igbo (Ibo) people of the
of the fibre it yields, with outer sheaths being
tropical rainforest before the establishment of
darkest and inner sheaths lightest. When the
a British military post there in 1901. With
plant stalk has its full complement of sheath-
the construction of the railway in 1915 from
ing petioles, a large flower spike emerges from
Port Harcourt (36 miles [58 km] southwest),
its top. The small flowers, which are cream to
the city became
major collecting point for
a
dark rose in colour, occur in dense clusters.
agricultural produce (especially palm oil and
The inedible, banana-shaped fruits, about 8
palm kernels). By the 1930s Aba was a. set-
tled urban community, and it is now a large
cm long and 2-2.5 cm in diameter, have green
skins and white pulp; the seeds are fairly large
industrial and commercial centre. An 18.5-
mile- (30-kilometre-) long pipeline from the
and black.
Imo River natural-gas field provides power for The plants grow best in fairly rich, loose,
Aba's industrial
loamy soils that have good drainage. Propaga-
estate. Textiles, pharmaceuti-
tion is mainly from pieces of mature rootstock
cals, soap, plastics, cement, footware, and cos-
usually planted at the start of the rainy season.
metics are manufactured in the city, and there
are also a brewery and a distillery. Aba has a
Within 18 to 24 months after planting, two or
three of the plant stalks in each mat are ready
school of arts and science, secondary schools,
for harvesting, and two to four stalks can be
a teacher-training college, and several techni-
harvested at intervals of four to six months
cal and trade institutes. The city is noted for
its handicrafts. Pop. (1993 est.) 277,300.
thereafter. The stalk, with its surrounding peti-
oles, cut off close to the ground, usually
is Chinese abacus, the hsiian-pan ("computing tray")
abaca (Musa textilis), plant of the family at the time of blossoming. Abaca plants are "British Crown Copyright,'' Science Museum, London
Musaceae, and its fibre, which is second in generally replaced within 10 years.
importance among the leaf fibre (^.v.) group. In the Chinese abacus shown, each of the two
In the Philippines the fibre-bearing outer
Abaca fibre, unlike most other leaf fibres, is layer is usually removed from the petiole by
beads in the upper section of the frame repre-
obtained from the plant leaf stalks (petioles). sents five units, and each of the five beads in
an operation in which strips, or tuxies, are
Although sometimes known as Manila hemp, the lower section one unit (of the numerical
freed at one end and pulled off. In the clean-
Cebu hemp, or Davao hemp, the abaca plant ing operation that follows, pulpy material is
order represented by the file). In performing
not related to true hemp. addition, appropriate beads are moved to the
is scraped away by hand or machine, freeing the
The plant, native to the Philippines, achieved dividing bar. The number represented on the
fibre strands, which are dried in the sun. In
importance as a source of cordage fibre in the machine decortication, which is widely prac- bar in the picture is 7,230,189.
19th century. In 1925 the Dutch began culti- ticed in Central America, the stalks, cut into
The abacus, generally in the form of a large
vating it in Sumatra, and the U.S. Department calculating board, was in universal use in Eu-
lengths of 0.6 to 2 m, are crushed and scraped
of Agriculture established plantings in Central rope in the Middle Ages, as well as in the Arab
by machine, and the fibre strands are dried
America. A small commercial operation was mechanically.
world and in Asia. It reached Japan in the
16th century. The introduction of the Hindu-
started in British North Borneo (now Sabah, The strands average 1 to 3 min length,
Arabic notation, with its place value and zero,
part of Malaysia) in 1930. During World War depending on petiole size and the processing
II, with Philippine abaca no longer available
method used. The lustrous fibre ranges in gradually replaced the abacus, though it was
to the Allies, American production greatly in- still widely used in Europe as late as the 17th
colour from white through brown, red, purple,
creased. The Philippines remain the world's or black, depending on plant variety and stalk century and survives today in the Middle East,
largest producer of abaca. position; the strongest fibres come from the
China, and Japan; an expert practitioner can
outer sheaths. compete against many modern mechanical
calculating machines.
Abaca fibre is valued for its exceptional
strength, flexibility, buoyancy, and resistance Abadan, Arabic abbadan, city, extreme
to damage in salt water. These qualities make southwestern Iran. The city is situated in
the fibre exceptionally suitable for marine Khuzestan, part of the oil-producing region
cordage. Abaca is chiefly employed for ships' of Iran. Abadan lies on an island of the same
ropes, hawsers, and cables and for fishing lines, name along the eastern bank of the Shatt
hoisting and power-transmission ropes, well- Al-'Arab (river), 33 miles (53 km) from the
drilling cables, and fishing nets. Some abaca Persian Gulf. The city thus lies along Iran's
is used in carpets, table mats, and paper. The border with Iraq. Abadan Island is bounded
plant's inner fibres can be used without spin- on the west by the Shatt Al-'Arab and on the
ning to manufacture lightweight, strong fab- east by the Bahmanshir, which is an outlet of
rics, mainly used locally for garments, hats, the Karun River. The island is 42 miles (68
and shoes. km) long and from 2 to 12 miles (3 to 19 km)
abacus, plural abaci, or abacuses, calcu- wide.
lating device, probably of Babylonian origin, Reputedly founded^ by a holy man, Abbad,
that was long important in commerce. It is the in the 8th century, Abadan was a prosperous
ancestor of the modern calculating machine coastal town in the Abbasid period and was
and computer. known for its salt and woven mats. But the
The earliest "abacus" likely was a board extension of the delta of the Shatt Al-'Arab by
or slab on which a Babylonian spread sand silt deposition caused the coast^ of the Persian

so he could trace letters for general writing Gulf to gradually recede from Abadan. By the
purposes. The word abacus is probably de- time the town was visited by the Arab geogra-
Stripping fibre from abaca (Musa textilis) in the
Philippines rived, through its Greek form abakos, from
pher Ibn Battutah in the 14th century, it was
Charles W Miller— Shostal Associates a Semitic word such as the Hebrew ibeq ("to described as little more than a large village in
a flat, salty plain.
 —

Persia and the Ottomans long disputed was realized, his reign greatly strengthened 7 abatement
Abadan's possession, but Persia acquired it in the foundations of Manchu rule. A year after
1847. Its village status remained unchanged his death the Manchus conquered Peking, the
until the early 20th century, when rich oil- capital of China's Ming dynasty, and shortly ments. The large muscular foot of the abalone
fieldswere discovered in Khuzestan In 1909 after subdued the remainder of the country. is eaten as a delicacy in several countries.
the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (its Iranian Commercial fisheries for abalones exist in
Abaiang Atoll, also spelled apaiang, also
properties were nationalized in 1951 as the California, Mexico, Japan, and South Africa.
called apia, formerly charlotte island,
National Iranian Oil Company) established its The largest abalone is the 30-centimetre red
coral atoll of the Gilbert Islands, part of Kiri-
pipeline terminus refinery at Abadan. The re- abalone (//. rufescens) of the western coast of
bati, in the west -central Pacific Ocean. Com-
finery began operating in 1913, and by 1956 the United States.
prising six islets in the northern Gilberts with
Abadan had become a city of more than Abancay, capital of Abancay provincia and
a total land area of 6 square miles (16 square
220,000 inhabitants, with an economy almost
km), the atoll has a lagoon (16 by 5 miles [26 of Apurimac departamento. southern Peru. It
entirely based on petroleum refining and ship-
by 8 km]) that provides sheltered anchorage. is on the eastern bank of the Marino
situated
ping. The refinery complex was served by
Captain Thomas Gilbert, its European discov- River 7,798 feet (2,377 m) above sea level,
at
pipelines running from oil fields to the north,
erer (1788), named it Matthew's Island, after in a cool, dry intermontane basin. The ex-
and pipelines were subsequently constructed
the owner of his ship, the Charlotte. He called act date of the founding of Abancay (from
from Abadan to Tehran and to Shiraz. By the the Quechua Indian amankay. the name of a
the lagoon Charlotte Bay and the main islet
late 1970s the city's oil refinery was perhaps
Point Charlotte. Subsequent errors in identi- wildflower similar to a white lily) is unknown,
the largest in the world.
fication led to the island's being known as but it was a leading commercial centre during
In September 1980, however, Abadan was
Charlotte Island. The area's first influential the Spanish colonial era. Proclaimed a town in
almost overrun in the course of Iraq's sur-
missionary, the American Hiram Bingham, 1873, it was given city status in 1874. Aban-
Khuzestan. The Iraqis
prise invasion of failed
arrived there in 1857. The atoll, occupied by cay is the agricultural and industrial centre of
to take Abadan, but their artillery and aerial
the Japanese in 1941-43, was subsequently much of Apurimac. The growing and milling
bombardments destroyed its refineries and re-
used by U.S. forces as a base for attacking of sugar, liquor and rum distilling, copper
duced most of the city to rubble. After the
the Marshall Islands. The administrative cen- mining, and sericulture are important.
Iran-Iraq War ended in 1988, Iran restarted
tre and main village is Taburao. Copra is Abancay lies about 300 miles (480 km) east-
petroleum refining and petrochemical pro-
exported. Pop. (1995) 6,020. southeast of Lima and is fairly isolated. Roads
duction in Abadan on a smaller scale using
link it to the Andean cities of Ayacucho and
reconstructed plants. The citv's port reopened Abakaliki, town, Enugu state, southeastern
Cuzco and to the coastal Pan-American High-
in 1993. Pop. (1986) 21,879;'(1996) 206,873. Nigeria. It the intersection of roads
lies at
way at Nazca. Pop. (1993) city, 46,997.
from Enugu. Afikpo, and Ogoja. An agricul-
A tural trade centre (yams, cassava, rice, and abandonment, in Anglo-American property
listof the abbreviations used
in the micropaedia will be found
palm oil and kernels) for the Igbo (Ibo) people, law, the relinquishment of possession of prop-
the town is located in an area known for its erty with an intent to terminate all ownership
at the end of this volume
lead, zinc, and limestone deposits. Although interests in that property. Abandonment may
lead has been mined since precolonial times, occur by throwing away the property, by los-
Abac ancient town in the northeast corner of the deposits are worked only when the world ing it and making no attempt to retrieve it.
Phocis. Greece. The town was famous for its market price is high. Limestone is quarried for by vacating the property with no intention of
oracle of Apollo, which was one of those con- a cement plant at Nkalagu, 22 miles (35 km) returning to it, or by any other act manifest-
sulted by the Lydian king Croesus. Although west-northwest. Abakaliki's government farm ing a complete disclaimer of ownership in the
the Persians sacked and burned the temple in promotes egg and poultry production. Pop. property. The general effect of abandonment
480 bc. the oracle continued to be consulted (1991 prelim.) 83,651. is to give full ownership of the property to the
e.g., by the Thebans before the Battle of Leuc- first taker.
tra (371 bc). The temple, burned again during
Abakan, formerly (until 1931) ust-aba-
In the French and civil-law systems, the term
kanskoe, city and administrative centre of
the Sacred War (355-346 bc), was partly re- abandonment is more technical and means
the republic of Khakasiya. south-central Rus-
stored by the Roman emperor Hadrian. Ruins the surrender by a debtor of his property to be
sia. The city lies on the left bank of the
of the town walls and the acropolis remain on used in satisfaction of claims by his creditors.
the town's site.
Abakan River near its confluence with the
Yenisey River. The starting point of a south- Abaoji (Mongol ruler): see A-pao-chi.
Abaha (people): see Ha. ern Siberian railway line (opened in 1960),
Abariringa Atoll (Kiribati): see Kanton
reign titles (Wade-Giles romaniza-
Abakan connected with Novokuznetsk and
is
Abahai, Atoll.
tion) t'ien-ts'ung and ch'ung-te (b. Nov. thence to Barnaul, Akmolinsk, and Magnito-
gorsk. The city has metalworking, footwear, Abasiyanik, Sait Faik (b. Nov. 23,
28, 1592, Manchuria [now in China]
and food-processing industries, and coal and 1906. Adapazan. Ottoman Empire [now in
1643, Manchuria), Manchurian
d. Sept. 21,
who, in 1636. became emperor
tribal leader
iron ore are mined in the vicinitv. Pop. (1997 Turkey] — d. May 1 1, 1954, Istanbul, Turkey),
est.) 166,000. short-story writer, a major figure in modern
of the Manchus, Mongols, and Chinese in
Turkish literature.
Manchuria and, for his family, adopted the abalone, any of several marine snails of
Educated in Constantinople (now Istanbul)
name of Ch'ing. the subclass Prosobranchia (class Gastropoda)
and Bursa. Abasiyanik was in France from
Abahai was the eighth son of Nurhachi constituting the genus Haliotis and family
1931 to 1935, primarily in Grenoble. On his
(1559-1626), the great Manchu leader who ex- Haliotidae, in which the shell has a row of
return to Turkey, he began to publish his
tended his people's rule over the tribes of the holes on its outer surface. Abalones are one-
short stories in Varhk ("Existence"), the na-
Inner Asian steppes and organized his tribes- shelled snails found in warm seas worldwide.
tion's leading avant-garde periodical.
men into a bureaucratic Chinese-style state. The dishlike shell is perforated near one edge Abasiyanik's stories were written in a style
Soon after his father's death. Abahai elimi- by a single row of small holes that become new to Turkish literature: despite their form-
nated his brothers as rivals and consolidated progressively filled during the animal's growth;
lessness and lack of a com entional story line,
his personal rule. He was successful largely be- the last five to nine holes remain open to serve
they convey in a single, compelling episode
cause of his extraordinary ability as a military as outlets for the snail's waste products. De-
a wide range of human emotion. In 1936 he
leader. He led armies into Inner Mongolia pending on the species, abalones range from published his first volume of short stories, Se-
and Korea and made those countries vassal 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 inches) across and up to maver ("The Samovar"). A dozen others fol-
states of the Manchus. With the increased 7.5 cm in depth. The shell's lustrous, iridescent
lowed, including Luzumsu: adam (1948: "The
monetary and food supplies available from interior is used in the manufacture of orna-
Useless Man"). Kumpanya (1951; "The Com-
Korea and with the additional manpower and pany"), and Alemdagda var bir yilan (1953:
horses from the Mongols, he perfected the
"There's a Snake at Alem Mountain"). He
military machine known as the Eight Banners.
also wrote an experimental novel. Bir takim
After four expeditions he finally occupied the
insanlar (1952; "A Group of People"), which
formerly Chinese-controlled Amur region of
was censored because it dealt strongly with
northern Manchuria and three times broke
class differences.
through the Great Wall on raids into North
China. Abate, Niccolo dell' (Italian painter): see
As more Chinese were captured and taken Abbate. Niccolo dell".

into Manchu service, the government was

abatement, in law, interruption of a legal
able to duplicate more exactly the organi-
proceeding upon the pleading by a defendant
zational structure of its Chinese counterpart.
of a matter that prevents the plaintiff from go-
Thus other talented Chinese were induced to ing forward with the action at that time or in
join. On the advice of his Chinese advisers.
that form. Pleas in abatement raise such mat-
Abahai changed his dynastic name from Chin Abalone (Haliotis) ters as objections to the place, mode, or time
to Ch'ing ("Pure") and began the conquest Jacques Six of the plaintiffs claim. At one time, abate-
of China. Although he died before his goal
 —
Vbau/it. Kirmin 8 (1069-9S), made Seville a brilliant centre ot repertory and. later, his special interest in the
Spanish-Muslim culture. In 107 he took < or-
1 music of Gioacchino Rossini and Giuseppe
doba. maintaining a precarious hold on the Verdi
m
equity differed from
proceedings citv until 1075; he held it again. 1078-91.
meal of 'Abbas, name of rulers grouped below by
abatement in law, m
that the former merelj while Ibn Ammar. his vizier and fellow poet.
country and indicated by the symbol •.
impended the action, subject to revival when conquered Murcia.
the defect was cured, whereas the latter ter- I he Abbadids' position was weakened, how- Egypt
minated it. although the plaintiff could start ever. b> an outbreak of hostilities with the
the action anew. The latter is now the more ( .istihan king Alfonso VI; Christian progress
•'Abbas I (b. 1813—d.
July 13, 1854, Banna,
in Aragon and Valencia and the fall of Toledo Egypt), khedive (viceroy) of Egypt under the
common usage
(1085). together with pressure from religious Ottomans from 1848 to 1854. During his
The term abatement is also used in law to
enthusiasts at home, forced al-Mu'tamid to reign he deliberately opposed change, such as
mean the removal or control of annoyance.
seek an alliance with Yusuf ibn Tashufin the Western-inspired reforms initiated by his
Abauzit, Firmin Nov II. 1679. Uzes.
(b. grandfather Muhammad 'Ali Pasha (viceroy
of the Almoravid dynasty. Despite 'Abbadid
Fr._d. March 1767. Geneva. Switz.),
20. 1805-48).
support of Ibn Tashufin at the Battle of Az-
scholar who contributed to a French transla- 'Abbas, distrustful of Europeans and Euro-
Zallaqah in 1086. Ibn Tashufin later turned
tion of the New estament. 1
pean-educated Egyptians, reacted to the re-
against his ally and besieged Seville; the city
Abauzit was born of Huguenot parents and forms of Muhammad 'Ali by closing down
was betrayed by Almoravid sympathizers in
was sent at age 10 to live in Geneva so that he 1091 after a heroic defense by al-Mu'tamid. or neglecting the public and military schools
would escape the strictures (enforced Roman and factories. He reduced the armed forces,
With the exile of al-Mu'tamid and his family
Catholicism) brought about by the revocation stopped the construction of the Delta Dam,
to Morocco began the ascendency in Spain of
of the Edict of Nantes. In 1698 he undertook and opposed the construction of the Suez
the Almoravids.
an extensive journey through Germany, the Canal that had been proposed by the French.
Abbadie, Antoine-Thomson d'; and Ab- He allowed the construction, however, of the
badie. Arnaud-Michel d' (respectively b. Alexandria-Cairo Railway by the British, who
Jan. 3. 1810. Dublin, Ire.—d. March 19, 1897. in return assisted him in his dispute with
Pirinei. Italy; b. July 24, 1815, Dublin— d. the Ottoman government over the application
Nov. 13, 1893, Urrugne, Fr.), two brothers of the Western-inspired reforms (tanzimat) in
who, as geographers and travelers, conducted Egypt. Although he was opposed to the re-
extensive investigations of the geography, ge- forms, 'Abbas showed his loyalty by sending
ology, archaeology, and natural history of an expeditionary force to assist the Ottomans
Ethiopia. in the Crimean War (1853); he also abolished
Their parents, a French father and an Irish the state trade monopolies, which had defied
mother, moved to France in 1818. In 1835 the Ottoman treaties with the European powers.
French Academy sent Antoine on a scientific Although 'Abbas' aversion to reforms won
mission to Brazil. Arnaud spent some time him the reputation of a reactionary, his cur-
in Algeria before the two brothers started for tailment of government spending benefited
Ethiopia in 1837, landing at Mitsiwa (Mas- the poorer classes, who received tax remissions
sawa) in 1838. After collecting much informa- and suffered less from compulsory labour and
Abauzit, detail of an oil painting tion on the geography and natural history of conscription into the army. A man of secre-
by Robert Gardelle, 1741; in the the country, the brothers returned to France
Bibliotheque Publique et Universitaire, tive nature, 'Abbas lived in isolation in his
in 1848. Antoine published a classified list palace at Banha, where he was strangled by
Geneva
and description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts two of his servants.
By courtesy of the Bibliotheque Publique et
Universitaire Geneva, photograph Jean Arlaud (1859), topographical findings (1860-73), and
part of a geography of Ethiopia ( 1 890). He be- •'Abbas 'abbas hilmI pasha
II, also called
Netherlands, and England. While on this jour- came involved in controversies regarding his (b. July 14, 1874, Egypt d.
Alexandria, —
ney he met such prominent people as Pierre geographic findings, but subsequent explor- Dec. 20, 1944, Geneva. Switz.). last khedive
Bayle and Isaac Newton. He was offered res- ers proved that his statements were correct, (viceroy) of Egypt, from 1892 to 1914, when
idence in England, which he declined, and though he erred in contending that the Blue British hegemony was established. His oppo-
in 1723 he also turned down the offer of a Nile was the main headstream of the Nile. In sition to British power in Egypt made him
professorship of philosophy at the University 1873 he published, along with findings from prominent in the nationalist movement.
of Geneva. Widely known for his erudition his stay in Ethiopia, the results of his earlier At the beginning of his reign, 'Abbas at-
and modest nature, Abauzit was appreciated scientific mission to Brazil. tempted to rule independently of Lord
by many of the leading thinkers of his time. Arnaud visited Ethiopia again in 1 853. A gen- Cromer, the British agent and consul gen-
He collaborated on the French-language New eral account of the expedition that he under- eral in Egypt. Encouraged by popular discon-
Testament in 1726. In 1727 he was granted took with his brother was included in his work tent with the increasing British influence over
citizenship in Geneva, and that same year he Douze ans de sejour dans la Haute Ethiopie Egypt and by the enthusiastic support of the
accepted a post as an honorary librarian there. (1868; "Twelve Years in Upper Ethiopia"). nationalists, he appointed a prime minister
This position enabled him to write a number who was well-known for his opposition to
of theological and scholarly works, including Abbado, Claudio (b. June 26, 1933, Milan,
the British. When in 1894 he criticized the
the article "Apocalypse," which Denis Diderot conductor and music director of
Italy), Italian
military efficiency of the British troops. Lord
commissioned the Vienna State Opera (1986-91) and prin-
for his Encyclopedic Cromer took steps to curb the viceroy's inde-
cipal conductor of the Vienna Philharmonic
pendence of action.
Orchestra (from 1971), the London Symphony After 1 894, although 'Abbas no longer headed
A list of the abbreviations used Orchestra (1979-88), and the Berlin Philhar-
in the micropaedia will be found the nationalist movement, he provided finan-
monic (from 1989). cial assistance to the pan-Islamic and anti-
at the end of this volume
One of a long line of Milanese musicians British daily newspaper Al-Mu'ayyad. When
his father, Michelangelo Abbado, was a violin-
in 1906 the nationalists demanded constitu-
'Abbadid dynasty, Muslim-Arab dynasty ist —
Claudio Abbado at first studied privately. tional government for Egypt, however, 'Abbas,
of Andalusia that arose in Seville in the lth 1 He entered the Giuseppe Verdi Conservatory now reconciled with the British, rejected their
century, in the period of the factions, or "party at 16 to concentrate on piano, composition,
demands. The following year he agreed to the
kingdoms" (laifas). following the downfall of and conducting and then studied conducting formation of the National Party, headed by
the caliphate of Cordoba. at the Chigiana Academy of Siena and at the
Mustafa Kamil, to counter the Ummah
Party
In 1023 the qadi (religious judge) Abu Vienna Academy of Music, working with con- of the moderate nationalists, which was sup-
al-Qasim Muhammad ibn 'Abbad declared ductor Hans Swarowsky. ported by the British. With the appointment
Seville independent of Cordoba. His son Abu In 1958 Abbado won the Serge Koussevitzky
of Lord Kitchener as consul general (1912-
'Amr 'Abbad, known as al-Mu'tadid (1042- conducting prize at the Tanglewood (Mass.)
14), the leaders of the National Party were
69), greatly enlarged his territory by forcibly Festival and in 1963 the Dimitri Mitropou-
exiled or imprisoned, and 'Abbas' authority
annexing the minor kingdoms of Mertola, los conducting prize. He made his British
was curtailed.
Niebla, Huelva, Saltes. Silves, and Santa Maria debut in 1965, leading the Halle Orchestra At the beginning of World War I 'Abbas
de Algarve. in Manchester, and in 1966 he began his
issued an appeal to the Egyptians and the
A poet and patron of poets, al-Mu'tadid also long association with the London Symphony
Sudanese to support the Central Powers and
had a reputation for ruthlessness and cruelty; Orchestra; he directed it regularly before he
1053 he suffocated a number of Berber
On Dec. 18, 1914, Britain
to fight the British.
in succeeded Andre Previn as principal conduc- declared Egypt its protectorate and deposed
chiefs of southern Andalusia in a steam bath tor in 1979. Abbado was for several years the
'Abbas the following day. His uncle Husayn
in Seville and then seized their kingdoms of music director at La Scala, Milan, where he Kamil (reigned 1914-17) replaced him and
Arcos, Moron, and Ronda. helped make the opera house more accessi-
assumed the title of sultan. In 1922, when
The last member of the dynasty, the poet- ble to the working-class operagoer. He was
Egypt was declared independent, 'Abbas lost
king Muhammad ibn 'Abbad al-Mu'tamid especially known for his Germanic orchestral
all rights to the throne. He passed the rest of state or the royalhousehold. Shah 'Abbas felt 9 Abbas, Ferhat
his life in exile, mainly in Switzerland. that he could rely on the loyalty of these
ghuldms ("slaves") of the shah, as they were
Persia known, and he used them to counterbalance standing rulers —
his great achievement in first
• 'Abbas I, bvname 'abbas the great (b.
the influence of the Kizilbash. whom he dis- saving the Safavid Empire from collapse and
Jan. 27, 1571— d. Jan. 19. 1629). shah of trusted. Ghuldms soon rose to high office and then raising it to new heights of splendour is
Persia from 1588 to 1629, who strengthened were appointed governors of crown provinces. marred by his treatment of his own family
the Safavid dynasty by expelling Ottoman and Eventually. 'Abbas was able to take the of- and the fact that his reforms contained within
Uzbek troops from Persian soil and by creat- fensive against his external foes. In 1598 he them the seeds of the future decay of both
ing a standing army. He also made Isfahan the inflicted a major defeat on the Uzbeks and dynasty and state. (R.M.Sa.)
regained control of Khorasan. From 1602 on- bibliography. L.L. Bellan, Chah 'Abbas I: sa
ward he conducted a series of successful cam- vie, son hisioire (1932), the only biography of

paigns against the Ottomans and recovered Shah 'Abbas I in any European language gen- —
the territory' lost to them. erally accurate; R.M. Savory, "'Abbas I" in the
After his great victory over the Uzbeks, 'Ab- Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., vol. 1, pp. 7-
bas transferred the capital from Kazvin to 8 (1960); for general background to the period of
Isfahan. Under his guidance, Isfahan rapidly Shah 'Abbas, the reader is referred to: J. Chardin,
became one of the most beautiful cities in Voyages du Chevalier Chardin, 4th ed., 4 vol.
(1811); Sir John Malcom, The History of Persia
the world. He adorned the city with many
from the Early Period to the Present Time, 2
mosques and theological colleges and con-
vol. (1815); and V. Minorsky, Tadhkirat al-Muluk
structed numerous caravansaries and public
(1943), especially the introduction, commentary,
baths. He laid out the city with spacious
and appendixes.
boulevards and a splendid square. The Shah's
building energies were not confined to Isfahan; Abbas, Ferhat (b. Aug. 24,
1899, Taher.

Abbas detail of a painting by the

the extension and restoration of the famous near Constantine, Alg. —
Dec. 24, 1985, Al-
d.
giers), politician and leader of the national
I.
shrine at Meshed and the construction, along
Mughal school of Jahangir, c. 1620: in
the swampy littoral of the Caspian Sea, of the independence movement who served as the
the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington,
celebrated stone causeway, designed to give first president of the Provisional Government
DC.
access to his favourite winter retreats, were of the Algerian Republic.
By courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution, Freer
Gallery ol Art Washington. DC among his most notable achievements. Son of a Muslim official in the Algerian civil
To Isfahan came ambassadors from Euro- service. Abbas received an entirely French
capital of Persia and fostered commerce and pean countries, merchants seeking to estab- education at Philippeville (now Skikda) and
the arts, so that Persian artistic achievement Constantine and at the University of Algiers.
lish trade relations, representatives of foreign
reached a high point in his reign. After two years' service with the French Army,
monastic orders seeking permission to found
Life. The third son of Soltan Mohammad convents at Isfahan and elsewhere, and gen- he became a pharmacist at Setif and was
Shah, 'Abbas came to the throne in October tlemen of fortune, such as the brothers Sir elected first to the municipal council of Setif
1588. at a critical moment in the fortunes
of the Safavid dynasty. The weak rule of his
—
Anthony and Sir Robert Sherley the former and then to the general council in Constan-
tine. Early in his political career, he advocated
an adventurer, the latter a loyal servant of the
semiblind father had allowed usurpation by Shah who distinguished himself in the wars collaboration with the French, the assimilation
the amirs, or chiefs, of the Turkmen tribes, of the "native element in French society," and
against the Ottomans. The reign of Shah 'Ab-
who had brought the Safavid to power and still bas was a period of intense commercial and the abolition of colonialism to bring about
constituted the backbone of Safavid military the emancipation of the Algerian Muslims as
diplomatic activity, and, in the Persian Gulf,
strength. Moreover, the intertribal factional- French citizens. Disillusioned by the French
the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the English
ism of these Turkmens (known as Kizilbash strove to make themselves masters of trade in 1938, he organized the Union Populaire
[Red Heads] because of the distinctive red there and in the Indian Ocean. Algerienne, which proposed equal rights for
headgear that they had adopted to mark their 'Abbas' reign also marks a peak of Persian French and Algerians while preserving the Al-
adherence to the Safavids) had so weakened artistic achievement. Under his patronage, gerian culture and language. Nevertheless, at
the state that its traditional enemies, the Ot- the outbreak of World War II, Abbas enlisted
carpet weaving became a major industry, and
toman Turks to the west and the Uzbeks to fine Persian rugs began to appear in the homes in the medical corps of the French Armv.
the east, had been able to make large inroads On Feb. 10, 1943, the "Manifesto of the Al-
of wealthy European burghers. Another prof-
into Persian territory. gerian People," prepared by Abbas, was pro-
itable export was textiles, which included bro-
Shah 'Abbas thus had two immediate tasks: cades and damasks of unparalleled richness. claimed. It was subsequently presented to the
to reassert the authority of the monarchy and French and the Allied authorities in North
The production and sale of silk was made a
to expel Ottoman and Uzbek troops from Per- monopoly of the crown. In the illumination of
sian soil. Because he was unable to fight a war
manuscripts, bookbinding, and ceramics, the
on two fronts simultaneously, in 1589-90 he work of the period of 'Abbas is without equal;
signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans, thus in painting it is among the most notable in
freeing himself for an offensive against the Persian history.
Uzbeks. By the treaty, large areas in west and Assessment. Shah 'Abbas ruled with a pas-
northwest Persia were ceded to the Ottomans. sionate zeal for justice and the welfare cf his
Despite the breathing space thus gained, 'Ab- subjects. He frequented meeting places of the
bas for 10 years was unable to launch a major ordinary people in order to learn of extortion
offensive against the Uzbeks, and Iran suffered and oppression on the part of his officials; his
further loss of territory both to the Uzbeks punishment of corrupt officials was swift. He
and to the Mughals of India. showed unusual religious tolerance, granting
The delay was caused by 'Abbas' decision to privileges to many Christian groups.
create a standing army a concept novel to — The dark side of his character was reserved
Safavid kings, who traditionally levied armies for his own sons and members of his own
in time of need from the tribal cavalry. family. The experiences of his youth, when Ferhat Abbas
The creation of a standing army immediately he was marked for execution by his uncle. Camera Press Ltd —Pictorial Pa/ade/EB 'nc
caused a budgetary problem, because the old Shah Esma'Il II, had left him with a morbid
tribal cavalry had been paid from the revenues fear of conspiracy. Originally, he followed the Africa. The manifesto, which reflected a fun-
of the provinces governed by Kizilbash chiefs. practice of his predecessors in appointing the damental change author's political posi-
in its
'Abbas solved the problem in the short term princes of the blood royal as provincial gover- tion, not only condemned French colonial rule
by bringing a number of these provinces di- nors, but after a series of revolts and intrigues but also called for the application of the prin-
rectly under the control of the Shah; the taxes in favour of his sons, the royal princes were ciple of self-determination and demanded an
in these new "crown" provinces were remit- confined to the harem, where their only com- Algerian constitution granting equality to all
ted to the royal treasury. In the long run the panions were women and eunuchs. As his ob- inhabitants of Algeria. In May, Abbas, along
inevitable result of this policy, the reduction sessive fear of assassination increased, 'Abbas with a number of his colleagues, wrote an ad-
in the numbers of Kizilbash troops, seriously began to put to death or to blind any member dendum to the manifesto, which envisioned a
weakened the country's military strength. of the royal family who caused him anxiety in sovereign Algerian nation. It was presented to
The new standing army was composed this regard. In this way, one son was executed the French on June 26. On its rejection by the
mainly of Georgians. Armenians, and Circas- (an act that caused 'Abbas bitter remorse) and French governor general, Ferhat Abbas and an
sians (who had been brought to Persia as pris- two were blinded, and his father and broth- Algerian working-class leader, Messali Hadj,
oners during the reign of 'Abbas' grandfather) ers were blinded and imprisoned. 'Abbas died formed the Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberie
and their descendants. After their conversion without an heir capable of succeeding him. (aml; Friends of the Manifesto and Liberty),
to Islam, they were trained for service either Though 'Abbas possessed great stature as a which envisioned an Algerian autonomous re-
in the army or in the administration of the —
monarch even in an age notable for its out- public federated to a renewed, anti-colonial
Abbas, Mahmoud 10 military forces. He began sending Iranian stu- nasties claimed caliphal status. With the rise of
dents to Europe to learn Western techniques. the Abbasids the base for influence in the em-
In 1812 a printing press was established in pire became international, emphasizing mem-
France. After the suppression of the ami and Tabriz, the capital of Azerbaijan, and the bership in the community of believers rather
a year's imprisonment, in 1946 he founded translation of European military handbooks than Arab nationality. Since much support for
the Union Democratique du Manifeste Alg6r- was encouraged. A gunpowder factory and an the Abbasids came from Persian converts, it
ien (udma; Democratic Union of the Algerian artillery foundry were also started. was natural for the Abbasids to take over much
Manifesto), which advocated cooperation with The new army was drilled by British military of the Persian (Sasanian) tradition of govern-
France in the formation of the Algerian state. advisers, who taught such tactics as the use of ment. Support by pious Muslims likewise led
Abbas' moderate and conciliatory attempts infantry formations and close cooperation be- the Abbasids to acknowledge publicly the em-
failed to evoke a sympathetic response from tween infantry and artillery. This army distin- bryonic Islamic law and to profess to base their
the French colonial officials, however, and in guished itself in campaigns against the rule on the religion of Islam. Between 750
1956 he escaped to Cairo to join the Front de Ottoman Turks in 1821-23. During the sec- and 833 the Abbasids raised the prestige and
Liberation Nationale (fln), an Algerian orga- ond Russo-Iranian war (1826-28) Abbas power of the empire, promoting commerce, in-
nization committed to revolutionary struggle MIrza again led the Iranian forces. In the first dustry, arts, and science, particularly during
for independence from France. year of the war he was able to recapture all of the reigns of al-Mansur, Harun ar-Rashld, and
On Sept. 18, 1958, the Provisional Govern- Iran's lost territory. In the end, however, Rus- al-Ma'mun. Their temporal power, however,
ment of the Algerian Republic was formed sian numerical superiority and discipline, cou- began to decline when al-Mu'tasim introduced
with Ferhat Abbas as president. He resigned in pled with Fath All Shah's refusal to reinforce non-Muslim Berber, Slav, and especially Turk-
1961 but was elected president of the Algerian and replace Abbas MIrza's losses, led to a dis- ish mercenary forces into his personal army.
Constituent Assembly in 1962, when Algeria astrous defeat. At the cessation of hostilities Although these troops were converted to Islam,
gained independence. Despite his political al- (1828), Iran had lost all its Georgian and Cau- the base of imperial unity through religion was
liance with the revolutionary and Socialist fln, casian territories. gone, and some of the new army officers
he remained an exponent of parliamentary in- 'Abbas MIrza was shattered by this defeat. He quickly learned to control the caliphate
stitutions and constitutionalism. To protest lost interest in military reform and spent the through assassination of any caliph who
the drafting of the Algerian constitution by the last five years of his life trying to maintain his would not accede to their demands.
fln outside the Constituent Assembly, he re- own position as crown prince and feuding The power of the army officers had already
signed his post as the assembly's president in with his many brothers. weakened through internal rivalries when the
August 1963 and was expelled from the fln. Iranian Buyids entered Baghdad in 945, de-
"Abbasid dynasty, second of the two
He was placed under house arrest in 1964 but great dynasties of the Muslim Empire of
manding of al-Mustakff (944-946) that they
was released the following year. be recognized as the sole rulers of the territory
the Caliphate. It overthrew the Umayyad
Ferhat Abbas described the Algerian War of they controlled. This event initiated a century-
caliphate in ad 750 and reigned as the 'Ab-
Independence in LaNuit coloniale (1962; "The long period in which much of the empire was
basid caliphate until destroyed by the Mongol
Colonial Night"). He is also the author of Le ruled by local secular dynasties. In 1055 the
invasion in 1258.
Jeune Algirien: de la colonie vers la province Abbasids were overpowered by the Seljuqs,
The name is derived from that of the uncle of
(1931; "The Young Algerian: From Colony to who took what temporal power may have
the Prophet Muhammad, al-' Abbas (died c.
Province") and Autopsie d'une guerre (1980; been left to the caliph but respected his posi-
653), of the Hashimite clan of the Quraysh
"Autopsy of a War"). tion as religious leader, restoring the authority
tribe in Mecca. From c. 718, members of his
of the caliphate, especially during the reigns of
Abbas, Mahmoud, also known as abu family worked to gain control of the empire,
al-Mustarshid (1118-35), al-Muqtafi, and an-
mazen (b. 1935, Zefat, Palestine [now in Is- and by skillful propaganda won much support,
Nasir. Soon after, in 1258, the dynasty fell
rael]),Palestinian politician who became pres- especially from Shfl Arabs and Persians in
during a Mongol siege of Baghdad.
ident of the Palestinian Authority (^.v.; PA) in Khorasan. Open revolt in 747, under the lead-
2005. ership of Abu Muslim, led to the defeat of Abbate, Niccolo dell', Abbate also spelled
Abbas was born in the Arab-Jewish town of Marwan II, the last Umayyad caliph, at the abate (b. c. 1512, Modena, Duchy of Mode-
Zefat and fled with his family to Syria during Battle of the Great Zab River (750) in —
na d. 1571, Fontainebleau, France), painter
the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. He earned a law de- Mesopotamia and to the proclamation of the of the Bolognese school who, along with oth-
gree from the University of Damascus and, in first 'Abbasid caliph, Abu al-' Abbas as-Saffah. ers, introduced the post-Renaissance Italian
the late 1950s, was one of the founders of Under the 'Abbasids the caliphate entered a style of painting known as Mannerism to
Fatah, which came to dominate the Palestine new phase. Instead of focussing, as the France and helped to inspire the French clas-
Liberation Organization (PLO). As head of the Umayyads had done, on the West on North — sical school of landscape painting.
PLO's international department in the late Africa, the Mediterranean, and southern Eu- He began his career in Modena as a stu-
1970s, Abbas was instrumental in forging con- —
rope the caliphate now turned eastward. The dent of the sculptor Antonio Begarelli. His
tacts with Israelipeace groups. In 1 982 Abbas capital was moved to the new city of Baghdad, "Martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul" in the
received a doctorate in history from Moscow and events in Persia and Transoxania were church of S. Pietro, Modena (1547), probably
State University. closely watched. For the first time the caliphate established his reputation. During his stay in
In the early 1990s Abbas shaped Palestinian was not coterminous with Islam; in Egypt, Bologna (1548-52), his style matured, influ-
negotiating strategy and the resulting Oslo Ac- North Africa, Spain, and elsewhere, local dy- enced by his contemporaries Correggio and
cords (1993), and he was a senior member of
the Palestinian delegation to the Camp David
peace talks in 2000; he adamantly rejected Is-
rael's peace offer but opposed the violent
Palestinian uprising called the intifadah (Ara-
bic: "shaking off') that followed. In 2003 he
became prime minister of the PA and quickly
renounced terrorism and called for an end to
the intifadah, but he soon resigned from office.
Following the death of PLO leader Yasir
'Arafat in late 2004, Abbas was named head of
the PLO. In January 2005 he was elected to
succeed 'Arafat as president of the PA.
"Abbas Hilmi Pasha: see Abbas II (Egypt).

"Abbas MIrza (b. September 1789, Nava,

Qajar Iran— d. Oct. 25, 1833, Meshed), crown
prince of the Qajar dynasty of Iran who intro-
duced European military techniques into his
country.
Although he was not the eldest son of Fath
'All Shah (1797-1834), "Abbas Mirza was
named crown prince and appointed governor
of the province of Azerbaijan in 1798 or 1799.
When war broke out between Russia and Iran
in 1804, he was made commander of the Iran-
ian expeditionary force of 30,000 men. The
war (1804-13) resulted in the loss of most of "The Story of Aristaeus," oil painting by Niccolo dell'Abbate; in the National Gallery,
Iran's Georgian territory and showed 'Abbas London
MIrza the necessity of reforming the Qajar By courtesy of the trustees of the National Gallery. London, photograph. AC Cooper Ltd
Parmigianino. His stucco-surface landscapes 1 1 abbey
in the Poggi (now Palazzo dell'Universita) sur-
vive to show his understanding of nature.
In 1552 Abbate was called to the court of the C. Calhoun was born on an outlying farm. A
king of France, Henry II, at Fontainebleau, services-based economy prevails with some
and remained in France for the rest of his life. light manufacturing. A portion of Sumter Na-
With Francesco Primaticcio he composed im- tional Forest is nearby. Inc. 1895. Pop. (2004
mense murals, most of them later lost. His est.) 5,777.
easel works, which included an enormous
Abbevillian industry, prehistoric stone-tool
number of lyrical landscapes based upon
tradition generally considered to represent the
pagan themes, were burned in 1643 by the
Austrian regent, Anna. Among his later paint-
oldest occurrence in Europe of a bifacial
(hand-ax) technology. The Abbevillian indus-
ings executed for Charles IX were a series of
try dates from an imprecisely determined part
landscapes with mythologies that influenced
the 17th-century French painters Claude Lor-
of the Middle Pleistocene, somewhat less than
rain and Nicolas Poussin. He also designed a
700,000 years ago. It was recovered from high
terrace sediments of the lower Somme valley,
series of tapestries, "Les Mois arabesques,"
in a suburb of Abbeville, France. The distinc-
and some of his designs were adopted by the
tive stone tools include massive core-tools
painted enamel industry of Limoges. His last
works are believed to be 16 murals (1571) in (hand-axes), bifacially flaked, with deep flake
which he was assisted by his son, Giulio scars and sinuous or jagged edges, along with
thick, usually unretouched, flakes. The assem-
Camillo. His work in France is recognized as a
principal contribution to the first significant, blage is usually considered closely related to
wholly secular movement in French painting. the Acheulian industry and may, in fact, rep-
the Fontainebleau style. resent merely a variant or temporal expression
of it. See also Acheulian industry.
Abbazia (Croatia): see Opatija.
abbey, group of buildings housing a
Abbe, Ernst (b. Jan. 23, 1840, Eisenach, monastery or a convent, centred on an abbey
Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach d. — Gothic church of Saint-Vulfran, Abbeville. France
ClubkB church or a cathedral and under the direction
Jan. 14, 1905, Jena, Ger.), physicist whose the- of an abbot or an abbess. In this sense, an
oretical and technical innovations in optical 13th-century tower survived air bombardment abbey consists of a complex of buildings serv-
theory led to great improvements in micro- during World War U. Pop. (1999) 24,567. ing the needs of a self-contained religious com-
scope design (such as the use of a condenser to munity. The term abbey is also used loosely to
provide strong, even illumination, introduced
Abbeville, city, seat of Vermilion
(1854)
refer to priories, smaller monasteries under a
in 1870) and clearer understanding of magni-
parish, southern Louisiana, U.S., on the Ver-
prior. In England, since the dissolution of the
fication limits. He discovered the optical for-
milion River, 20 miles (32 km) south-south-
west of Lafayette. Founded in 1843 by a monasteries under Henry VTTI, all that re-
mula now called the Abbe sine condition, one mains in many cases is the abbey church, now
of the requirements that a lens must satisfy if Capuchin missionary, Pere Antoine Desire
Megret, who patterned it on a French Proven-
simply called an abbey; Westminster Abbey is
it is to form a sharp image, free from the blur-
the best known example.
ring or distortion caused by coma and spheri- cal village, it was first called La Chapelle and
Monasteries originally developed in the Mid-
cal aberration. settled by Acadians from Nova Scotia and
dle East and Greece from the earlier streets of
In 1863 he joined the University of Jena, ris- Mediterranean immigrants. St. Marie Made-
hermits' huts, or lauras. Walls were built for
ing to professor of physics and mathematics leine Church (1910) now occupies the site of
defense, and the cells were later constructed
(1870) and director of the astronomical and Megret's chapel, which was destroyed by fire
against the walls, leaving a central space for
meteorological observatories (1878). In 1866 in 1854. The city is a trade centre for agricul-
church, chapels, fountain, and dining hall, or
he became research director of the Zeiss opti- tural produce (rice, cotton, and sugar) and
refectory. This Eastern type of monastery can
cal works. Two years later Abbe invented the seafood and provides services for nearby oil
be seen at Mt. Athos in Greece.
apochromatic lens system for microscopes, and natural gas fields. It is linked with the Gulf
The first European abbey was Montecassino
which eliminates both the primary and sec- of Mexico via the Freshwater Bayou Deepwa-
(see Cassino) in Italy, founded in 529 by St.
ondary colour distortion of light. ter Channel. Avery Island, with a bird sanctu-
Benedict of Nursia, who wrote the order that
In 1891 Abbe established the Carl Zeiss ary and salt dome, is 15 miles (24 km)
formed the basic foundation of monastic life
Foundation for research in science and social southeast. Inc. town, 1850; city, 1956. Pop.
in the Western world. His plan for an ideal
improvement. Five years later he reorganized (2004 est.) 11,683.
abbey was circulated (about 820) to orders
the Zeiss optical works into a cooperative.
Abbeville, city, seat of Abbeville county, throughout Europe, and abbeys were generally
abbess, the title of a superior of certain com- northwestern South Carolina, U.S. In 1764 built in accord with it in subsequent centuries.
munities of nuns following the Benedictine French Huguenots settled the site, which was The cloister (a. v.) linked the most important
Rule, of convents of the Second Order of St. named for Abbeville, France. The city is re- elements of the abbey together and also served
Francis (Poor Clares), and of certain commu- garded by some as the "Cradle and the Grave the monks for their contemplative medita-
nities of canonesses. The first historical record of the Confederacy"; it was there that a seces- tion; it was usually an open, arcaded court,
of the name is on a Roman inscription dated sionist meeting was held (Nov. 22, 1860) and surfaced with grass or paving and sometimes
c. 514. there that the Confederate president, Jefferson with a fountain in the centre. The side adjoin-
To be elected, an abbess must be at least 40 Davis, held (May 2, 1865, at Burt-Stark ing the nave of the church had book presses
years old and a professed nun for at least 10 House) one of his last cabinet meetings. John and formed an open-air but sheltered library.
years. She is solemnly blessed by the diocesan
bishop in a rite similar to that of the blessing
of abbots. Her blessing gives her the right to
certain pontifical insignia: the ring and some-
times the crosier.
In medieval times abbesses occasionally ruled
double monasteries of monks and nuns and
enjoyed various privileges and honours. See
also abbot.

Abbeville, town, Somme departement. Pi-

cardie region, northern France, near the
mouth of the canalized Somme, northwest of
Amiens. Stone Age artifacts unearthed by
Boucher de Crevecoeur de Perthes in 1844 at-
testing to early occupation of the site are dis-
played at the Musee Boucher-de-Perthes. The
town originated as Abbatis Villa, a 9th-centu-
ry dependency of the abbots of Saint-Riquier.
and was chartered in 1184. Under the English
(1272-1435), it was capital of Ponthieu. Louis
XII's marriage (1514) to Mary, sister of Henry
VIII of England, took place there.
The ruins of Fountains Abbey, a Cistercian monastery founded in the 1 2th century, near
The Gothic church of Saint- Vulfran (15th- Ripon, North Yorkshire. England
17th centuries) and the town hall with its
And) Nlm
Abbey, Kdwin Austin 12 audience over us portrayal of the Irish peas- tions and weather on Earth, allowing general
antry that there was a riot. When the Abbey weather patterns to be predicted as man\ as
players toured the United States for the first 50 years in advance.
ITw dormitory was often built over the refec- time in 1911, similar protests and disorders After receiving B.S. and M.S. degrees in 1894
tor> on the east side of the cloister and was were provoked when the play opened in New from the Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
linked to the central church by a "day-stair." York City and Philadelphia. ogy, Abbot joined the staff of the Smithsonian
which led to the arcaded cloister and so into The years 1907-09 were difficult times for Institution (1895). later serving (1928-44) as
the church, and b\ a "night-stair." which led the Abbey. Changes in personnel affected the the institution's secretary'- Abbot's research in
directly to the church The church assemhh management of the theatre, and the Fay broth- solar radiation won him many awards.
room, the chapter house (q.v .), was often at- ers, whose commitment to nationalistic and
Abbotsford, former home of the 19th-century
tached to the chancel near the eastern side of folk drama conflicted with Yeats's art-theatre
novelist Sir Walter Scott, situated on the right
the cloister. outlook, departed for the United States. Hor-
bank of the River Tweed, district of Roxburgh,
The western side of the cloister provided for niman withdrew her financial support, and
Borders region, Scotland. Scott purchased the
dealings with the outside world. There was the the management of the theatre changed hands
almonry, for example, where gifts of money several times with little success until the post
or clothing were made to the poor, and guest was filled by the playwright-director Lennox
rooms, lay brothers' quarters, cellars, and sta- Robinson in 1910. The onset of World War I
bles. The abbot's rooms were near the gate- and the Irish Rebellion of 1916 almost caused
house, which controlled the only opening to the closing of the theatre. Its luck changed,
the outer courtyard, where the general pub- however, in 1924, when it became the first
lic was permitted. On the south side of the state-subsidized theatre in the English-speak-
cloisters were a central kitchen, a brewery, ing world. The emergence of the playwright
and workshops for smiths, enamelers, coopers, Sean O'Casey also stimulated new life in the
shoemakers, and saddlers. theatre, and from 1923 to 1926 the Abbey
An important building within the inner walls staged three of his plays: The Shadow of a
housed the novitiate and the infirmary. In the Gunman, Juno and the Paycock, and The
manner of an early isolation hospital, it had Plough and the Stars, the last a provocative
its own chapel, bathhouse, refectory, kitchen, dramatization of the Easter Rising of 1916. In
and garden. The doctor's house, with its physic the early 1950s the Abbey company moved
Home of Sir Walter Scott. Abbotsford, Roxburgh
garden of essential medicinal herbs and with to the nearby Queen's Theatre after a fire had
Colour Library International
small sickrooms, was nearby. destroyed its playhouse. A new Abbey The-
Buildings for the intensive agriculture prac- atre, housing a smaller, experimental theatre, original farm, then known as Carley Hole,
ticed by most orders were to the south of the was completed in 1966 on the original site. in 1811 and transformed it (1817-25) into a
other buildings. Although the Abbey has broadened its reper- Gothic-style baronial mansion. The surround-
In the 2th and 1 3th centuries, many abbeys
1 tory, it continues to rely primarily on Irish ing area was a major source of inspiration for
were built in England, Scotland, Spain, Italy, plays. the author's historical novels.
Germany, and Austria. In France the monas- Still the home of Scott's direct descendants,
abbot, Late Latin and Greek abbas, the su-
tic movement flourished to a greater extent Abbotsford remains virtually unchanged;
perior of a monastic community that follows it
than in any other country. Perhaps the most contains Scott's valuable library, family por-
the Benedictine Rule (Benedictines, Cister-
remarkable abbey was established by the Bene- traits, and an interesting collection of histori-
cians, Camaldolese, Trappists) and of certain
dictines on the rocky island of Mont-Saint- cal relics and is open to the public during the
other orders (Premonstratensians. canons reg-
Michel (q.v.) in 966. summer.
ular of the Lateran). The word derives from
Abbey, Edwin Austin (b. April 1, 1852, the Aramaic ab ("father"), or aba ("my fa- Abbott, Berenice (b. July 17, 1898, Spring-
Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. Aug. 1,1911, Lon- ther"), which in the Septuagint (the Greek field,Ohio, U.S.— d. Dec. 9, 1991, Monson,
don, Eng.), American-British painter and one translation of the Old Testament) and in New Maine), photographer best known for preserv-
of the foremost illustrators of his day. Testament Greek was written abbas. Early ing the works of photographer Eugene Atget
While working as an illustrator for the pub- Christian Egyptian monks renowned for age and for her photographic documentation of
lishinghouse of Harper and Brothers, New and sanctity were called abbas by their dis- New York City in the late 1930s.
York City, Abbey was sent to England to ciples, but, when monasticism became more In 1918 Abbott left Ohio for New York City,
gather material for illustrations of the poems organized, superiors were called proestos ("he where she independently studied drawing and
of Robert Herrick. These were followed by who rules") in the East and the Latin equiva- sculpture until 1921. She studied sculpture
illustrations for works of Oliver Goldsmith lent, praepositus, in theWest. briefly in Berlin and then became an assistant
and William Shakespeare. He spent many of St. Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-c. 547) re- to Man Ray in Paris. While in Paris she came
his most productive years in England, where stored the word abbas in his rule, and to this into contact with Atget, whose work was at
he was elected (1883) to the Royal Institute early concept of spiritual fatherhood through the time virtually unknown. In 1925 Abbott
of Painters in Water-Colours. He became a teaching he added the concept of pat ha potes- set up her own photography studio and made
member of the National Academy of Design tas, authority wielded by a father according to several well-known portraits of Parisian expa-
in 1902. His later works include decorative Roman law. Thus, the abbot has full authority triates, artists, writers, and aristocrats, includ-
schemes for several public buildings, among to rule the monastery in both temporal and ing Peggy Guggenheim, James Joyce, Djuna
them the state capitol at Harrisburg, Pa., and spiritual matters. Barnes, Jean Cocteau, Leo Stein, and Atget.
the official picture of the coronation of King An abbot is elected by the chapter of the After Atget's death in 1927, Abbott retrieved
Edward VII of England (1902). monastery in secret ballot. He must be at least his prints and negatives from destruction and
Abbey Theatre, Dublin theatre, established 30 years old, of legitimate birth, professed at classified them, and in the following years she
grew out of the Irish Literary The- least 10 years, and an ordained priest. He is dedicated herself to promoting his work.
in 1904. It

atre (founded in 899 by William Butler Yeats

1
elected for life except in the English congre- She remained in Paris until 1929, at which
and Isabella Augusta, Lady Gregory, and de- gation, where he is elected for a term of 8- time she returned to New York City. Free-
voted to fostering Irish poetic drama), which 12 years. The election must be confirmed by lancing for a time, Abbott began photograph-
in 1902 was taken over by the Irish National the Holy See or by some other designated ing the city. She accepted a job with the
Dramatic Society, led by W.G. and Frank J. authority. The bishop of the diocese in which
Fay and formed to present Irish actors in Irish the monastery is situated confers the abbatial
plays. In 1903 this became the Irish National blessing, assisted by two abbots.

Theatre Society, with which many leading Chief among the privileges of an abbot are
figures of the Irish literary renaissance were the rights to celebrate the liturgy according
closely associated. The quality of its produc- to pontifical rite, to give many blessings nor-
tions was quickly recognized, and in 1904 an mally reserved to a bishop, and to use the
Englishwoman, Annie Horniman, a friend of pontifical insignia.
In Eastern monasticism, self-governing mon-
Yeats, paid for the conversion of an old the-
atre in Abbey Street, Dublin, into the Abbey
asteries are ruled by several elder monks,
Theatre. The Abbey opened in December of whose leader is called abbot. See also abbess.

that year with a bill of plays by Yeats, Lady Abbot, C.G., in full charles greeley ab-
Gregory, and John Millington Synge (who bot (b. May 31, 1872, Wilton, N.H., U.S.—
joined the other two as codirector). Founder d. Dec. 17, 1973, Riverdale, Md.), American
members included the Fays, Arthur Sinclair, astrophysicist who
thought to have been the
is
and Sara Allgood. first of
scientist to suspect that the radiation "Park Avenue and 39th Street, Manhattan" by
The Abbey's staging of Synge's satire The the Sun might vary over time. His continued Berenice Abbott, 1936
Playboy of the Western World, on Jan. 26, studies of solar radiation led him to discover, Miriam and Ira D Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs,
The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden
1907, stirred up so much resentment in the in 1953, a connection between solar varia- Foundations
Federal Art Project of the Works Progress istrator, educator, and reformer who was im- 1 3 abbreviation
Administration (WPA) in 1935. Until the end portant in the field of child-labour legislation.
of the decade she systematically documented In 1908 Abbott became director of the
the city's changing architectural character in newly formed Immigrants' Protective League, Abbott, Lyman (b. Dec. 18, 1835, Roxbury,
a series of highly objective photographs, some Chicago, and lived for a time at Hull House, Mass., U.S.— d. Oct. 22, 1922, New York,
of which were published in 1939 in the book the pioneer settlement house founded by Jane N.Y.), American Congregationalist minister
Changing New York (reissued as New York in Addams, with whom she was closely associ- and a leading exponent of the Social Gospel
the Thirties. 1973). ated. In a series of weekly articles ( 'Within movement.
During the next two decades Abbott exper- the City's Gates," 1909-10) in the Chicago Abbott left law practice to study theology
imented with photography as a tool for the Evening Post, she attacked the exploitation of and was ordained in 1860. After serving in
illustration of scientific phenomena such as immigrants. Later she wrote The Immigrant two pastorates he became associate editor of
magnetism and motion. She also continued to and the Community(1917). Harper's Magazine and in 1870 editor of
document the landscape around her; for one As director of the child-labour division of
project she photographed scenes along U.S. the U.S. Children's Bureau (1917-19), she ad-
Route 1 from Florida to Maine. ministered the first federal statute limiting the
employment of juveniles, the Keating-Owen
Abbott, Bud; and Costello, Lou, in full
Act (1916). This law was declared unconsti-
WILLIAM A. ABBOTT and LOUIS FRANCIS CRI-
tutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1918,
stillo (respectively b. Oct. 2, 1896, Asbury
but she secured a continuation of its policy by
Park, N.J., U.S.— d. April 25, 1974, Wood-
having a child-labour clause inserted into all
land Hills, Calif.; b. March 6, 1908, Paterson,
war-goods contracts between the federal gov-
N.J., U.S.— d. March 3, 1959, Beverly Hills,
ernment and private industries. Later Abbott
Calif.),popular American comedic duo who
was director of the entire Children's Bureau
performed on stage, radio, and television and
(1921-34). She worked hard to win public ap-
in motion pictures between 1929 and 1957.
proval of a constitutional amendment against
Abbott was born into a theatrical family
child labour, which was submitted to the states
and operated burlesque houses and worked in
in 1924 but never ratified. She was professor
box offices before he met Costello. Costello
of public welfare at the University of Chicago Lyman Abbott, 1901
worked as an actor, prizefighter, and motion-
from 1934 to 1939. Her book The Child and By courtesy of the Library ot Congress. Washington,
picture stuntman before becoming a comedian D.C.
the State (2 vol.) appeared in 1938.
in vaudeville. Their partnership began when
Costello's regular straight man fell ill during Abbott, Jacob (b. Nov. 14, 1803, Hallowell, the Illustrated Christian Weekly. In 1876 he
an engagement Empire Theatre in New
at the Maine, U.S.— d. Oct. 31, 1879, Farmington, joined Henry Ward Beecher's Christian Union.
York City. Abbott, who was working in the Maine), American teacher and writer, best a nondenominational religious weekly, and in
box office, offered to substitute. They worked known for his many books for young readers. 1881 Abbott became its editor in chief. He
so well together that Abbott played straight Abbott attended Hallowell Academy and succeeded in 1888 to Beecher's pulpit in the
man to Costello's buffoon from then on. Bowdoin College and studied at Andover Plymouth Congregational Church, Brooklyn,
In 1938 Abbott and Costello gave their first Newton Theological School. After teaching at where he served until 1899.
performance on radio. The duo made their Amherst College, he moved in 1829 to Boston, Abbott early became interested in industrial
Broadway debut the following year in The where he founded and was the first principal problems. Under his editorship the Chris-
Streets of Paris. Their first motion-picture of the Mount Vernon School, a secondary tian Union (renamed Outlook in 1893) pro-
comedy, Buck Privates, which was released in school for girls. mulgated the Social Gospel, which sought
1941, became a popular hit and was followed Abbott was sole author of 180 books and to apply Christianity to social and industrial
by eight other comedies in the next two years. coauthor or editor of 31 others, notably the problems. His Christianity and Social Prob-
Their most famous vaudeville routine a far- — "Rollo" series (28 vol.). To accompany the lems (1897), The Rights of Man (1901), The
cical baseball commentary entitled "Who's earlier books (Rollo at Work, Rollo at Play), Spirit of Democracy (1910), and America in
on First?" — was also performed on radio and Abbott wrote a volume for teachers, The Rollo the Making (1911) present his moderate so-
television, and it was made into a popular Code of Morals; or. The Rules of Duty for ciological views, which rejected both socialism
recording. Children, Arranged with Questions for the Use and laissez-faire economics. On other prob-
of Schools (1841). In following Rollo's world lems Abbott presented the viewpoint of liberal
Abbott, George, in full george francis evangelical Protestantism. He sought to inter-
travels with his all-knowing Uncle George, the
abbott (b. June 25, 1887, Forestville, N.Y., young reader could improve his knowledge of pret, rather than condemn, the effect of the
U.S.— d. Jan. 31, 1995, Miami Beach, Fla.),
theory of evolution on religion.
ethics, geography, science, and history. Abbott
American theatrical director, producer, play-
also wrote 22 volumes of biographical histo- Abbottabad, east-central North-West
wright, actor, and motion-picture director who city,
ries and the Franconia Stories (10 vol.). Frontier Province, northern Pakistan. It is situ-
staged some ofthe most popular Broadway
productions from the 1920s to the '60s. Abbott, Sir John, john joseph
in full sir ated 38 miles (61 km) northeast of Rawalpindi.
After graduating from the University of caldwell abbott March 12, 1821, St.
(b. A hill station (4,120 feet [1,256 m]), it lies
Rochester, N.Y., in 1911, Abbott began act- Andrews, Lower Canada [now St.-Andre-Est, on a plateau at the southern corner of the
ing on Broadway in 1913. He soon began Quebec, Canada]— d. Oct. 30, 1893, Mon- Rash (Orash) Plain and is the gateway to the
writing and directing plays as well, and he treal),lawyer, statesman, and prime minister picturesque Kagan Valley. It is connected by
achieved his first big hits in 1925 and 1926 of Canada from 1891 to 1892. road with the Indus Plain and Kashmir and
with, respectively, The Fall Guy and Broad- Educated at McGill University, Montreal, by railhead (at Havelian, 10 miles [16 km]
way. After directing the popular farce Three Abbott became a lawyer in 1847 and was south) with Peshawar. Abbottabad is a district
made queen's counsel in 1862. He served as market centre. It was founded in 1853 and
Men on a Horse (1935), he wrote, produced,
or directed a long succession of highly success- dean of the McGill faculty of law from 1855 named Major James Abbott, the first
after
to 1880. He was elected to the Legislative As- British deputy commissioner of the region.
ful musical comedies and farces. Some of the
most notable were Jumbo (1935), Boy Meets sembly of the then-united province of Canada There are two parks, a preparatory school,
Girl (1935), The Boys from Syracuse (1938), in 1857 and continued to represent his native several colleges affiliated with the University

Pal Joey (1940), High Button Shoes (1947), county, Argenteuil, until 1887, except during of Peshawar, and a forest research centre. The
Where's Charla? (1948), Call Me Madam 1874-80. In 1862 he served briefly as solic- Pakistan Military Academy is at Kakul, 5
itor general in the Liberal administration of miles (8 km) northeast. Three major iron-ore
(1950), Wonderful Town (1953), The Pajama
Sir John Macdonald and Louis Sicotte before deposits are nearby. Pop. (1998) 105,999.
Game (1954), Damn Yankees (1955), FioreOo!
(1959), and A Funny Thing Happened on the going over to the Conservatives in 1865. abbreviation, in communications (especially
Way to the Forum (1962). As legal adviser to the shipping magnate Sir written), the process or result of representing
The dean of Broadway showmen, Abbott was Hugh Allan, Abbott was implicated in the a word or group of words by a shorter form
known for his skillful use of material, his mas- Pacific Scandal of 1873, in which Prime Min- of the word or phrase.
teryof pacing and humour, and his ability to ister Macdonald was accused of awarding a A list of abbreviations used in the micropae-
maintain effective action onstage. He directed railway construction contract to Allan in re- dia may be found at the end of each vol-
the motion-picture versions of several of his turn for campaign funds. Abbott accordingly ume of the micropaedia. For a separate list
plays, including The Pajama Game (1957) was defeated in the 1874 election and was of mathematical abbreviations (and symbols).
and Damn
Yankees (1958). He published his not reelected to the House of Commons until see mathematics. A separate list of abbrevia-
autobiography, Mister Abbott, in 1963 and 1880. Seven years later he was appointed to tions used in the index may be found in each
remained active on the New York theatrical the Senate, in which he was made govern- of the index volumes.
scene into the 1990s. ment leader. On the death of Macdonald in Abbreviations take many forms and can be
June 1891, Abbott emerged as compromise found in ancient Greek inscriptions, in me-
Abbott, Grace Nov. 17. 1878, Grand Is-
(b.
choice for prime minister, but he resigned the dieval manuscripts (e.g.. "DN" for "Dominus
land, Neb., U.S.— d. June 19, 1939, Chicago, following year because of ill health. He was Nosier"), and in the Quran. Cicero's sec-
111.), American social worker, public admin- 1892.
knighted in
\H( 14 1936 it uas returned to private control undei rousing the Muslim community against his
l ranco in 1939 inn remained critical of gov- brother's Western ways. With Marrakech his.
ernment rircsarn. although it did support the Abd al-Hafid routed his brother's forces and
Mary, Marcus rullius iro. devised man>
l 1 ranco regime. pensioned oil the sultan Recognized as sultan
abbreviations thai have survived to modern \UC has always been noted for its graphics, by the Western powers (1909), Abd al-Hafid
tunes, Mich as the character ampersand, &. it was a hea\> user of photography from its invoked French aid against another pretender
tor ft (Latin: "and"). But it was the so-called inception, and the front page is typically an in 1912 and then was forced to recognize a

information explosion of the 20th century action photograph that covers nearly the en- French protectorate over Morocco.
that made abbreviation a common practice in tire page. In more recent times, the paper has

communication won wide acclaim lor its coverage of Spanish Jb make the best use of the Brilanmca.
A major factor trend toward abbrevi-
in the culture and the arts. consult the index first
ation is that of economy. In telegraphy, for
Abchazija (Georgia): see Abkhaziya.
example, as well as in computerized commu-
nications, the extra time, space, and materials Abd al-Aziz, Arabic in full 'abd al-'azIz ibn 'Abd al-llah (b. 1913, at-Ta'if, Arabia—d.
required lor rendering long words and phrases AL-HASAN IBN MUHAMMAD AL-HASANl AL- July 14, 1958, Baghdad), regent of Iraq (1939-
is an important concern. Fortunately, redun- 'alawI (b. Feb. 24, 1878, or Feb. 18, 1881 — 53) and crown prince to 1958.
dancy of information exists in all speech, and d. June 10, 1943, Tangier, Mor.), sultan of Son of the Hashimite king 'All ibn Husayn
this redundancy increases dramatically if the Morocco from 1894 to 1908, whose reign was of the Hejaz (northwestern Arabia), who was
context is not known or if the message is long. marked by an unsuccessful attempt to intro- driven from Arabia by Ibn Sa'ud, 'Abd al-llah
Scientific studies indicate thatup to 75 per- duce European administrative methods in an accompanied his father to Iraq in 1925. Upon
cent of information in relatively long com-
all atmosphere of increasing foreign influence. King Ghazi's death in 1939, he was appointed
munications is redundant, and this knowledge Abd al-Aziz was proclaimed sultan upon the regent for his four- year-old nephew, Faysal II.
makes abbreviation not only possible but con- death of his father, Hassan I, but did not begin Abd al-llah ruled Iraq for 14 turbulent years,
venient. direct rule until after the death in 1900 of his loyally serving the throne and supporting the
Another factor in the development of abbre- grand vizier, Ba Ahmed (Ahmad ibn Musa). Allies during World War II. In April 1941,
viations the proliferation of new products
is Upon his actual accession, Abd al-Aziz sought faced with an uprising of army officers led by
and organizations that need to be named. European advice in an attempt to modernize
Long descriptive terms can be shortened into the country and in particular to reform the
mnemonic units. methods of taxation. These endeavours, de-
The need for speed in shorthand and the feated because of the complete lack of admin-
desire to avoid redundancy in codes makes istrators trained in modern practices, caused
abbreviation an important element in stenog- great resentment among influential notables
raphy and cryptography as well. of the old school. Rival European interests
There are several important forms of abbre- in North Africa complicated the issue, and
viation. One form entails representing a single in 1907 Abd al-Aziz' brother, Abd al-Hafid
word either by its first few letters (as "n" for (Moulay fomented a rebellion in Mar-
Hafid),
"noun," or "Co." for "Company"), by its most rakech. He
defeated Abd al-Aziz in battle on
important letters (as "Ltd." for "Limited"), Aug. 19, 1908. Two days later the sultan ab-
or by its first and last letters (as "Rd." for dicated. Pensioned by his brother, he spent
"Road"). These abbreviations are usually spo- the rest of his life at Tangier. The Franco-
ken as the whole word they represent (though Spanish occupation of Morocco followed his
Ltd. is sometimes spoken as "el-tee-dee"). abdication by four years.
Truncation is especially common in pop-
'Abd al-'Aziz ibn 'Abd ar-Rahman ibn
ular speech, as, for example, "Mets" for
Faysal ibu Turki 'Abd Allah ibn Mu-
"Metropolitans."
The combination of the first syllables or let-
hammad Al Sa'ud (Arab leader): see Ibn
Sa'ud.
ters of component words within phrases or
within names having more than one word is 'Abd al-Ghani, in full abd al-ghanI ibn
'Abd al-llah
common and often produces acronyms, which isma'il an-nabulusI (b. March 19, 1641,
are pronounced as words and which often —
Damascus d. March 5, 1731), Syrian mystic
BBC Hullon Picture Library

cease to be considered abbreviations. An ex- prose and verse writer on the cultural and Rashtd 'Alt al-Gaylani, who was sympathetic
ample of of abbreviation is the word
this type religious thought of his time. to Germany and Italy, the regent was forced
flak (from German Fliegerabwehrkanone, "an- Orphaned at an early age, 'Abd al-Ghani, to leave Iraq. With British assistance, how-
tiaircraft cannon"). Such combinations are es- joined the Islamic mystical orders of the ever, the revolt was suppressed by the end of
pecially common in the U.S. military, which Qadiriyah and the Naqshbandiyah. He then May, and 'Abd al-llah returned to Baghdad.
has provided "COMFLOGWING" for "Com- spent seven years in isolation in his house, Thereafter, in close collaboration with Nuri
mander Fleet Logistics Air Wing." An exam- studying the mystics on their expression of as-Said, he pursued a policy of moderate Iraqi
ple from the Soviet era is "Narkomvneshtorg" divine experiences. 'Abd al-Ghani traveled ex- nationalism and maintained strong ties with
for "Narodny Komissariat Vneshney Tor- tensively throughout the Islamic world, vis- the West. When King Faysal reached legal age
govli" (Russian: "People's Commissariate of iting Istanbul in 1664, Lebanon in 1688, on May 23, 1953, the regent relinquished his
Foreign Trade"). Other popular acronyms are Jerusalem and Palestine in 1689, Egypt and functions but remained as the young king's
the well-known "radar" ("radio detecting and Arabia in 1693, and Tripoli in 1700. chief adviser and companion until both were
ranging") and "snafu" ("situation normal, all His more than 200 written works can be killed during the Iraq revolution of 1958.
fouled up"). divided into three categories: Sufism (mysti-
Acronyms are to be distinguished from ini- cism, largely within the main body of Islam, 'Abd al-Karlm Qasim (Iraqi soldier): see
tialisms such as U.S.A. and NCAA, which are the Sunnis); travel accounts; and miscella- Kassem, Abdul Karim.
spoken by reciting their letters. neous subjects, including poetry, eulogies, cor- 'Abd al-Karim Out b ad-Din ibn Ibrahim
The symbolic notations used in mathematics respondence, prophecy, the interpretation of al-Jill: see Jili, al-.
and other sciences may also be regarded as dreams, and the question of the lawfulness
forms of abbreviation. of the use of tobacco. The main component
'Abd al-Malik, in full 'abd al-malik ibn

ABC: see American Broadcasting Company.

in his original Sufi writing, as distinguished
marwan 646/647, Medina, Arabia d.
(b. —
from his commentaries on the works of oth- October 705, Damascus), fifth caliph (685-
ABC, tabloid daily newspaper published in 705) of the Umayyad Arab dynasty centred in
ers, is the concept of wahdat al-wnjud ("divine
Madrid and long regarded as one of Spain's existential unity" of God and the universe
Damascus. He reorganized and strengthened
leading papers. It was founded as a weekly in and, hence, of man). His travel accounts are governmental administration and, throughout
1903 by a distinguished journalist, Torcuato the empire, adopted Arabic as the language of
considered by many scholars to be the most
Luca de Tena y Alvarez-Ossorio, who later administration.
important of his writings; the descriptions of
(1929) was made the Marques de Luca de his journeys provide vital information on the Life. 'Abd al-Malik spent the first half of his
Tena by King Alfonso XIII in recognition of life with his father, Marwan ibn al-Hakam,
customs, beliefs, and practices of the peoples
his accomplishments with ABC. The paper and places he visited. fourth Umayyad caliph, in Medina, where he
became a daily in 1905 and after 1929 pub- received religious instruction and developed
lished a Seville edition.
Abd al-Hafid, Arabic 'abd al-hafid (b. friendly relations with the pious circles of that
1875 or 1880, Fes. Mor.— d. April 4, 1937,
ABC was monarchist in orientation from its city that were to stand him in good stead in
Enghien-les-Bains, Fr.), sultan of Morocco his later life. At the age of 16, he was entrusted
founding, and during the Spanish Civil War
(1908-12), the brother of Sultan Abd al-Aziz, by his kinsman, the caliph Mu'awiyah, with
it was taken over by the Republican gov-
against whom he revolted beginning in 1907.
—
ernment nominally in 1931 and then, after
Appointed caliph of Marrakech by Abd al-
administrative responsibilities. He remained
at Medina until 683, when he and his father
several months' suspension in 1932 and con-
tinued resistance to censorship, completely in
Aztz, Abd al-Hafid had no difficulty there in were driven out of the city by Medinese rebels
 —

in revolt against the central government in Under Abd al-Malik. the conquest of North 15 'Abd al-Mu'min
Damascus. He then met the Syrian Umayyad Africa was resumed in 688 or 689. There, the
army that was marching on Medina and gave Arabs were opposed by both the native Berbers
its commander advice about the best means and the Byzantines. The governor appointed Caliphate lis Rise, Decline, and Fall, new ed.
of attacking the city, advice that was followed by 'Abd al-Malik succeeded in winning the (1924). and P.K Hitti. History of the Arabs. 10th
and proved successful. When the caliph Yazid Berbers over to his side and then captured ed. (1970).
died in November 683, Marwan was pro- Carthage, seat of the Byzantine province, in
'Abd al-Mu'min, in full abd al-mu'min ibn
claimed caliph in 684 and was able to effect a 697. Other coastal cities fell, and the work
'ali (b. Tagra, Kingdom of the Hammadids
partial rally of Umayyad rule but at the cost of pacification and Islamization continued
d. 163, Rabat, Almohad Empire), Berber
1

of a bitter feud that arose between northern apace. Abd al-Malik also resumed campaigns
caliph of the Almohad dynasty (reigned 130- 1

and southern Arab tribes. When Marwan died against the Byzantines in Anatolia in 692, but
63). who conquered the North African Ma-
in 685 and 'Abd al-Malik succeeded to the no permanent conquest ensued. These cam- ghrib from the Almoravids and brought all
caliphate, the forces opposing the Umayyads paigns were partly designed to keep the Syrian
the Berbers under one rule.
were still formidable. troops fit.
Life. 'Abd al-Mu'min came from a humble
There were, first, the northern Arab tribes Assessment. In general, Umayyad rule was
family: his father had been a potter. He seems
who. under their leader Zufar, were holding greatly strengthened by 'Abd al-Malik. who
to have been well instructed in the Muslim
out in northern Syria and Iraq. They were enjoyed good relations with the Medinese re-
faith and must have had a good knowledge of
finally pacified only in 691. The second focus ligious circles, an element with considerable
Arabic, for he wished to continue his studies
of resistance was in Iraq, where three main moral influence in the Islamic world. 'Abd at one of the centres of Muslim learning in the
groups, opposed to each other but united in al-Malik was more pious than any of his
East. A chance meeting with Ibn Tumart, a
their resistance to the Umayyads. held sway: Umayyad predecessors. His long sojourn in Berber religious reformer, made him abandon
the Kharijites. the Shi'ah. and the forces of Medina had enabled him to know the sen- this idea and begin his brilliant career.
the anticaliph Abd Allah ibn az-Zubayr. who timents of Medinese religious scholars. As
Around 1117, Ibn Tumart, the founder of
was proclaimed caliph in Mecca in 685 and caliph, he treated them respectfully, and his
the Almohad movement, was returning from
had received at least nominal allegiance from private life was close to their ideals. As a
a long stay in the East. He landed at Mah-
many provinces. The initial attempts by the result, many were to abandon their earlier op-
diyah in Tunisia and began a journey to
former Umayyad governor of Iraq. 'Ubayd position to Umayyad rule.
southern Morocco, his native country. Wher-
Allah ibn Ziyad. to regain the province failed, 'Abd al-Malik adopted Arabic instead of the ever he stopped along the way, he proclaimed
and he was killed by the Shi'ah in 686. For local languages as the language of administra-
a twofold message: strict adherence to the
three years "Abd al-Malik made no further tion. Government officials had been mostly doctrine of the oneness of God (hence the
attempt to interfere in Iraq but bided his non-Muslim, but the measures of 'Abd al-Ma- name Almohads or al-Muwahhidun, Unitari-
time as the various groups in Iraq exhausted lik enabled Arab Muslims more easily to con-
ans) and scrupulous observance of Islamic law.
themselves in internecine warfare. Mus'ab, the trol affairs of government. A new Muslim cur-
'Abd al-Mu'min heard Ibn Tumart preach at
brother of the anticaliph Ibn az-Zubayr, de- rency was also struck, modelled on Greek and
Mellala. near Bejaia. Alg. He was an attentive
feated the Shi'ah in 687 but then had to deal Persian coinage, but with Muslim inscriptions.
listener and from that time attached himself
with the Kharijites, committing a large part of A wave of Islamization set in. but the privi- to the man who had revealed to him the true
his forces. leged position of the Arabs was maintained. In
doctrine.
'Abd al-Malik first took the field against Mu- fact, the problem of non-Arab Muslims grew
'Abd al-Mu'min does not seem to have
s'ab in 689 but had to turn back to quell a more acute and was to become one of the played any special role among Ibn Tumart's
rebellion in Damascus. In the following year, main threats to Umayyad rule in later years. disciples during the slow journey that took
the campaign again proved fruitless. Only af- The Umayyad family lived in Damascus and them to Marrakech. But when his master de-
ter the defeat of the northern Arab tribes in surrounded the Caliph. Many of them were clared his opposition to the ruling Almoravid
691 was 'Abd al-Malik finally able to face appointed as governors, but many were also regime, proclaimed himself the mahdi ("di-
Mus'ab. The decisive battle took place at Dayr recalled for inefficiency. 'Abd al-Malik en-
vinely guided one"), and took refuge in the
al-Ja Thaliq. The forces of Mus'ab were weak- joyed the support of his clan, but he was more remote High Atlas region. 'Abd al-Mu'min
ened by their wars against the Kharijites, and autocratic than Mu'awiyah. the first Umayyad
went with him. Ibn Tumart won a following
'Abd al-Malik bribed many of them to desert caliph, with whom he is often compared.
in the mountains and founded a small Al-
Mus'ab, who was then killed in battle. The He abandoned the policy of consulting with mohad state there, centred on the village of
whole of Iraq now fell into his hands, and a council of advisers and reserved all major Tinmel. When al-Bashir, the reformer's sec-
the only remaining centre of opposition was decisions for himself. Despite his religious in- ond in command, was killed in an attack on
the now aging anticaliph. Ibn az-Zubayr. 'Abd terests and ideals (e.g., he built the Dome
Marrakech. 'Abd al-Mu'min took his place
al-Malik publicly chided him for his temerity of the Rock in Jerusalem), he was a master and became Ibn Tumart's designated succes-
and then sent his famous governor al-Hajjaj politician. In Syria he succeeded in placating
sor. The mahdi died in 30. His death was
1 1

to Arabia. Al-Hajjaj besieged Ibn az-Zubayr the northern Arab tribes, to the chagrin of the kept secret at first to allow 'Abd al-Mu'min
in Mecca and killed him in September 692.
The Muslim community was finally unified.
southern Arabs.
'Abd al-Malik was a shrewd judge of char-
a stranger to the High Atlas time to win —
support from the Almohad leaders. When he
At first, the reestablishment of Umayyad rule acter. His choice of al-Hajjaj as viceroy of
was proclaimed leader of the Almohads, he
was more apparent than real. The Kharijites the East was a wise one, and he supported
assumed the prestigious title of caliph.
were still either restless or in open revolt. his lieutenant loyally. In appearance, he was
His first task was to carry on the struggle
The Kharijites in Persia were especially dan- dark, thickset, and had a long beard. Ht was
against the Almoravids. Learning from the
gerous. It was only after 'Abd al-Malik had nicknamed "Dew of the Stone" for his miser- failure at Marrakech, he realized that he must
appointed al-Hajjaj to govern Basra that cam- liness. The sources describe him as eloquent
conquer Morocco from the mountains. On
paigns against them began to prove successful in his speech and a lover of poetry. He main-
the plains, the Christian knights who served
(the Persian Kharijites were finally wiped out tained his calm during periods of crisis and the Almoravids could easily repulse the Al-
in 697). But north of Kufah, another Kharijite was decisive in his opinions but was capable mohads' Berber infantry. He spent the next
trouble centre developed. In 695 these Khari- of great cruelty if necessary. He pursued his 15 years winning control of the High Atlas,
jites captured Mosul and occupied large areas enemies relentlessly and closely supervised all Middle Atlas, and Rif regions, finally moving
of central Iraq. Al-Hajjaj, leading his Syrian affairs of state. into his native country, north of Tlemcen.
troops, defeated them too in 697. The Khari- Shortly before his death the question of suc- Near that town, the Almoravids, having suf-
jite movement, however, remained strong, es- cession became acute. His brother. 'Abd al-
fered the loss of Reverter, the leader of their
pecially among the Bakr tribes between Mosul Aziz, governor of Egypt, had been desig-
Catalan mercenaries, were defeated by 'Abd
and Kufah. nated by their father to succeed 'Abd al-Ma- al-Mu'min in open battle in 145. The Almo- 1

Al-Hajjaj had now become governor of all lik. Against the advice of his courtiers. Abd
had forces then moved west, subjugating Mo-
the eastern provinces. He was a ruthless and al-Malik had begun to take steps to exclude rocco's Atlantic coastal plain. They then laid
efficient administrator, intent upon pacifying his brother from succession in favour of his
siege to Marrakech and took it by storm in
all the provinces entrusted to him by Abd own children. He had tried to pressure 'Abd 1147, massacring the Almoravid inhabitants.
al-Malik. A great Muslim army, led by an al-'Aziz to renounce his claims but without Arab historians have left a description of
Arab aristocrat, Ibn al-Ash'ath, and operating success. Luckily for 'Abd al-Malik, 'Abd al- the man who had now become master of
in the Afghanistan region, mutinied, swore al- 'Aziz died in May 705. 'Abd al-Malik now Northwest Africa. He was a sturdy Berber of
legiance to its commander, and turned back felt free to name three of his own children to
medium height, with dark hair and regular
to Iraq. Al-Hajjaj. with the aid of Syrian re- succeed him, al-Walid, Sulayman, and Yazid. features. A good soldier, with great courage
inforcements, was able to defeat the rebels, 'Abd al-Malik died in Damascus shortly there- and endurance, he was at the same time
and their leader was murdered in 704 in after and was succeeded without difficulty by learned in Islam and a gifted orator. Although
Afghanistan. Al-Hajjaj, realizing that he could his eldest son, al-Walid. (T.Kh.)
he had personal charm and could, when nec-
no longer trust the Iraqis, built a new city. bibliography. The best account of 'Abd al-Ma-
essary, show patience and moderation, he was
Wash, which he planned as a garrison city lik's reign is in J. Wellhausen, Das arabische Reich
at times as harsh as his master, Ibn Tumart.
for Syrian troops and as his private residence und sein Sturz (1902: The Arab Kingdom and lis
When a revolt broke out in the Atlantic plain
Thereafter, he ruled Iraq as enemy territory. Fall. 1927). Also useful are Sir William Muir. The
'AM al-Qadir al-JTIani 16 and Christians to Islam. His achievement as of the Ashraf in 1891, but he kept this from
thinker was to have reconciled the mystical na- reaching extensive proportions.
ture of the Sufi calling with the sober demands During the next four years, Abd Allah con-
(mowing the capture of Marnkech, he of Islamic law. His concept of Sulism was that solidated his authority. The famine and the ex-
tret
conducted methodkal purge there in which of a holy war or jihad waged against one's own pense of large-scale military campaigns ended.
more than 30.000 people were executed. will in order to conquer egotism and worldli- Abd Allah modified his policies, making them
The capture of Mairakech posed the moral ness and to submit to God's will. Numerous more acceptable to the people. Taxation be-
question of whether to abandon this city legends of his saintliness arose after his death, came less burdensome. Abd Allah created a
founded by the Almoravid heretics. He con- and he retains a popular following among new military corps, the inula. mm
ah, of
tented himself with destruction of their palace those who consider him a divine mediator. whose loyalty he felt confident.
and mosques and retained Marrakech as the But in 1896 Anglo-Egyptian forces began
'Abd al-Wadid dynasty, also called their rcconquest of the Sudan. Although Abd
capital of his new empire. / WYANID DYNASTY, Or BANU ZAYYAN, dy-
Soon he had to choose between two imperial Allah resisted for almost two years, he could
nasty of Zanatah Berbers (1236-1550), succes-
policies: to complete the conquest of North not prevail against British machine guns. In
sors to the Almohad empire in northwestern
Africa or to concentrate his energies on Spain, September 1898 he was forced to flee his cap-
Algeria. In 1236 the Zanatahs, loyal vassals to
where the Christians were threatening the for- ital, Omdurman, but he remained at large with
the Almohads, gained the support of other
mer Almoravid domains. Showing good judg- a considerable army. Many Egyptians and Su-
Berber tribes and nomadic Arabs and set up a
ment as well as feeling for his native country, danese resented the Condominium Agreement
kingdom at Tilimsan (Tlemcen), headed by
he gave priority to North Africa. of January 1899, by which the Sudan became
the Zanatah amir Yaghmurasan (ruled
In 1151 he subjugated the area around Con- almost a British protectorate, and Abd Allah
1236-83). Yaghmurasan was able to maintain
stantine and fought a battle near Setif against hoped to rally support. But on Nov. 24, 1899,
internal peace through the successful control
a powerful coalition of Arab tribes that had a British force engaged the Mahdist remnants,
of the rival Berber factions, and, in the face of
been wandering over the Berber country for a and Abd Allah died in the fighting.
the Marinid threat in the west, he formed an
century, gradually destroying its way of life.
alliance with the sultan of Granada and the 'Abd Allah, in full abd allah ibn abd al-
'Abd al-Mu'min was victorious, but instead of 'azIz 1923), king of Saudi Arabia from
king of Castile. (b. c.
punishing these people who had showed them-
After his death, however, the Marinid sultan 2005.
selves to be the worst enemies of the Berbers
Abu Ya'qub besieged Tilimsan for eight years One of King Abd al- Aziz's 37 sons, Abd
and the Almohad government, he came to rely (1298-1306). The city was finally taken in Allah was named crown prince and first
on them to strengthen his dynasty against in-
1337 by Abu al-Hasan, and a 10-year period deputy prime minister in 1982. In 1995 King
ternal opposition from the family of Ibn Tu-
of Marinid domination followed. Recaptured Fahd suffered a stroke, and Abd Allah briefly
mart. He also wished to use the Arab cavalry
by the Abd al-Wadids in 1348, Tilimsan was served as regent in 1996. Although Fahd re-
in his holy war against the Christians in Spain.
again stormed by the Marinids in 1352, who turned to power, 'Abd Allah continued to run
In 1158-59 'Abd al-Mu'min conquered
ruled for another seven years. the country's daily affairs and became king
Tunisia and Tripolitania. This marked the
Abd al-Wadid attempts at expansion east- after Fahd died in 2005.
zenith of Berber power in Islam: a Berber
ward into Hafsid Tunis also proved disastrous, 'Abd Allah sought strong ties with the West,
caliph reigned over all of North Africa west of
and, for a time in the early 15th century, they especially the United States. Relations be-
Egypt, and his authority was acknowledged by
were virtual vassals of the H a f?id state. The tween the two countries grew strained in 2001
most of Muslim Spain as well.
kingdom's chronic weakness may be traced following the September 11 attacks (a. v.) and
'Abd al-Mu'min 's government. Even while
to its lack of geographical and cultural unity, the later revelation that most of the attackers
he was pursuing his conquest, 'Abd al-Mu'min
the absence of fixed frontiers, and constant were Saudi nationals. Tensions also arose after
had established a central government for his
internal rebellions. It further suffered from Abd Allah refused to support a U.S. -led attack
empire. To the traditional clan organization of
a shortage of manpower, having to rely on on Iraq or to allow the use of Saudi military
the Masmudah and other Berber peoples sup-
intractable Arab nomads for soldiers. Its eco- facilities for such an act. Domestically, re-
porting the Almohads he added an organiza-
nomic prosperity was based on the position liance on oil revenue was of particular con-
tion to promote the spread of Almohad doc-
of Tilimsan along the trade route between the cern, and Abd Allah introduced such eco-
trine and a central administration (the
Mediterranean ports and Saharan oases. The nomic reforms as limited deregulation, foreign
makhzan) modeled on those of Muslim Spain,
Abd al-Wadid state collapsed in 1550, when investment, and privatization. He also faced
which was staffed largely by Spanish Muslims.
Tilimsan was seized by the Ottoman Turks growing violence within the country targeting
A government land registry was improvised to after a half century of alternating Spanish- the Sa'udl dynasty and the West.
assure the dynasty regular revenue. Abd al-
Turkish suzerainty.
Mu'min fully accepted the responsibilities of 'Abd Allah, channel (khawr) separating
an art patron, but remembering the puritani- 'Abd Allah (Arabic personal name): see Kuwait and Iraq, probably a drowned river
cal austerityof Ibn Tumart, he sometimes im- under Abdullah, except as below. mouth of the Shatt (stream) al-Arab, whose
posed on the mosques built for him a plain- mouth is now farther north and forms the south-
ness that became more precious than the
'Abd Allah, in full 'abd allah ibn muham-
eastern part of the border between Iraq and Iran.
prevailing elaborate ornamentation.
mad at-ta'i'ishI, also called 'abdullahi (b.
It extends into Iraqi territory in the form of the
Abd al-Mu'min died in 1163. His work, 1846, Sudan— d. Nov. 24, 1899, Kordofan),
Khawr az-Zubayr, on which the Iraqi port of
political and religious leader, who succeeded
faithfully carried on by his successors, was
Muhammad Ahmad (al-Mahdl) as head of a
Umm Qasr is located and which is linked by
maintained for more than half a century. Dis- canal northwestward to the Tigris-Euphrates
turbances caused by the rebellious Arab tribes
religious movement and state within the
River System. The channel borders the north-
Sudan.
impoverished the country without endanger- eastern coast of the Jazirat (island) Bubiyan and
In about 1880 Abd Allah became a disciple
ing the dynasty. After their defeat by the Span- the northern coast of Jazirat Warbah. Both is-
of Muhammad Ahmad, who announced that
ish Christians at Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, lands are generally considered to be part of
he had a divine mission, became known as al-
however, the Almohads began to decline, and Kuwait but are also claimed by Iraq.
Mahdi, and appointed 'Abd Allah a caliph
their empire soon disintegrated.
(khatifah). When al-Mahdl died in 1885, 'Abd 'Abd Allah ibn al-' Abbas, also called ibn
Though in the long run 'Abd al-Mu'min's
successors proved unable to perpetuate his
Allah became leader of the Mahdist move- abbas, byname al-hibr ("the Doctor"), or
achievements, he himself had written one of
ment. Although Al-Mahdl had clearly desig- al-bahr ("the Sea") (b. c. 619— d. 687/688,
nated him as successor, the Ashraf, a portion at-Ta'if, Arabia), a Companion of the prophet
the most glorious chapters in the history of the
Muslim West. (H.-L.-E.T.)
of al-Mahdl's supporters, tried to reverse this Muhammad, one of the greatest scholars of
decision. By promptly securing control of the early Islam, and the first exegete of the Quran.
bibliography. Information about 'Abd al-
vital administrative positions and obtaining In the early struggles for the caliphate, Ibn
Mu'min and his work may be found in the general
histories by Henri Terrasse, Histoire du Maroc, vol.
the support of the most religiously sincere 'Abbas supported 'AH and was rewarded with
group of al-Mahdi's followers, 'Abd Allah neu- the governorship of Basra. Subsequently he
2, pp. 261-316 (1950); and Ambrosio Huici Mi-
randa, Historia politico del Imperio Almohade, 2 tralized this opposition. defected. During the reign of Mu'awiyah he
vol. (1956-57), both with numerous bibliographic 'Abd Allah believed he could best control the lived in the Hejaz, but frequently traveled to
references. disparate elements that supported him by Damascus, the capital. After the death of
maintaining the expansionist momentum Mu'awiyah, he opposed 'Ibn az-Zubayr, whom
"Abd al-Qadir al-JIlanl (b. 1077/78, Nif,
begun by al-Mahdl. He launched attacks he refused to recognize as caliph, and was
Persia —
d. 1166, Baghdad), founder of the
against the Ethiopians and invaded Egypt. But forced to flee to at-Ta'if, where he died.
Qadiriyah order of the mystical Sufi branch he had greatly overestimated the support his Ibn 'Abbas is renowned for his knowledge of
of Islam. forces would receive from the Egyptian peas- both sacred and profane tradition and for his
He studied Islamic law in Baghdad and was antry and underestimated the potency of the critical interpretations of the Qur'an. From
introduced to Sufism rather late in life, first Anglo-Egyptian military forces. In 1889 his his youth he gathered information concern-
appearing as a preacher in 1127. His great troops suffered a crushing defeat in Egypt. ing the words and deeds of Muhammad from
reputation as a preacher and teacher attracted Abd Allah also suffered famine and military other Companions and gave classes on inter-
disciples from the entire Islamic world, and defeats in the eastern Sudan. The most serious pretation of the Qur'an, his commentaries on
he is said to have converted numerous Jews challenge to his authority came from a revolt which were later collected.
 —

'AM Allah ibn al-Husayn: see Abdullah. in 755 and making Cordoba his capital. As 17 'Abd ar-Rahman III
news of his success spread eastward, men who
'Abd Allah ibn az-Zubayr (b. May 624,
—
Medina, Arabia d. November 692, Mecca).
had previously worked in the Umayyad ad-
ministrative system came to Spain to work Campaigns against the Christians Mean-
leader of a rebellion against the Umayyad
with 'Abd ar-Rahman, and his administrative while, 'Abd ar-Rahman also had to check
ruling dynasty of the Islamic empire, and the
system came to resemble that formerly opera- threats from the Christian north. The main
most prominent representative of the Muslim
tive inDamascus. danger came from the Kingdom of Leon. An
nobility of faith, which resented the Umayyad
'Abd ar-Rahman secured his realm against expedition commanded by Ordono II, then
assumption of caliphal authority.
external attack by defeating armies sent by vassal king of Galicia and later king of Leon,
As a youth Ibn az-Zubayr went on many of
Charlemagne and the 'Abbasid caliph. Al- into Muslim territory in the summer of 913,
the military campaigns that marked the initial
though he faced a series of rebellions by Mus- especially his sack of Evora (Talavera) and the
expansion of Islam, and in 651 he was nomi-
lim Spaniards, Berbers from the mountainous massacre of its Muslim population, produced
nated by the caliph (the titular leader of the Is-
areas, and various Arab clans, his authority widespread resentment in Muslim Spain. 'Abd
lamic empire) 'Uthman to aid in compiling an
and dynasty remained firmly in power. ar-Rahman decided to counterattack, which he
official recension of the Qur'an. Subsequently
began in earnest in 920. leading the campaign
remaining politically inactive, he took little 'Abd ar-Rahman II, fourth Umayyad ruler
part in the civil wars that followed the death of of Muslim Spain who enjoyed a reign (822-
ofMuez in person. He captured the forts of
'Uthman in 656. Resenting the Umayyad vic- 852) of brilliance and prosperity, the impor-
Osma and San Esteban de Gormaz and then
inflicted a crushing defeat on the combined
tory that was the eventual outcome of the civil tance of which has been underestimated by
armies of Leon and Navarre at Valdejunquera
wars, he refused to take an oath of allegiance some historians.
on July 26, 920. Four years later, in the spring
to Yazid, the son and heir presumptive of "Abd ar-Rahman II was the grandson of his
of 924, he led another campaign into Navarre
Mu'awiyah, the first Umayyad caliph. When namesake, founder of the Umayyad dynasty
and sacked the capital. Pamplona. With these
Yazid became caliph in 680, Ibn az-Zubayr in Spain. His reign was an administrative
two campaigns. 'Abd ar-Rahman was able to
stillrefused the oath of allegiance and fled to watershed. As the influence of the 'Abba
secure his frontiers with Christian Spain for
Mecca. There he secretly gathered an army. sid Caliphate, then at the peak of its splen-
the next seven years. But the next king of
Yazid learned of this and dispatched forces dour, grew. Cordoba's administrative system
Leon, Ramiro II, who ascended the throne
of his own, which besieged Ibn az-Zubayr in increasingly came into accord with that of
in 932, proved a formidable adversary and
Mecca. In 683 Yazid died, and the besieg- Baghdad, the 'Abbasid capital. 'Abd ar-Rah-
began immediately to mount attacks against
ing army withdrew. Ibn az-Zubayr was left in man carried out a vigorous policy of public
Muslim territory. The encounter between the
peace until 692, when the caliph 'Abd al-Ma- works, made additions to the Great Mosque
two rulers finally took place in 939. when, at
lik sent an army to Mecca to force him to in Cordoba, and patronized poets, musicians,
the so-called ditch of Simancas (Shant Man-
submit. Mecca was again besieged, and Ibn and men of religion. Although palace intrigues
kus), Ramiro severely defeated the Muslims,
az-Zubayr was killed in the fighting. surrounded his death in 852, they did not
and 'Abd ar-Rahman narrowly escaped with
diminish his accomplishments.
'Abd Allah ibn Lutf Allah ibn 'Abd ar- his life. After that defeat 'Abd ar-Rahman
Rashid al-Bihdadini Hafiz-i Abrii: see 'Abd ar-Rahman III, byname an-nasir li- resolved never to take personal charge of an-
Hafiz-i Abrii. dIn allah (Arabic: Victor for the Religion of other expedition. The Christian victory, how-
Allah), in full ar-rahman ibn Muham-
'abd ever, was not followed up. When Ramiro died
Abd ar-Rahman, also called abd ar-rah- mad ALLAH IBN MUHAMMAD IBN
IBN 'ABD in 950 and civil war broke out in the Chris-
man ibn hisham (b. 1789/90—d. Aug. 28, 'ABD AR-RAHMAN IBN AL-HAKAM AR-RABDl tian territories,'Abd ar-Rahman made good
1859, Meknes, Mor.). sultan of Morocco
IBN HISHAM IBN 'ABD AR-RAHMAN AD-DAKHIL his earlier losses so thoroughly that in 958
(1822-59) who was the 24th ruler of the
(b. January 891—d. Oct. 15, 961. Cordoba), Sancho. exiled king of Leon. Garcia Sanchez,
'Alawi dynasty. His reign was marked by both
first and greatest ruler of the Umayyad
caliph king of Navarre, and his mother. Queen Toda.
peaceful and hostile contacts with European
Arab Muslim dynasty of Spain. He reigned all paid personal homage to 'Abd ar-Rahman
powers, particularly France.
as hereditary amir (prince) of Cordoba from in Cordoba.
Having succeeded to the throne without in-
October 912 and took the title of caliph in In North Africa the policy of 'Abd ar-Rah-
ternal conflict, Abd ar-Rahman became an
able administrator and active builder of pub-
929. man was directed against the Fatimids in al-
Accession as amir. 'Abd ar-Rahman suc- Qayrawan (now in modern Tunisia). In or-
lic works. During his long reign his authority
ceeded his grandfather "Abd Allah as amir der to check their control over North Africa
was often challenged by dissident tribes and
of Cordoba in October 912 at the age of he financed rebellions against them and sent
disaffected notables: he suppressed revolts in
21. Because of his intelligence and charac- naval expeditions to sack the coastal cities.
1824. 1828, 1831. 1843. 1849. and 1853.
ter he had been the obvious favourite of The city of Ceuta was fortified in 931 as a
The more serious challenge to his kingdom his grandfather, who had designated him heir base of operations in North Africa. Toward
came from abroad. The traditional policy of presumptive in preference to the other royal the end of his reign, however. Fatimid power
the 'Alawis of encouraging piracy to raise
princes. In appearance he is described as hav- increased, and the Fatimid general Jawhar was
funds led to conflict with the European pow-
ing been light-skinned, handsome, thickset, able to repulse the allies of 'Abd ar-Rahman.
ers. As a reprisal for seizing their ships, the
and short-legged. He appeared to be very short The struggle with the Fatimids. however, was
English blockaded Tangier, and the Austrians
when he walked but was imposing on horse- inconclusive and was to continue throughout
bombarded the ports of Arzila. Larache (al- back. the 10th century.
Ara'ish), and Tetouan. The port of Sale was
Public homage was paid to him in Cordoba As a result of his early successes, and prob-
bombarded in 1851, again as a reprisal for immediately after his accession. He set about ably at his own suggestion, some of his court
Moroccan piracy. Abd ar-Rahman attempted at once and with great energy to restore the poets urged 'Abd ar-Rahman to adopt the title
to expand his influence eastward by support-
ing Abdelkader, leader of Algerian resistance
authority of Cordoba in Spain —
an authority of caliph. He assumed that dignity in 929.
that had been curtailed during the latter years shortly after the fall of Bobastro. and chose
against the French. This policy led to a disas-
of the reign of his grandfather by a host of the honorific title an-Nasir li-Din Allah (He
trous war with France in 1844. By the Treaty
rebels entrenched in mountain forts through- Who Fights Victoriously for the Religion of
of Tangier, October 1844. Abd ar-Rahman
out the land. Ten days after his accession he God). His reasons were, internally, to enhance
was obliged to recognize France's dominant had the head of the first rebel exhibited in his prestige and. externally, to counter the Fa-
position in Algeria. During his reign, how-
Cordoba. Thereafter, for a score or so of years, timid claim to this honour.
ever, he also signed a number of commercial he led almost annual expeditions against the Significance. The consolidation of power
treatieswith the European powers, and he
rebels, first in southern and later in central brought great prosperity to Muslim Spain
preserved Moroccan independence by his as-
and eastern Spain. one indication of which was his building of
tute diplomacy.
His greatest enemy was a crypto-Christian a mint where pure gold and silver coins
'Abd ar-Rahman I, also called ad-dak- rebel, Umar ibn Hafsun, lord of Bobastro. were struck. 'Abd ar-Rahman was also a great
hIl rahman' (fl. 750-788). member of the 'Abd ar-Rahman's strategy was one of contin- builder; he renovated and added considerably
Umayyad ruling family of Syria who founded uous harassment of Ibn Hafsun's forts. Begin- to the Great Mosque at Cordoba and to the
an Umayyad dynasty in Spain. ning with the campaign of Monteleon. 'Abd royal palace. At vast expense he built a new
When the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad ar-Rahman captured 70 forts in the provinces royal city, Madinat az-Zahra'. to house his
caliphate in 750 and sought to kill as many of Elvira. Granada, and Jaen —
all of which household and government. He kept a very
members of the Umayyad family as possi- had been directly or indirectly controlled by strict control over the affairs of state and his

ble. 'Abd ar-Rahman fled, eventually reaching Ibn Hafsun. In 913 Seville was captured, fol- civil service, changing his governors frequently

Spain. The Iberian Peninsula had for some lowed by Algeciras. Rayyu. Sidonia, and Car- to avoid the growth of local dynasties. In 949
time been occupied by Muslim Arab forces, mona. When Ibn Hafsun died in 917. the he executed his own son for conspiring against
and he recognized political opportunity for rebellion collapsed. His children were cap- him.
himself in the rivalries of the Qais and Yaman. tured or killed, and the centre of the rebellion, Christian and Jewish communities flourished
the dominant Arab factions there. By shift- Bobastro. was finally stormed in 928. In 933 during his tolerant reign. His fame spread
ing alliances and using mercenary support, he Toledo fell after a bitter siege, and. with its so far beyond his domains that Cordoba bv
placed himself in a position of power, attack- fall, the last Muslim centre of resistance to the end of his reign enjoyed almost as much
ing and defeating the Governor of al-Andalus Cordoban hegemony disappeared. fame as Constantinople in the Mediterranean
\bd el-kader 18 bibliography. Further information may be Early career. His physical handsomeness
found in David S. Woolman. Rebels in the Ril and the qualities of his mind had made Ab-
,1 the Ril Rebellion (1968); and
Kuni and delkader popular even before his military ex-
world. In Cordoba he received emissaries from Rupert Furneaux. Abdel Krim Emir ot the Ril ploits. Of medium height, lithe and elegant,
(1967). with regular features and a black beard, his
such distant rulers as Otto I of Germany and
the Bwantine emperor. Cordoba was said to '

\ l)d-u>-Sainiul. Khwaja (b. Shiraz. Iran; fl.

demeanour was exceptionally refined, and his
have contained 3.000 mosques and more than life-style simple. He was known as a religious
16th century), Persian painter who, together
100,000 shops and houses. His reign, the sec- with Mir Sayyid 'AM, was one of the first and educated man who could excite his co-
ond longest of an\ Muslim caliph, afforded religionists with his poetry and oratorical elo-
members of the imperial atelier in India and is
his wise and courageous policies the fullest thus credited with playing a strong part in the quence.
chance of development. (T.Kh.) foundation of the Mughal school of miniature Algeria was an Ottoman regency when the
bibliography. Accounts of 'Abd ar-Rahman's painting (see Mughal painting). French army landed there in 1830. The gov-
reign may be found in W. Montgomery Watt, A 'Abd-us-Samad was born into a family of ernment was controlled by a dey (governor)
History of Islamic Spain (1965, reissued 1977); good social standing in Iran, and he had al- and by the Turkish Janissaries who had chosen
and Stanley Lane-Poole, The Story of the Moors ready gained a reputation as a calligrapher as him. These rulers, supported by the Koulouglis
in Spain (1886. reprinted as The Moors in Spain, (people of mixed Turkish and Algerian ances-
well as a painter when he met the Mughal
1967). try) and by certain privileged tribes, and aided
emperor Humayun, who was in exile in Iran.
At Humayun's invitation, he followed him by the fact that they were of the same religion
Abd el-Kader (Algerian leader): see Abdelka-
to India in 1548, first to Kabul and later as the people, long held Algeria firmly in their
der.
to Delhi. He instructed both Humayun and grip.
Abd el-Krim, in full muhammad ibn
his young son, the future emperor Akbar, in Nevertheless, the Algerians detested them,
'abd al-karIm al-khattabI 1882, Ajdir,
(b. and there were continual rebellions in the
drawing. Among his students while he was
Mor.—d. Feb. 6, 1963, Cairo, Egypt), leader superintendent of Akbar's atelier were Das- early 19th century. As a result, the country
of a resistance movement against Spanish and was left too divided to oppose the French in-
vant and Basavan, Hindus who became two
French rule in North Africa and founder of vaders.
of the most renowned Mughal painters. 'Abd-
the short-lived Republic of the Rif (1921-26). The western tribes laid siege to French-occu-
us-Samad received many honours from Ak-
A skilled tactician and a capable organizer, bar. In 576 he was appointed master of the
1
pied Oran and tried to organize themselves,
he led a liberation movement that made him unified by their common Muslim religious
mint, and in 1584 at the end of his career he
the hero of the Maghrib (northwest Africa). A was made dewan (revenue commissioner) of sentiment, which was cultivated by the school-
precursor of the anticolonial struggle for inde- masters and particularly by members of the
Multan.
pendence, Abd el-Krim was defeated only by religious brotherhoods. The leader of one of
Among 'Abd-us-Samad's greatest achieve-
the military and technological superiority of the brotherhoods, Mahieddin, director of the
ments was the supervision, together with his
the colonial powers. zdwiyah (religious school) near Mascara, was
fellow Persian Mir Sayyid 'Ali, of a large part
Son of an influential member of the Berber asked to lead the harassment of the French
of the illustrations of the Dastdn-e ("Stories
tribe Banu Uriaghel, Abd el-Krim received a troops in Oran and Mostaganem.
of") Amir Hamzeh, a series that numbered
Spanish education in addition to the tradi- In November 1832 the aging Mahieddin had
about 1,400 paintings, all of unusually large
tional Muslim schooling. He was employed as his young son Abdelkader elected in his place.
size. As none of the paintings is signed, it is not
a secretary in the Bureau of Native Affairs. In The youth, already renowned for his piety
certain whether he himself did any of them.
1915 he was appointed the qadi al-qug'at, or and military prowess, took over the war of
Among the miniatures bearing his signature
chief Muslim judge, for the district of Melilla, harassment. The ensuing Desmichels Treaty
is one Royal Library in the Golestan
in the
where he also taught at a Hispano-Arabic of 1834 gave him the whole interior of the
Palace, Tehran, depicting Akbar presenting a
school and was the editor of an Arabic section Oran, with the title commander of the believ-
miniature to his father, Humayun. The work,
of El Telegrama del Rif. ers. In a move to unify his new territories,
though Persian in its treatment of many de-
During his employment with the Spanish Amir Abdelkader, taking advantage of this
tails, hints of the Indian style to come, evident
protectorate administration he began to be treaty, imposed his rule on all the tribes of
in the realistic presentation of the life of the
disillusioned with Spanish rule, eventually op- the Chelif, occupied Miliana and then Medea,
court. A more thoroughly Indianized version
posed Spanish policies, and was imprisoned. and succeeded in defeating General Camille
of 'Abd-us-Samad's painting style is found in
He escaped and in 1918 was made chief Mus- Trezel at Macta. Although pressed by gener-
an illustrated manuscript of the Khamseh of
lim judge at Melilla again, but he left the post als Bertrand Clauzel and T.R. Bugeaud, he
Nezami dated 1 595, now part of the collec-
in 1919 to return to Ajdir. managed to rally support from Algerians who
tion of the British Museum.
Soon Abd el-Krim, joined by his brother, had become indignant over the French use of
who later became his chief adviser and com- Abdali: see Durrani. violence. By able negotiation, he convinced
mander of the Rif army, was organizing tribal General Bugeaud to sign the Treaty of Tafna
Abdali sultanate, former semi-independent
resistance against foreigndomination of Mo- (1837), which further increased his territory
state in the southern Arabian Peninsula, in
rocco. In July 1921 at Annoual he defeated a and made him master of the whole interior of
what is now Yemen. Located
just north of
Spanish army and pursued it to the suburbs Oran and the Titteri, with the French having
Aden city, it was one of the most important
of Melilla. At that time the Republic of the to be content with a few ports.
tribal areas of the Aden Protectorate, which
Rif was founded with Abd el-Krim as its pres- Creation of a new state. In two years Ab-
was the forerunner of independent Yemen
ident. Overcoming tribal rivalries, he began
(Aden); its capital was Lahij. The sultanate delkader had organized a true state, the capital
organizing a centralized administration based of which was sometimes Mascara and some-
was earlier tributary to western Yemen (i.e.,
upon traditional Berber tribal institutions. He Yemen [San'a']) but gained its independence times the fortress of Tiaret (now Tagdempt).
defeated another Spanish army in 1924; in He established juridical equality among popu-
in 1728. The 'Abdali tribal people then seized
1925 he almost reached the ancient city of lation groups by suppressing the privileges of
Fes in his drive against French forces that had
Aden and remained independent until 1839,
when they signed the first of several treaties the warlike tribes (makhzeri) and by imposing
captured his supply base in the Wargha valley. equal taxes on all his subjects. First he ex-
with the British that led to the formation of
Faced with Abd el-Krim's successes and see- tended his influence to the Sahara by fighting
the Aden Protectorate. The sultanate was held
ing in his movement a threat to their colonial
by the Turks during World War I. The Sub- at-Tijini, who dominated the southern oases,
possessions in North Africa, the Franco-Span-
ayhi (Subeihi) tribal area to the west came and rallying the desert peoples to him. Then
ish conference meeting in Madrid decided
under 'Abdali jurisdiction in 1948, and the he strengthened his authority in the valley of
upon joint action. As a Spanish force landed the Chelif and in the Titteri as far as the
sultanate became part of Yemen (Aden) in
at Alhucemas near Ajdir, a French army of
1967 and of the unified Yemen in 1990. The borders of the province of the east, where he
160,000 men under Marshal Philippe Petain was resisted by the bey of Constantine, Hajj
lands comprise a fertile area that has a set-
attacked from the south. Confronted with this
tled population and produces fruit, grain, and Ahmed. He also exacted harsh punishment of
combined Franco-Spanish force of 250,000 the Koulouglis of Zouatna, who had joined
other crops.
men with overwhelming technological superi- the French. By the winter of 1838, his au-
ority, Abd el-Krim surrendered on May 27, Abdallah (Arabic personal name): see under thority extended across the borders of Kabylie
1926, and was exiled to the island of Reunion "Abd Allah, or Abdullah. and, in the south, from the oasis of Biskra to
in the Indian Ocean. Receiving permission
Abdelkader, also spelled abd el-kader, or the Moroccan border. To destroy the power of
in 1947 to live in France, he left Reunion
abdul-qadir, Arabic in full 'abd al-qadir at-Tijini, he besieged his capital, Ain Mahdi,
and was granted political asylum en route by for six months and demolished it, while all
IBN MUHlY AD-DIN IBN MUSJAFA AL-HASANl
the Egyptian government; for five years he
al-jaza'irI (b. Sept. 6, 1808, Guetna, near the Saharan tribes paid him homage.
presided over the Liberation Committee of
Mascara, Alg.— d. May 26, 1883, Damascus, Abdelkader was an absolute leader who only
the Arab West (sometimes called the Maghrib
Syria), amir of Mascara (from 1832), the mil- rarely called in the grandees to advise him.
Bureau) in Cairo. After the restoration of Mo-
itary and religious leader who founded the Algerian religious sentiment was his support,
roccan independence, King Muhammad V Algerian state and led the Algerians in their the one force that could bring his subjects
invited him to return to Morocco, which he
1 9th-century struggle against French domina- together and unify them in the face of the
refused to do as long as French troops re-
tion (1840-46). invader. But that did not prevent him from
mained on North African soil.
employing competent persons of all nation-
 —
alities,whether Jews or Christians, to help When he died,
he was respected by all. French 19 abdominal cavity
him build a modem state. The best known efforts to make him
the symbol of Algerian
of these Europeans was the future diplomat support for colonial rule were erroneous. Ab-
Leon Roches, who later recounted his ad- delkader believed he was carrying out God's is located behind the stomach and is con-
ventures in a fanciful book, Trente-deux ans will in admitting that his political role had nected to the rest of the peritoneal cavity,
a travers I'Islam ("Thirty-two Years Through ended. Present-day Algerians consider him to the greater sac, by the foramen (opening) of
Islam"). Abdelkader organized a regular army be the greatest hero of their people. Winslow.
of approximately 2,000 men, to be supported (M.E.) Some of the viscera are attached to the
by either volunteers or contingents furnished bibliography. Paul Azan, L 'Emir Abd el Kader, abdominal walls by broad areas of the peri-
by the tribes. As towns near French territory 1808-1883, du fanatisme musulman au patrio- toneum, as is the pancreas. Others e.g. the
would have been too vulnerable, he fortified
Sebdou. Saida, Tiaret,
interior sites, such as
tisme francais (1925), the most complete work,
but currently out of date; Marcel Emerit. L'Al-
liver —
are attached by folds of the peritoneum
and ligaments, usually poorly supplied by
Taza, and Boghar, where he opened arsenals, girie a I'ipoque d'Abd-el-Kader (1951), documents blood vessels.
warehouses, and workshops, and where he and commentaries; Rene Gallissot, "Abd el-Ka- The peritoneal ligaments are actually rather
stored surplus crops whose sales were to fi- der et la nationality algerienne." Revue Historique, strong peritoneal folds, usually connecting
nance his arms purchases, mainly in England. 233:339-368 (1965); Charles Henry Churchill. The
viscera to viscera or viscera to the abdom-
Life of Abdel Kader, Ex-Sultan of the Arabs of
He set up a new administration, with officials inal wall; their name usually derives from
Algeria (1867).
on fixed salaries. He
taught his people auster- the structures connected by them (e.g., the
ity and set a personal example, living without Abdera, in ancient Greece, town on the gastrocolic ligament, connecting the stomach
ceremony in a tent. By expanding education, coast of Thrace near the mouth of the Nestos and the colon; the splenocolic ligament, con-
he slowly spread the concepts of independence River. The people of Teos, evacuating Ionia necting the spleen and the colon), or from
and nationality to his people. when it was overrun by the Persians under their shape (e.g., round ligament, triangular
When the columns of the Due d'Orleans Cyrus (c. 540 bc), succeeded in establishing a ligament).
crossed the Iron Gates, the Amir took it as a colony there that developed a brisk trade with The mesenteries are folds of peritoneum that
violation of the territories granted him by the the Thracian interior. Abdera was a prosper- are attached to the wall of the abdomen and
Treaty of Tafna. Even though he was still far ous member of the Delian League in the 5th enclosing viscera. They are richly supplied
from having completed his own work of or- century but was crippled early in the 4th cen- with vessels that carry blood to or from the
ganization, he made a surprise attack and de- tury bc by Thracian incursions and declined organs they enfold. The three most important
stroyed the French colonization of the Mitidja mesenteries are the mesentery for the small
sharply in importance. The philosophers Pro-
Plain. From then on the war languished until intestines; the transverse mesocolon, which
tagoras and Democritus were citizens of Ab-
General Bugeaud was named governor gen- attaches the transverse portion of the colon
dera. The site is occupied by the modern town
eral in Bugeaud convinced the French
1840.
of Avdhira, Greece. to the back wall of the abdomen; and the
government to arm him for the conquest of mesosigmoid, which enfolds the sigmoid por-
all Algeria. The resulting war was bitter and abdominal cavity, largest hollow space of the tion of the colon.
lasted seven years. The Amir avoided big bat- body. upper boundary is the diaphragm,
Its The omenta are folds of peritoneum enclos-
tles, preferring to use his rifle-armed cavalry a sheet of muscle and connective tissue that ing nerves, blood vessels, lymph channels, and
in incessant skirmishes, from which it would separates it from the chest cavity; its lower fatty and connective tissue. There are two
retreat almost as soon as it had fired. But
he was fighting a French army composed of
infantry organized by Bugeaud into extremely
spleen
mobile columns, and he had to contend with
the devastation of the countryside practiced
by Bugeaud and his lieutenants so as to force
the starving inhabitants to desert their leader.
In 1841 the French destroyed the Amir's
fortified sites, and he was forced to become
kidney
a nomad in the interior of Oran. The follow-
- left

ing year he lost Tlemcen, and communication

- descending colon
with his Moroccan allies became difficult. Yet,
despite further reverses and French penetra-
tion in the south, he succeeded in reaching
Morocco. But after Bugeaud's defeat of the
Moroccans at Isly, the Sultan was forced to
hold Abdelkader in the midst of his empire. • mesentery

The Amir, however, proved to have unflag-

ging energy. Taking advantage of a revolt in
the Dahra, he reentered Algeria, took the Sidi
Brahim outpost, and penetrated deep into the
interior, all the while escaping the pursuing enveloped
French columns. by peritoneum

Surrender to the French. In July 846. with 1

Abdominal cavity, showing relationship of the peritoneum and the
only a handful of men left, Abdelkader again abdominal viscera
took refuge in Morocco, the Sultan of which
by then considered him to be a burden. De- boundary is the upper plane of the pelvic omenta: the greater omentum hangs down
prived of this last area of support, Abdelkader cavity. Vertically it is enclosed by the ver- from the small intestine like an apron; the
returned to Algeria and with great dignity tebral column and the abdominal and other lesser omentum is much smaller and extends
turned himself over to Gen. Christophe de muscles. The abdominal cavity contains the between the stomach and the liver.
Lamoriciere and to Bugeaud's successor. King greater part of the digestive tract, the liver The presence of fluid in the peritoneal cavity
Louis-Philippe's son. the Due d'Aumale, who and pancreas, the spleen, the kidneys, and the (a condition known as ascites) is not notice-
promised him transport to the East. adrenal glands located above the kidneys. able until such a volume is attained as to dis-
Louis-Philippe, however, failed to respect his The abdominal cavity is lined by the peri- tend the abdomen. The accumulation of fluid
son's promise. Abdelkader was held prisoner toneum, a membrane that covers not only the will produce pressure against the abdominal
in France, first at the Chateau de Pau, where inside wall of the cavity (parietal peritoneum) viscera and veins and also against the tho-
he learned the principles of Freemasonry, and but also every organ or structure contained in racic cavity by pressing upon the diaphragm.
later at Amboise. It was the prince-president it (visceral peritoneum). The space between Treatment is directed toward alleviation of
Louis-Napoleon who, in 1852. authorized his the visceral and parietal peritoneum, the peri- the cause. Decrease in portal vein pressure in
return to Bursa and then to Damascus, where toneal cavity, is a potential space only, nor- many cases relieves the ascites that accompa-
he led an exemplary life and wrote Rappel a mally containing a small amount of serous nies cirrhosis. Chylous ascites is best treated
I 'intelligent, Vindifferent ("Call to the
avis a fluid that permits free movement of the vis- by closure of the leaking lymphatic vessel. Ad-
Intelligent, Warning to the Indifferent"). The cera inside the peritoneal cavity. This motion equate treatment of heart failure will usually
French government provided him with a large is particularly true of the gastrointestinal tract. produce regression of the ascites that the heart
pension and with a Kabyle guard and even The peritoneum, by connecting the visceral failure has caused.
attempted to obtain a throne for him some- with the parietal portions, assists in the sup- Peritonitis, another disorder, is usually sec-
where between Turkey and Egypt, which they port and fixation of the abdominal organs. ondary to an inflammatory process elsewhere,
wished to remove from Ottoman control. At The diverse attachments of the peritoneum which may come from an adjacent structure
the time of the 1871 Algerian insurrection, he divide the abdominal cavity into several com- or organ: may be introduced from the out-
disowned one of his sons who had tried to partments, of which the compartment called side by surgery or by injury; may come from
arouse the tribes of southern Constantine. the lesser sac is of particular importance: it organs in the abdomen; or may be borne
abdominal muscle 20 pull up the pelvis and lower limbs. (7) he I conser\ati\es. broke the rigidity of Muslim
muscles of one side can bend the vertebral ritual,dogma, and family ties. His writings
column sideways and assist in its rotation. include the "I realise on the Oneness of God"
b> the bloodstream or the lymphatics be and a commentar> on the Quran.
'Abdor Rahman Khan (b. c. 1844. Kabul.
I

most common origin of peritonitis is the gas- Life. 'Abduh attended the mosque school in
Afg.—d. 1901. Kabul), amir of Afghanistan Tanta and subsequently al-Azhar University
trointestinal tract. Peritonitis ma> be acute or
(1880-1901) who played a prominent role in
chronic, generalized or localized, and may be in Cairo, receiving the degree of'alim (scholar)
the fierce and long-drawn struggle for power
due to one agent or to a number of them. It is from the latter in 1877. After an early infat-
waged by his father and his uncle, A'zam uation with mysticism, in 1872 he fell under
secondary to perforation of the intestines, for
Khan, against his cousin Shir 'AM, the succes- the influence of Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, the
example. The seventy of the reactions is re-
sor of Dost Mohammad Khan.
lated, at least in part, to the extent of the peri- revolutionary pan-Islamic preacher of Persian
'Abdor Rahman was the son of Afzal Khan,
toneal contamination. In localized peritonitis, origin who had settled in Cairo and who stim-
whose father. Dost Mohammad Khan, had es- ulated 'Abduh's interest in theology, philoso-
the surrounding structures, mainly the greater
tablished the Barakzai dynasty in Afghanistan.
omentum, will enclose the infected area and phy, and politics. In punishment for political
Shir 'Ali's victory in 1869 drove 'Abdor Rah-
temporarily control the infection. If no treat- Afghani was expelled from Egypt in
activity,
man into exile in Russian Turkistan, where 1879 and 'Abduh was exiled to his
ment is started, the infection may progress village,
he lived at Samarkand until Shir 'Ali's death
throughout the entire abdominal cavity. Often but the next year 'Abduh's fortunes changed.
in 1879. a year after the outbreak of the
the period in which the peritonitis is localized He became editor of the government's offi-
war between the British and the Afghans.
is short, and the peritoneal inflammation be- cial gazette, which he made a platform for
'Abdor Rahman returned to Afghanistan in
comes generalized with great rapidity. preaching resistance to Anglo-French political
1880, was heartily welcomed by his people,
Control of the source of inflammation, either encroachment and the need for social and re-
and remained in northern Afghanistan until
by surgical or by medical means, is followed ligious reform. He was implicated in 'Urabi
the British negotiated a settlement recogniz-
by remission of all evidence of peritoneal Pasha's rebellion against foreign control in
ing 'Abdor Rahman as amir in return for
inflammation or infection or by formation 1882 and, following the British military occu-
his acknowledgment of the British right to
of localized abcesses inside of the peritoneal pation of Egypt, was exiled. Rejoining Afghani
control his foreign relations. 'Abdor Rahman
cavity. Antibiotic therapy has considerably in Paris for several months in 1884, 'Abduh
pacified the country and consolidated his au-
decreased the incidence of the latter complica- helped his mentor publish the revolution-
thority. During the years 1880-87, he crushed
tion. When an abscess does develop, antibiotic ary journal al-'Urwat alwuthqa ("The Firmest
a revolt by the powerful Ghilzai tribe and an
therapy and adequate external drainage are Bond"), which was smuggled to Egypt, India,
unexpected rebellion led by his cousin Ishaq and elsewhere. After brief visits to England
necessary. The most frequent sites for devel-
Khan; he also decisively defeated Shir 'Ali's and Tunisia, 'Abduh settled for three years in
opment of abscesses are the spaces between
son Ayub, who raided intermittently from his
the diaphragm and the pelvic cavity. Beirut and taught in an Islamic college there.
base in Herat.
In 1888 'Abduh was permitted to return to
abdominal muscle, any of the muscles of 'Abdor Rahman's reign is notable for the Egypt, where he began a judicial career that
the anterolateral walls of the abdominal cav- agreement reached on the demarcation of Af- spanned the rest of his life. He was appointed
ity, composed of three flat muscular sheets, ghanistan's northwestern border with Russia,
a judge in the National Courts of First In-
from without inward: external oblique, inter- the result of talks held near Kabul in 1893 with
stance, then in 1891 at the Court of Appeal;
nal oblique, and transverse abdominis, sup- a British delegation led by Sir Mortimer Du-
in 1899, with British help, he became mufti
plemented in front on each side of the midline rand, under which 'Abdor Rahman accepted
of Egypt. In the latter post he effected several
by rectus abdominis. theDurand line as his frontier, relinquishing
reforms in the administration of Islamic law
For a depiction of the abdominal muscles in some hereditary rights over the tribes on the
human anatomy, shown in relation to other and of religious endowments. He also issued
eastern border.
advisory opinions to private petitioners, in-
parts of the body, see the colour Trans- Vision 'Abdor Rahmanalso reorganized the admin-
cluding such controversially liberal judgments
in the propaedia: Part Four, Section 421. istrative system of the country and initiated
as the permissibility of eating meat slaugh-
The first three muscle layers extend between internal reforms. He brought in foreign ex-
tered by Christian and Jewish butchers and of
the vertebral column behind, the lower ribs perts, imported machinery for making mu-
accepting interest paid on loans. 'Abduh also
above, and the iliac crest and pubis of the nitions, introduced manufacture of consumer
lectured at al-Azhar and, against much con-
hip bone below. Their fibres all merge toward goods and new agricultural tools, and estab- servative opposition, induced reforms in the
the midline, where they surround the rectus lished Afghanistan's first modern hospital. He administration and curriculum of that ancient
abdominis in a sheath before they meet the imposed an organized government upon a di-
institution. He established a benevolent soci-
fibres from the opposite side at the linea alba. vided population and maintained the balance
ety that operated schools for poor children.
Strength is developed in these rather thin walls in dealing with the British in India and the
by the crisscrossing of fibres. Thus, the fibres
He served on the Legislative Council, preach-
Russian Empire.
of the external oblique are directed downward ing political cooperation with Britain and a
and forward, those of the internal oblique up- Abdu (city, ancient Egypt): see Abydos. long-term effort to bring about legal and edu-
ward and forward, and those of the transverse cational reforms in Egypt; these views, differ-
abduction, in law, the carrying away of any
horizontally forward. ing markedly from those he had espoused ear-
female for purposes of concubinage or pros-
lier in life under Afghani's influence, earned
Around the rectus abdominis, which extends titution. The taking of a girl under a desig-
from the pubis upward to the ribs, the above him the approval of Lord Cromer, the British
nated age for purposes of marriage is in most
muscles are all fibrous. In the region of the Resident, but also the hostility of the khe-
jurisdictions also included in the crime of ab-
groin, between the pubic bone and the anterior dive (ruling prince) 'Abbas Hilmi and of the
duction. Abduction is generally regarded as a
superior iliac spine, a specialized arrangement nationalist leader Mustafa Kamil. Late in life
form of kidnapping (q.v).
of these fibres permits the formation of the 'Abduh learned French and pursued an inter-
inguinal canal, a passage through the muscu- abductor muscle, any of the muscles that est in European thought.

lar layers. This develops at birth as the testes cause movement of a limb away from the mid- Achievements. In addition to his numerous
descend out of the abdominal cavity through plane of the body or away from a neighbour- articles in the official gazette and al-Urwat

its wall into the scrotum. In the female this

ing part or limb (compare adductor muscles), al-wuthqa, 'Abduh's most important writings
is replaced by a fibrous cord from the uterus.
as in raising the arms to the side (effected by included Risalat at-tawhid ("Treatise on the
This gap is a potentially weak area where in- the deltoideus muscle) or spreading the fingers Oneness of God"); a polemic on the superi-
guinal hernias can occur. or toes. In man certain muscles of the hands ority of Islam to Christianity in its inherent
The muscles of the abdominal walls perform and feet are named for performing this func- receptivity to science and civilization; and a
a variety of functions: (1) They provide a tion. In the hand, the abductor digiti minimi fragmentary commentary on the Qur'an, com-
tonic, elastic muscular support for the viscera manus acts upon the little finger, and both the pleted after his death by a disciple. In theology
and. by their recoil, pull down the rib cage abductor pollicis longus and abductor pollicis 'Abduh sought to establish the harmony of
in expiration. (2) They contract against blows brevis act upon the thumb. The corresponding reason and revelation, the freedom of the will,
to form a rigid protective wall for the viscera. foot muscles are the abductor digiti minimi and the primacy of the ethical implications
(3) When the glottis is closed and the thorax pedis and the abductor hallucis, which act on of religious faith over ritual and dogma. He
and pelvis are fixed, these muscles take part the little and great toes, respectively. deplored the blind acceptance of traditional
doctrines and customs and asserted that a re-
in the expulsive efforts of urination, defeca- 'Abduh, Muhammad (b. 1849, Nile Delta
tion, childbirth, vomiting, and of singing and
coughing. (4) When the pelvis
area, Egypt — d. July 11, 1905, near Alex-
turn to the pristine faith of the earliest age
of Islam not only would restore the Muslims'
is fixed, they andria), religious scholar, jurist, and liberal
initiate the movement of bending spiritual vitality but would provide an enlight-
the trunk reformer, who led the late 19th-century move-
forward. Thereafter, gravity comes ened criterion for the assimilation of modern
into play, ment in Egypt and other Muslim countries
the abdominal muscles relax, and scientific culture.
the mus- to revitalize Islamic teachings and institutions
cles of the back then take on the strain. (5) In matters of Islamic law, which governed
in the modern world. As mufti (Islamic legal
Conversely, the abdominal muscles come into Muslim family relationships, ritual duties,
counsellor) for Egypt (from 1899), he effected
play in preventing hyperextension. (6) When and personal conduct, 'Abduh break
tried to
reforms in Islamic law, administration, and
the thorax is fixed, the abdominal muscles can through the of scholastic interpreta-
rigidities
higher education and, although resisted by
tion and to promote considerations of equity,
 —
welfare, and common sense, even if this oc- —
Malaya [now Malaysia] d. Dec. 6, 1990, 21 Abdiilhak Hamid
casionally meant disregarding the literal texts Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia), first prime minister
of the Qur an. From his death to the present of independent Malaya (1957-63) and then of
day, Abduh has been widely revered as the Malaysia (1963-70), under whose leadership Empire [now Istanbul, Tur.] — d. June 4, 1876,
chief architect of the modern reformation of the newly formed government was stabilized. Constantinople), Ottoman sultan (1861-76)
Islam. (M.H.K.) After studies in England (1920-31), Abdul who continued the westernizing reforms that
bibliography. Charles C. Adams. Islam and Rahman returned to Malaya to enter the had been by his predecessors until
initiated
Modernism in Egypt: A Study of the Modern Re- 1871, after which his reign took an absolutist
form Movement Inaugurated by Muhammad 'Ab- turn.
duh (1933, reprinted 1968), is a classic work that Like his brother Abdiilmecid I, whom he
deals at length with Rashid Rida and other follow- succeeded as sultan on June 25, 1861, Ab-
ers of Abduh. A substantial analysis of Abduh's
diilaziz was an ardent admirer of the mate-
thought and legacy is found in Malcolm H. Kerr,
rial progress in western Europe. Educated in
Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories
the Ottoman tradition, however, he could not
of Muhammad 'Abduh and Rashid Rida (1966).
always accept the adoption of Western insti-
Elie Kedourie, Afghani and 'Abduh (1966), por-
tutions and customs. Abdiilaziz was a mem-
trays Abduh as a clandestine religious and political
subversive. ber of the Mawlawiyah (Mevlevi) order of
dervishes (Muslim mystics).
Abdul (Arabic personal name, combining Between 1861 and 1871, reforms were con-
form): see under Abd al-. tinued under the leadership of Abdiilaziz' able
Abdul-Jabbar, Kareem, also called (until chief ministers, Fuad Pasa and Ali Pasa. New
1971) lew alcindor, byname of Ferdinand administrative districts (vilayets) were set up
lewis alcindor, jr. (b. April 16, 1947, New (1864); on French advice a council of state
York, N.Y., U.S.), collegiate and professional was established (1868); public education was
basketball player, who as a 7-foot lVs-inch organized on the French model and a new
centre dominated the game throughout the university founded; and the first Ottoman civil
1970s and early '80s. code was promulgated. Abdiilaziz cultivated
Alcindor played for Power Memorial Tunku Abdul Rahman good relations with France and Great Britain
Academy (at 6 feet 8 inches) on the varsity Camera Press and was the first Ottoman sultan to visit west-
for four years, and
his total of 2,067 points ern Europe.
Kedah 1947 he returned to
civil service. In By 1871 Abdiilaziz' ministers Ali and Fuad
set a New York City high school record. He
England, was called to the bar in 1949, and
entered the University of California at Los were dead, and France, his western European
was appointed a deputy public prosecutor in model, had been defeated by Germany. Abdii-
Angeles (UCLA) 1965 and set a UCLA
in
the Malayan Federal Legal Department, a post
scoring record with
56 points in his first
he resigned in 1951 to begin a political career.
game. He helped lead UCLA to three National
He became president of the United Malays
Collegiate Athletic Association championships
National Organization (UMNO) and effected
(1966-68), and during his stay at UCLA the
team lost only two games.
the alliance of UMNO
with the Malayan Chi-
nese Association (1951) and with the Malayan
Alcindor joined the National Basketball As-
Indian Congress (1955). His Alliance Party
sociation (NBA) Milwaukee Bucks in 1969
won an overwhelming majority in the election
and was rookie of the year in 1970. In 1971
of 1955, and Abdul Rahman became chief
the Bucks won the NBA championship, and
minister and home minister of Malaya.
Alcindor led in scoring (2,596 points) and
The mission he led to London (January
game point average (31.7); he also led in these
1956) to negotiate for independence secured
statistics in 1972 (2,822 points; 34.8). In 1971
immediate internal self-government and the
Alcindor, who had converted to Islam while
pledge of independence by August 1957. When
at UCLA, took his Arabic name. In 1975 he
Malaya became independent, he became its
was traded to the Los Angeles Lakers, who
first prime minister and foreign minister, and
won the NBA championship in 1980. 1982,
he continued in that post when the federation Abdulaziz, detail of a portrait by an
1985, 1987, and 1988. In 1984 he surpassed unknown artist, 19th century; in the
of Malaysia was formed in 1963.
Wilt Chamberlain's career scoring total of 31,- Topkapi Palace Museum, Istanbul
In September 1970, one year after the out-
419 points. Abdul-Jabbar retired at the end of Sonia Haliiday
break of riots between the Chinese and the
the 1988-89 season, having been voted Most
Malays following an election in which the
Valuable Player a record six times. By the end laziz, willfuland headstrong, without powerful
Chinese had made gains, Abdul Rahman re-
of his extraordinarily long career, he had set ministers to limit his authority, became the
linquished his post as prime minister and was
NBA records for most points (38,387), most
succeeded by Abdul Razak.
effective ruler and placed greater emphasis on
field goals made (15,837), and most minutes the Islamic character of the empire. In foreign
played (57,446). He was elected to the Basket- Abdul Razak bin Hussein, Tun Haji (b. policy, he turned to Russia for friendship, as
ball Hall of Fame in 1995. March 11, 1922, Pekan, Pahang state, Feder- turmoil in the Balkan provinces continued.

Abdul Rahman, Tuanku (King) (b. Aug. 24,

ated Malay States [now Malaysia] —
d. Jan. 14, When insurrection in Bosnia and Herze-
1976, London, Eng.), prime minister, foreign govina spread to Bulgaria (1876), ill feeling
1895, Sri Menanti, Malaya [now Malaysia] minister, and defense minister of Malaysia mounted against Russia for its encouragement
d. April 1, 1960, Kuala Lumpur), first supreme
from 1970 to 1976. of the rebellions. The crop failure of 1873, the
chief of state of the Federation of Malaya.
A
lawyer by training, Abdul Razak joined the sultan's lavish expenditures, and the mounting
After the declaration of independence from civil service in 1950, entered politics in 1955, public debt had also heightened public discon-
Great Britain in 1957, the tuanku became the and was a key figure in gaining his country's tent. Abdiilaziz was deposed by his ministers
first head of state, or paramount ruler, elected
independence from Britain in 1957. As deputy on May 30, 1876; his death a few days later
by and from the Malay rulers for a five-year prime minister and defense minister (1957-70) was attributed to suicide.
term. Abdul Rahman died before completion
and as minister of rural development (1959- Abdiilhak Hamid, in full abdOlhak hamid
of his term.
69) under Tunku Abdul Rahman, first prime
The son of Tuanku Mohammed, ruler of tarhan (b.1852, Constantinople, Ot-
Feb. 2,
minister of independent Malaya
the state of Negri Sembilan, Abdul Rahman
(Malaysia
from 1963), Abdul Razak was largely respon-
toman Empire [now Istanbul, Tur.] d. April —
in 1925 accompanied his father to England, 12, 1937, Istanbul, Tur.), poet and play-
sible for the country's progress in rural and
where he remained to study law; he was called wright, considered one of the greatest Turk-
national development. Appointed head of the
to the bar from the Inner Temple in 1928. ish Romantic writers. He was instrumental in
National Operations Council set up with emer-
After returning to Malaya, he held a variety introducing Western influences into Turkish
gency powers in 1969, he steered the country
of posts in the civil service. On the death of through that year's violent disturbances be-
literature.

his father in 1933, he succeeded to the throne Born into a family of famous scholars, Ha-
tween Malays and Chinese. As prime minister mid was educated
of Negri Sembilan. Istanbul and in Paris.
in
from 1970, he pursued a policy of nonalign- Later in Tehran, he studied Arabic and Per-
Abdul Rahman was a retiring and kindly ment, in furtherance of which he established
man who learned from his father a deep re- sian poetry. Following in his father's footsteps,
relations with mainland China in 1974.
spect for constitutional law and a sympathy Hamid became a diplomat, holding posts in
In 1959 he was awarded the Seri Ma-
for his people. (He should not be confused Paris, Greece, Bombay, The Hague, London,
haraja Mangku Negara, one of Malaya's (and
with Tunku Abdul Rahman, who was inde- and Brussels. In 1908 hebecame a member of
Malaysia's) highest honours, which carries the
pendent Malaya's first prime minister.) the Turkish Senate and after World War I, fol-
title of tun
lowing a stay in Vienna, returned to Turkey,
Abdul Rahman Putra Alhaj, Tunku Abdiilaziz, in full abdDlaziz oglu mahmud where he was elected a member of the Grand
(Prince) (b. Feb. 8, 1903. Alor Star, Kedah. ii (b. Feb. 9, 1830, Constantinople, Ottoman National Assembly in 1928. A follower of the
Abdulhamid 22 he ruled from his seclusion at Yildi/ Palace Abdullah, in lull abd allah ibn al-husayn
(in Constantinople), assisted b> a system "I (b. 1882. Mecca—d. July 20. 1951. Jerusa-
secret police, an expanded telegraph network, lem!, statesman who became Ihe first ruler
lan/imai(a 19th-century lurkish political re- and severe censorship. (1946-51) of the independent Arab kingdom
form movement) school of literature and in- \llcr the French occupation Of lumsia of Jordan
spired b> his patriotic predecessor, the ^ oung I 88
I and assumption of power h> the British
1 ) Abdullah, the second son of Husavn ibn Ali.
Ottoman writer Namik kemal. Abdulhak Ha- in gypl (1882). Abdulhamid turned for sup-
I the ruler of the Hejaz, was educated in Is
nud's plays exhibit a strong French influence. port to the Germans. In return, concessions tanbul. After the I urkish Revolution of 1908
Deept) moved b> the death of his wife, he were made to Germany, culminating in per- he represented Mecca in the Ottoman Parlia-
dedicated main poems to her. such as his mission (1899) to build the Baghdad Railwa\ ment. Early in 1914 he joined the nationalist
famous "Makber" ("The Tomb"), written in EventualK. the suppression of the Armenian Arab movement, which sought independence
1885 His best dramas, notable among which revolt 1894) and the turmoil in Crete, which
( for Arab territories in the Ottoman Empire. In
are Tank and Ihn-i Slusa. feature personages led to the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. once 1915-16 he played a leading role in clandes-
in Muslim history and are written in prose more resulted in European intervention. tine negotiations between the British in Egypt
and poetry, although Finten (1887) deals with Abdulhamid used pan-Islamism to solidify and his father that led to the proclamation
1 ondon society. This sensitive poet paved the his internal absolutist rule and to rally Mus- (June 10, 1916) of the Arab revolt against the
wax lor more radical literary reform. He was lim opinion outside the empire, thus creating Ottomans.
given a national funeral. for European imperial powers in
difficulties With dubious legality Abdullah was pro-
their Muslim colonies. The Hejaz Railway, claimed constitutional king of Iraq on March
Abdiilhamid I (b. March 20. 1725— d. April financed by Muslim contributions from all 8, 1920, by the so-called Iraqi Congress in
7. 1789). Ottoman sultan from 1774 to 1789
over the world, was a concrete expression of Damascus. But he declined the Iraqi throne,
who concluded the war with Russia by signing his policy. which in August 1921 was given to his brother
the humiliating Treaty of Kiiciik Kaynarca.
most far-reaching of his re-
Internally, the Faysal I. After French troops drove Faysal out
B> the terms of the treaty. Russia obtained
forms were in education; 18 professional of Damascus (July 1920). Abdullah occupied
the fortresses on the coast of the Sea of Azov,
schools were established; Dariilfunun, later Transjordan and threatened to attack Syria.
the area between the Dnepr and Bug rivers,
known as the University of Istanbul, was He was successful in gradually negotiating
and navigation and commercial privileges in the legal separation of Transjordan from the
founded (1900); and a network of secondary,
the Ottoman Empire. Bukovina was ceded to
primary, and military schools was extended Palestine mandate.
Austria in 1775. Russia annexed the Crimea
throughout the empire. Also, the Ministry of The creation of a united Arab kingdom en-
(an Ottoman vassal state) in 1783 and planned
compassing Syria. Iraq, and Transjordan was
Justice was reorganized, and railway and tele-
to partition the Ottoman Empire. Confronted
graph systems were developed. Abdullah's ambition. During World War II,
with Russian designs. Abdulhamid in 1787
Discontent with Abdiilhamid's despotic rule he actively sided with Great Britain, and his
declared war. which was not ended until after
his death.
and resentment against European intervention army — the —
Arab Legion took part in the
in the Balkans, however, led to the military British occupation of Syria and Iraq in 1941.
A pious and benevolent man with a keen in- revolution of the Young Turks in 1908. After In 1946 Transjordan became independent,
he favoured reform and
terest in state afFairs.
a short-lived reactionary uprising (April 1909), and he was crowned in Amman on May 25,
appointed able grand viziers to whom he en-
Abdulhamid was deposed, and his brother was 1946. He was the only Arab ruler prepared
trusted wide powers. He initiated army reforms
proclaimed sultan as Mehmed V. to accept the United Nations' partitioning of
and opened the Imperial Naval Engineering
Studies of Abdulhamid include Life of Ab- Palestine into Jewish and Arab states (1947).
School. He also endeavoured to strengthen the
central government against provincial rulers,
H
dul- amid (1917), by Sir E. Pears, and The In the war with Israel in May 1948, his armies
Sultan: The Life of Abdul Hamid (1958). by occupied the West Bank of the Jordan River
particularly in Syria. Egypt, and Iraq.
Joan Haslip. and captured Old Jerusalem. Two years later
Abdulhamid (b. Sept. 21,II 1842, Con- he annexed the West Bank territory into the
stantinople —
Feb. 10, 1918. Constantino-
d.
Abduila, Muhammed
Said (b. April 25,
kingdom of Jordan, a move that angered his
1918. Zanzibar, Tanz.), African novelist gen-
ple). Ottoman sultan from 1876 to 1909, former Arab allies, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and
erallv regarded as the father of Swahili popular
under whose autocratic rule the reform move- Egypt, which wanted to see the creation of
literature.
ment of Tanzimat (Reorganization) reached a Palestinian Arab state on the West Bank.
Abduila, after completing his formal educa-
its climax and who adopted a policy of pan- His popularity at home declined, and he was
tion, began his career as an inspector in the
Islamism in opposition to Western interven- assassinated by a Palestinian nationalist.
Colonial Health Department. After 10 years
tion in Ottoman affairs.
there, however, he decided to become a jour- Abdullah, Sheikh Muhammad, byname
nalist. In 1948 he was made editor of the lion of Kashmir (b. Dec. 5, 1905. Soura, near
newspaper Zanzibari, and during the next Srinagar. Kashmir, India — d. Sept. 8, 1982,
decade he also served as assistant editor of Al Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir), a prominent
Falaq, Al Mahda, and Afrika Kwetu. In 1958 figure in India's struggle for independence,
he became editor of Mkulima, the national who fought for the rights of Kashmir and won
agricultural magazine, where he served until for it a semiautonomous status within India.
his retirement in 1968. Abdullah was educated at the Prince of Wales
Coinciding with his shift to Mkulima was College (Jammu) and the Islamia College (La-
Abdulla's first success as a writer of fiction. hore) and received an M.S. degree in physics
His "Mzimu wa Watu wa Kale" ("Shrine of from Aligarh Muslim University in 1930. He
the Ancestors") won first prize in the Swahili championed the rights of the Muslim majority
Story-Writing Competition of 1957-58, con- of the state during British rule in India and
ducted by the East African Literature Bu- fought against the discrimination exercised by
reau, and was published as a novel in 1960. the Hindu ruling house. After Abdullah served
In this work. Abduila introduced his detec- the first of many terms of imprisonment in
tive hero, Bwana Msa —
loosely based on Sir 1931, he founded the Kashmir Muslim (later

Abdulhamid
Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes and — National) Conference. He supported the con-
II. oil painting by an other characters who recur in most of his cept of a secular state, and when India was
unknown artist
subsequent novels, which include Kisiwa cha granted independence he strongly opposed the
By courtesy ol Ihe Topkapi Sarayi Museum Istanbul
Giningi (1968; "The Well of Giningi"), also a idea of joining Muslim Pakistan.
prizewinner; Duniani Kima Watu (1973; "In In 1948 Abdullah became prime minister of
A son of Sultan Abdiilmecid I, he came
the World There Are People"); Siri ya Sifuri Kashmir. Despite his early support for In-
to the throne at the deposition of his men-
tally deranged brother, Murad V, on Aug.
(1974; "The Secret of the Zero"); Mke Mmoja dian leader Jawaharlal Nehru, many Indians
31, 1876. He promulgated the first Ottoman
Wawfie Walatu (1975; "One Wife, Three believed that Abdullah's ultimate aim was in-
constitution on Dec. 23, 1876, primarily to
Husbands"): and Mwana wa Yungi Hulewa dependence for Kashmir; therefore, in 1953
ward off foreign intervention at a time when (1976; "The Devil's Child Grows Up"). With he was dismissed and imprisoned. During the
the Turks' savage suppression of the Bulgarian
each new title, Abdulla's work developed in next 1 1 years he refused to pledge his loyalty
uprising (May 1876) and Ottoman successes
complexity and sophistication of plot; his use to India and spent most of the time under

in Serbia and Montenegro had aroused the

of the Swahili language is admired throughout detention. When he was released by Nehru
indignation of Western powers and Russia. East Africa, and his works —
reprinted several in 1964, he received an enthusiastic reception

After a disastrous war with Russia (1877), Ab- —

times are widely used as school texts. The from his people. In subsequent talks with the
diilhamid was convinced that little help could
novels characteristically pit the hero's pow- Indian government, he worked out the basis
ers of reason against a web of ignorance and of a possible solution to the Kashmir problem.
be expected from the Western powers with-
out their intrusion into Ottoman affairs. He superstition that serves to conceal the true na- He was dispatched on a foreign tour to gain
dismissed the Parliament, which had met in ture of the narrative conflict. the goodwill of Pakistan and Algeria, but
March 1877, and suspended the constitution India's relations with Pakistan had by then
Abdullah (Arabic personal name): see under
in February 1878. Thenceforth for 40 years
deteriorated and Abdullah's foreign tour was
'Abd Allah, except as below.
seen as seditious. At the same time, his sup- to embrace standards set by the West (though 23 Abe Kobo
port in Kashmir had been eroded by the ap- he remained a staunch Muslim), have caused
parent lack of progress in negotiations with him to be treated with some caution by a more
India. Abdullah was again arrested and not re- recent generation of nationalists, but he con- the Balkans. They also forced the Ottomans to
leased until 1968. From then until his ap- tinues to be widely acknowledged as the father grant autonomy in Lebanon (1861), while the
pointment as chief minister of Jammu and of modern Malay literature. effect of the Treaty of Paris was to unify the
Kashmir in 1975, his Plebiscite Front gained Danubian principalities, paving the way for
Abdiilmecid, also spelled abdul-medjid, or
some successes, but it lost to the Congress the independence of Romania (1878).
abdul-mejid, name of Ottoman sultans
Party in the 1972 elections. His relations with Abdulmecid restored Hagia Sophia, built the
grouped below chronologically.
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi were Dolmabahce Palace, and founded the first
sometimes strained, but he persuaded her to Abdiilmecid I (b. April 25, 1823, Constan- French theatre in Constantinople. See also Ali
allow Kashmir a form of autonomy. Abdul- tinople, Ottoman Empire [now Istanbul, Pasa, Mehmed Emin; Resid Pasa, Mustafa.
lah's government was later accused of corrup- Tur.] — d. June 25, 1861, Constantinople), Ot-
Abdiilmecid II (b. May 30, 1868, Constan-
tion, but, though his popularity waned, he was toman sultan from 1839 to 1861, who issued
tinople, Ottoman Empire [now Istanbul,
still admired for his outstanding contribution two major social and
reform edicts
to the cause of Kashmiri national rights.
political
known as the Hatt-i Serif of Gulhane (Noble Tur.] —
d. Aug. 23, 1944, Paris, France), the
last caliph and crown prince of the Ottoman
Edict of the Rose Chamber) in 1839 and the
Abdullah n, in full abdullah
ibn hussein dynasty of Turkey.
Hatt-i Hiimayun (Imperial Edict) in 1856,
(b. Jan. 30, 1962, Amman, Jordan),king of Following Ottoman custom, Abdulmecid
Jordan from 1999. A member
heralding the new era of Tanzimat ("Reorga-
of the was confined to the palace until he was 40,
nization").
Hashimite dynasty, he was considered by during which time his father, Abdiilaziz, and
Well educated, liberal minded, and the first
pious Muslims to be a direct descendant of the three of his cousins reigned. When his fourth
sultan to speak French, Abdiilmecid contin-
Prophet Muhammad (see Ahl al-Bayt). cousin took the throne as Mehmed VI in
ued the reform program of his father, Mah-
Abdullah, the eldest son of King Hussein, 1918, Abdulmecid became crown prince. He
served as the crown prince until age three,
Tnud II, and was strongly assisted by his min-
was elected caliph by the Grand National As-
isters Mustafa Resid Pasa, Mehmed Emin Ali
when unrest in the Middle East prompted sembly on Nov. 18, 1922, after the sultanate
Pasa, and Fuad Pasa. The reform edicts were
Hussein to name Abdullah's uncle, Prince was abolished; and he losthis title of crown
in part directed toward winning the support of
Hassan, heir to the throne. In 1980 Abdullah prince after Mehmed left Constantinople on
European powers. The edicts proclaimed the
graduated from the Royal Military Academy the assumption of power by the Young Turks
equality of all citizens under the law and
in Sandhurst, Eng. He later served in the under Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk). Although the
granted civil and political rights to the Christ-
British Armed Forces, and in 1 993 he was ap- caliphate was severed from all political power,
ian subjects. The main purpose of the reforms,
pointed deputy commander of Jordan's elite Abdulmecid, a gentle and scholarly man, was
however, remained the preservation of the Ot-
Special Forces. That year Abdullah married a the living symbol of Turkey's link to the
toman state. The army was reorganized (1842)
Palestinian, Rania al-Yasin, with whom he Islamic-Ottoman past. The forces of tradition
and conscription introduced; new penal, com-
had two children, Hussein and Imam. and the opponents of Mustafa Rental's regime
mercial, and maritime codes were promulgat-
In January 1999 Hussein named Abdullah rallied around him. Mustafa Kemal, deter-
ed; and mixed civil and criminal courts with
the new heir to the Hashimite crown. About a mined to break with the Islamic past, first pro-
European and Ottoman judges were estab-
month later Hussein died, and Abdullah was claimed the Turkish Republic (Oct. 29, 1923),
lished. In 1858 a new land law confirmed the
officially crowned king on June 9. He followed and on March 3, 1924, the Grand National
rights of ownership, and an attempt was made
many of his father's policies, including sup- Assembly abolished the caliphate. The next
to establish a new system of centralized
porting an Arab-Israeli peace agreement. Ab- day Abdulmecid was exiled.
provincial administration. The sultan's educa-
dullah also backed U.S. efforts to combat ter-
rorism and focused on stemming the power of
tional reforms included the formation of a Abe Isoo (b. March 1, 1865, Fukuoka,

Islamists in Jordan. In addition, he sought to

Ministry of Education and the establishment Japan — d. Feb. 10, 1949, Tokyo), one of the
of military preparatory schools and secondary founders of the Japanese socialist movement
improve the status of women in his country.
schools; he also established an Ottoman school and titular head of the Social Mass Party
Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, also called mun- in Paris (1855). (Shakai Taishuto) from its inception in 1932
SHI ABDULLAH BIN ABDUL KADIR (b. 1796, Abdulmecid's foreign policy was directed to- until 1940. He is also remembered for intro-
—
Malacca, Malaya d. 1854, Jiddah, Turkish ward maintaining friendly relations with the ducing the game of baseball to Japan.
Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia]), Malayan-born European powers to preserve the territorial in- Abe was attracted to socialism while studying
writer who, through his autobiographical and tegrity of the Ottoman state. He ascended the in the United States, where he graduated from
other works, played an important role as a throne as a mere boy a few days after the Ot- the Hartford (Conn.) Theological Seminary.
progenitor of modern Malay literature. toman defeat by the Viceroy of Egypt at the He returned to Japan in 1899 and two years
Of mixed Arab (Yemeni) and Tamil descent, Battle of Nizip (June 1839). Only an alliance laterbecame a professor at Tokyo Semmon
and Malayo-Muslim culture, Abdullah was of European powers (excluding France) saved Gakko (later Waseda University), a position
born and grew up in a Malacca newly British, he held for 25 years. He helped the embryon-
and he spent most of his life interpreting ic Japanese labour movement and helped
Malay society to Westerners and vice versa. found the Social Democratic Party (1899),
Styled munshi (teacher) from an early age, in which was suppressed by the government. A
recognition of his teaching Malay to Indian pacifist, Abe opposed the Russo-Japanese War
soldiers of the Malacca garrison (and later to a (1904-05); when the antiwar newspaper
whole generation of British and American Heimin shimbun ("People's Weekly News")
missionaries, officials, and businessmen), he was banned, Abe started his own magazine,
rapidly became an indispensable functionary Shinkigen ("A New Era"), as a platform to
in the fledgling Straits Settlements. He was promote parliamentary socialism rooted in
copyist and Malay scribe for Sir Stamford Raf- Christian humanism.
fles, was
translator of the Gospels and other After the war Abe objected to the takeover of
texts into Malay for the London Missionary the socialist movement by radical anarcho-
Society in Malacca from 1815, and 20 years syndicalist groups and to their terrorist activi-
later served as printer to the press of the ties; he retired from politics and devoted him-
American Board of Missions in Singapore. self to educational causes. After World War I
An American missionary, Alfred North, Abdulmecid I, detail ofa portrait by an he again became active in socialist activities;
unknown artist, 19th century; in the
he established the Fabian Society of Japan
seems to have encouraged Abdullah in 1837,
Topkapi Saray Museum, Istanbul
on the strength of a lively account published in (1921), and five years later he resigned from
SoraaHalday
that year of North's experiences on a voyage the university to become secretary-general of
up the east coast of Malaya, to embark on the theOttomans from accepting disastrous terms the new People's Socialist Party. In 1928 he
story of his life. Completed in 1843, Hikayat from Egypt (Treaty of London, July 1840). In was elected to the first of his five terms in the
Abdullah ("Abdullah's Story") was first pub- 1849 Abdulmecid's refusal to surrender Lajos lower house of the Japanese Diet. When his
lished in 1849; it has been reprinted many Kossuth and other Hungarian revolutionary party reorganized in 1932 as the much more
times and translated into English and other refugees to Austria won him the respect of Eu- popular Social Mass Party, he became chair-
languages. Its chief distinction — beyond the ropean liberals. Finally, in 1853 the Ottomans man of its executive committee. He resigned in
vivid picture it gives of his life and times —
was were assisted by France, Great Britain, and 1940, however, over the issue of cooperation
the radical departure it marked in Malay liter- Sardinia in the Crimean War against Russia with the government's militaristic policies; the
ary style. In contrast to the largely court liter- and were admitted as participants in the government dissolved the party soon after.
ature of the past, the Hikayat Abdullah pro- Treaty of Paris (1856). Abe Kobo, pseudonym of abe kimifusa (b.
vided a lively and colloquial descriptive
account of events and people with a freshness
The European powers, however, obstructed
the sultan's efforts at centralization and at re-
March 7, 1924, Tokyo, Japan —
d. Jan. 22,
1993, Tokyo), Japanese novelist and play-
and immediacy hitherto unknown. Abdullah's covering power in Bosnia and Montenegro in wright noted for his use of bizarre and alle-
criticisms of his own society, and his eagerness
 —
\l>i Masahiro 24 When Pcirv's fleet aimed
in 1853, it was After playing in the Dresden court orchestta
readily apparent Japanese armaments
that (17-4 be) went to London in 17S9 and
vera no match for the 5 warships After
I became chamber musician to Queen Char-
gorical situations to underline the isolation of IVm returned the following February, Abe- lotte in 1764. When J( Bach arrived in
the individual man signed the reat> of k.inagawa (March 31,
1 London in 1762. they became friends and in
He grewup m Mukden mow Shen-yang), 1854), opening Japan to limited communica- 1765 established the "Bach and Abel" concerts
in Manchuria, where his lather, a physician, tion with the United States Similar treaties
taught at the medical college The youngster were concluded with (ireat Britain. Russia.
was interested in insect collecting, mathemat- and The Netherlands in the following months
ics, and the writings of Fyodor Dosunc\sk\. Meanw hile. fueled by the seeming weakness of
Martin Heidegger, K.arl Jaspers, fran/ kafka. the shogunate. the movement for the restora-
tion of power to the old imperial family began
to grow, and Abe. overwhelmed by criticism
that he had betrayed his country, was forced
to relinquish a great deal of his power; there-
after he devoted himself exclusively to internal
affairs.

Abeche, town, eastern Chad, between the

wadis Chao and Sao. Historically it was the
site of the capital of the Muslim sultanate
of Ouaddai (q.v.), which dominated much of
the area of Chad before French conquest was
Carl Friedrich Abel, engraving by A Satnt-Aubtn
accomplished in 1912. The remains of the an- after a portrait by C.-N. Cochin, 1781
cient capital include a palace, tombs of former P Ziolo
J
and the ruins of a mosque, all sur-
sultans,
rounded by a thick wall. The town has many that included the first public performances in
mosques. England of Joseph Haydn's symphonies. Abel
Abeche surrounded by savanna-type ter-
is wrote 23 symphonies, one of which, the so-
rain that an important cattle-raising area,
is called Kochel 18, was long attributed wrongly
but the distance from suitable markets hinders to the youthful W.A. Mozart.
Abe Kobo
development of the cattle industry. Abeche is
By courtesy ol the mlemalional Society tot Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus (b. July 17.
linked by main road to the capital, N'Djamena
Educational Information Tokyo
(formerly Fort-Lamy), Sarh (formerly Fort-
1827, Woolwich, London, Eng. —
d. Sept. 6,

and Edgar Allan Poe. 1902, Westminster, London), English chemist

Friedrich Nietzsche, Archambault), and The Sudan. The Lycee
Abe went to Japan in 1941 and in 1943 began and explosives specialist who, with the chemist
Franco-Arabe (a secondary school) is in the
Sir James Dewar, invented cordite (1889),
studying medicine at the University of Tokyo town, which has an airport and a hospital
later adopted as the standard explosive of the
but returned to Manchuria to face the end of and supports some light industry, including
World War II. Repatriated to Japan, he was British army. Abel also made studies of dust
the manufacture of camel-hair blankets. Pop.
graduated in medicine in 1948 but never prac- explosions in coal mines, invented a device
(1988 est.) 40,000.
ticed. He started writing poetry, publishing in
for testing the flash point of petroleum, and
1947 Mumei shishu ("Poems of an Unknown Abeel, John (Seneca Indian leader): see Corn- found a way to prevent guncotton from ex-
planter. ploding spontaneously.
Poet") at his own expense. The critical accep-
tance of his novel Owarishi michi no shirube Abel studied chemistry at the Royal Poly-
Abegg, Richard Wilhelm Heinrich (b. Jan.
ni ("The Road Sign at the End of the Street") technic Institution and in 1845 became one
9, 1869, Danzig, Prussia [now Gdansk, Pol.]
in 1948 established his reputation. of the original 26 students of A.W. von Hof-
d. April 3, 1910, Koslin, Ger.), physical
Among his important novels, many of which chemist whose work contributed to the under-
mann at the Royal College of Chemistry. In
have been called Kafkaesque, are Suna no 1852 he was appointed lecturer in chemistry
standing of valence (the capacity of an atom
onna (1962; The Woman in the Dunes), which at the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich,
to combine with another atom) in light of the
was adapted into an internationally successful newly discovered presence of electrons within succeeding Michael Faraday, who had held
film; Daiyon kampyoki (1959; Inter Ice Age that post since 1829. From 1854 until 1888
the atom.
4); Tanin no kao (1964; The Face of Another); Abegg became professor of chemistry at the Abel served as ordnance chemist at the Chem-
Moetsukita chizu (1967; The Ruined Map); ical Establishment of the Royal Arsenal at
University of Breslau, Ger. (now Wroclaw,
Hako otoko (1973; The Box Man); Mikkai Pol.), in 1897 and two years later gained the
Woolwich, establishing himself as the leading
(1977; Secret Rendezvous); and Hakobune British authority on explosives.
chair of chemistry at the Technical Academy,
Sakura-maru ( 984; The Ark Sakura). Beyond
1
Breslau. From his study of valence, he con-
He was elected a fellow of the Royal Soci-
the Curve ( 990) was Abe's first collection of ety in 1860, knighted in 1883, and created a
1
cluded that, for the most stable configuration,
short fiction to appear in English. Of his many the number of electrons in the outer group of
baronet in 1893.
plays, which met with great success in Japan, an atom is eight, which is the number found Abel, John Jacob (b. May 19, 1857, Cleve-
Tomodachi (1967; Friends) and a few others in the inert gases. land, Ohio, U.S.— d. May 26, 1938, Balti-
were performed in English, in Honolulu. He more, Md.), American pharmacologist and
directed his own theatre company in Tokyo, Abel, Old Testament, second son of
in the
physiological chemist who made important
for which he wrote several plays each season. Adam and Eve, who was slain by his older
contributions to a modern understanding of
brother, Cain (Genesis 4:1-16). According to
Abe Masahiro Dec. 3, 1819, Edo [now
(b. the ductless, or endocrine, glands. He isolated
Genesis, Abel, a shepherd, offered the Lord
Tokyo], Japan —
Aug. 6, 1857, Edo), states-
d. the firstborn of his flock. The Lord respected
adrenaline in the form of a chemical deriva-
tive (1897) and crystallized insulin (1926). He
man who negotiated the opening of Japan to Abel's sacrifice but did not respect that offered
trade and communication with Western na- also invented an artificial kidney.
by Cain. In a jealous rage, Cain murdered
tions after the arrival of Commodore Matthew Abel. Cain then became a fugitive because his Abel taught at the University of Michigan,
C. Perry and his U.S. Navy fleet. brother's innocent blood put a curse on him.
Ann Arbor (1891-93), and at Johns Hopkins
Born into an influential noble family, Abe The storyteller in Genesis assumes a world of University, Baltimore (1893), and directed the
was only 25 years old when he was appointed conflicting values, and he makes the point that
Laboratory for Endocrine Research (1932).
head of the roju (senior councillors), the high- divine authority backs self-control and broth-
He served as editor of the Journal of Pharma-
est administrative office under the shogun, cology and Experimental Therapeutics from
erhood but punishes jealousy and violence.
or hereditary military dictator of Japan. The Cain had not mastered sin (v. 7); he had let it 1909 to 1932.
government had previously been in the hands master him. The narrator takes a somber look Abel, Niels Henrik Aug.
(b. 5, 1802, island
of a group of conservative reformers whose
attempts to restore the past virtues of the
at the human condition, seeing a dangerous of Finney, near Stavanger, Nor. d. April 6, —
world of Cains and Abels. Nevertheless, God 1829, Froland), Norwegian mathematician, a
Japanese state had created considerable unrest is on the side of the martyrs; he avenges their pioneer in the development of several branches
among the population; Abe's first years in deaths in the ruin of the Cains. In the New of modern mathematics.
power were marked by his successful attempt Testament the blood of Abel is cited as an ex- Abel was the son of a poor Protestant min-
to alleviate the discontent caused by these ample of the vengeance of violated innocence ister. Soon after Abel was born, his family
changes. Western ships had begun to appear (Matthew 23:35; Luke 11:51). moved to the parish of Gjerstad, near the
off the Japanese coast in the early 1 9th cen-
Abel, Carl Friedrich (b. Dec. 22, 1723, town of Risor (southeast Norway), where the
tury, however, and Abe, determined to pre-
Kothen, duchy of Anhalt-Kothen [Ger- boy grew up. In 1815, when he entered the
serve Japan's traditional isolationism, worked
to strengthen coastal defenses. He welcomed —
many] d. June 20, 1787, London, Eng.), cathedral school in Oslo, his mathematical
talent was recognized by a teacher who in-
Western learning only as a means of increas- symphonist of the pre-Classical school and
troduced him to the classics in mathematical
ing Japan's military and economic potential. one of the last virtuosos of the viola da gamba.
literature and proposed original problems for
solution. Thoroughly challenged, Abel stud- unknown. He submitted his memoir for pres- 25 Abelard, Peter
ied the works of the 17th-century English entation to the Academy of Sciences, hoping
mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton to establish his reputation, but he waited in
vain. Before leaving Paris, thinking he had a She was educated at Vassar College, where
persistent cold, Abel consulted a physician, she received her B.A. (1921), Columbia Uni-
who informed him he had tuberculosis. versity, where she received her M.A. (1924),
Abel returned to Norway heavily in debt. He and the University of Paris, where she received
subsisted by tutoring, by receiving a small a diploma in psychology (1923). She obtained
grant from the university, and, in 1828, by ac- her Ph.D. from Columbia University (1925).
cepting a substitute-teaching position. His Abel taught at numerous universities, includ-
poverty and ill health did not decrease his ing the University of Illinois (1925-26), Sarah
production; he wrote a great number of papers Lawrence College (1929-33), and the Manhat-
during this period, principally on equation tan Trade School for Girls. From 1940 to 1946
theory and elliptic functions. Among them are she was chief psychologist for the New York
the theory of the Abelian equations with State Department of Mental Hygiene and
Abelian groups. He rapidly developed the the- from 1947 to 1971 was director of psychology
ory of elliptic functions in competition with at the New York City Post-graduate Center for
Karl Gustav Jacobi. By this time Abel's fame Mental Health. After moving to New Mexico
had spread to all mathematical centres, and in 1971, Abel became chief of family therapy
strong efforts were made to secure a suitable at the Child Guidance Center in Albuquerque
position for him by a group from the French and also established a private practice.
Academy, who addressed Bernadotte, the king Her writings include coauthorship of The
of Norway-Sweden; Crelle worked to secure a Subnormal Adolescent Girl (1940), Facial Dis-
professorship for him in Berlin. figurement (1952), Psychological Testing in
In the fall of 1828, Abel became seriously ill, Cultural Contexts (1973), and Culture and
and his condition deteriorated on a sled trip at Psychotherapy (1974).
Christmas time to visit his fiancee at Froland,
Abel Tasman National Park, wildlife pre-
Niels Henrik Abel, lithograph after a drawing by where he died. The French Academy of Sci-
Johan Gorbitz, 1 826 ences published his memoir in 1841.
serve in northwestern South Island, New
Norwegian Embassy. Wasrwigton, DC
was named for
Zealand. Established in 1942, it
By courtesy ol the Royal bibliography. The Oeuvres completes de N.H.
Abel Tasman, the Dutch navigator. With an
Abel, new ed., 2 vol. (1881, reprinted 2 vol. in 1.
and the contemporary mathematicians Leon- area of 55,699 acres (22,541 hectares), it ex-
1973), includes a short biographical note. For fur-
hard Euler (German), Joseph-Louis Lagrange ther information, see Gystein Ore, Niels Henrik tends inland for about 6 miles (10 km) from
(French), and Carl Friedrich Gauss (German) Abel. Mathematician Extraordinary (1957, reprint- the beaches of Tasman Bay on its western
and learned to detect gaps in their mathemat- ed 1974); and Eric T. Bell, Men of Mathematics shores between Separation Point and Marahau
ical reasoning. (1937, reprinted 1986), pp. 307-326. Inlet, about 50 miles (80 km) northwest of
Although when Abel's father died in 1 820 the Nelson. The park includes the Tata Islands in
family was left in straitened circumstances, the
Abel, Rudolf (Ivanovich), original name Golden Bay and Tonga, Adele, and Fisherman
boy was able to enter the University of Chris-
WILLIAM AUGUST FISHER (b. July 11, 1903, islands in Tasman Bay. The park is largely
tiania (Oslo) in 1821 because his teacher con-
Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland, covered in shrubland and pasture, though in
tributed and raised funds. He obtained a
Eng.— d. Nov. 15, 1971, Moscow), Soviet in- the river valleys there are rain forests consist-
telligence officer, convicted in the United
preliminary degree from the university in ing of beech, rata, matai, miro, hinau, and
States in 1957 for conspiring to transmit mili-
1822 and continued his studies independently tussock.
tary secrets to the Soviet Union. He was ex-
with further subsidies obtained by his teacher. Abel Tasman National Park is unique in
changed in 1962 for the American aviator New
His first papers, published in 1823 in the new Zealand in that its bush-clad slopes ex-
Francis Gary Powers, who had been impris-
periodical Magazin for Natunidenskaberne, hibit a mixture of the vegetation types charac-
were on functional equations and integrals, oned as a spy in the Soviet Union since 1960. teristic of both North and South Islands, a
Genrich Fischer (or Fisher), Abel's father and phenomenon that is found nowhere else in
his solution of an integral equation being the
a friend of Lenin's, emigrated to Britain New Zealand. Birdlife in the park includes pe-
first. Abel's friends urged the Norwegian gov-
around 1901, where he spent 20 years at-
ernment to grant him a fellowship for study trel, shag, penguin, gull, tern, heron, and nu-
tempting to organize and indoctrinate his fel-
in Germany and France. While waiting for merous other Animal
includes
varieties. life
low factory workers before returning to deer, goat, wild pig, and opossum. The park's
the royal decree to be issued, in 1824 he
Russia. His son, born in England and going to
published at his own expense his proof of headquarters are at Totaranui.
Russia with his father, joined the Soviet intel-
the impossibility of solving algebraically the
general equation of the fifth degree, which he
ligence and security agency GPU (the prede- Abelard, Peter, French pierre abelard, or
cessor of the KGB) in 1927 and operated in abailard, Latin petrus abaelardus, or
hoped would bring him recognition. He sent abeilardus (b. 1079. Le Pallet, near Nantes,
western European countries and the Soviet
the pamphlet to Gauss, who dismissed it, fail-
ing to recognize that the famous problem had
Union in the next two decades. In about 1948 Brittany [now in France] —
d. April 21, 1142,
he illegally entered the United States and, Priory of Saint-Marcel, near Chalon-sur-
indeed been settled.
under the name of Emil R. Goldfus. lived for Saone, Burgundy [now in France]), French
Abel spent the winter of 1825-26 with Nor-
some time as an artist and photographer in a
wegian friends in Berlin, where he met August
Brooklyn studio apartment, where he con-
Leopold Crelle, civil engineer and self-taught
cealed shortwave-radio transmitting and re-
enthusiast of mathematics, who became his
ceiving equipment. On June 21, 1957, he was
close friend and mentor. With Abel's warm
encouragement, Crelle founded the Journal
fur die reine und angewandte Mathemalik
arrested by the FBI, and on Oct. 25, 1957, a
federal district court in Brooklyn found him
'*£«*<* - Mf«
guilty of espionage, relying in part on testimo-
("Journal for Pure and Applied Mathemat-
ny by Soviet Lieutenant Colonel Reino Hay-
ics"), the first volume of which (1826) contains
hanen, who had defected to the West and who
papers by Abel, including a more elaborate
stated that he had been Abel's chief cocon-
version of his work on the quintic equation.
spirator in the United States. The court sen-
Other papers dealt with equation theory, func-
tenced Abel to 30 years' imprisonment.
tional equations, integration in finite forms,
The U.S. government then used Abel to se-
and problems from theoretical mechanics. In
cure the release of Powers, whose aircraft had
Berlin new directions in mathematics stimu-
been forced down near Sverdlovsk (now Yeka-
lated him to do further independent work.
terinburg), in the central Soviet Union, on
Soon distracted socially, however, Abel trav-
eled throughout Europe.
May 1960. President John F. Kennedy
1,
commuted Abel's sentence, and, on Feb. 10,
Arriving in Paris in the summer of 1826, he Abelard. with Heloi'se, miniature portrait by
1962, on a bridge between West Berlin and
called on the foremost mathematicians and Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the Musee
East Germany (Potsdam), Abel was exchanged
completed a memoir on transcendental func- Conde, Chantilly, Fr.
for Powers and Frederic L. Pryor, an Ameri-
tions. This major work presented a theory of By courtesy or the Musee Conde. Chant#y. Fr photograph.
can student who had been held without charge
.

Oauoon— Art Ftesource/EB Inc

integrals of algebraic functions, in particular
in East Germany since August 1961.
the result known as Abel's theorem: there is a theologian and philosopher best known for his
finite number, or genus, of independent inte- Abel, Theodora Mead (b. Sept. 9, 1899, solution of the problem of universals and for
grals of this nature. This theorem is the basis Newport. R.I., U.S.— d. Dec. 2, 1998, Forest- his original use of dialectics. He is also known
for the later theory of Abelian integrals and burgh, N.Y.), American clinical psychologist for his poetry and for his celebrated love affair
Abelian functions. Abel was accepted with re- and educator who combined sociology and with Heloise.
strained civility in Paris, for his work was still psychology in her work.
 "

Abell, A(runith) S(lupardson) 26 icized by other men of religion, and Abelard (1971). On the reception ol Abelard's thought and
contemplated flight outside Christendom alto- (caching in his own
time, see D.E. Luscombe, I In
gether. In 1 125, however, he accepted election School oi Peta Abelard (1969). The best study of
as abbot of the remote Breton monastery of Abelard's philosophy is Jean Jolivct, Arts du Ian-
I he outline of Abelard's career is

S.unt-Gildas-de-Rhuys. There, too, his rela- gagt thtologie ehet Abelard (1969).
well known, largely because he described so
much of it in his famous Historic ((damnation tions with the community deteriorated, and, Abell, A(runah) S(hepardson) (b. Aug. 10,
("History of My Troubles"). He was born the after attempts had been made upon his life, he 1806, East Providence, R.I., U.S.— d. April
son of a knight in Brittany south of the Loire. returned to France. 19, 1888, Baltimore, Md.), newspaper editor
He sacrificed his inheritance and the prospect Heloise had meanwhile become the head of a and publisher, and founder, with two other in-
of a military career in order to study philoso- new foundation of nuns called the Paraclete. vestors, of the Philadelphia Public Ledger and
phy, particularly logic, in France. He pro- Abelard became the abbot of the new com- the Baltimore Sun.
voked bitter quarrels with two of his masters, munity and provided it with a rule and with a Abell left school at the age of 14 to become a
Roscelin of Compiegne and Guillaume de justification of the nun's way of life; in this he clerk in a store dealing in West Indian wares.
Champeaux, who represented opposite poles emphasized the virtue of literary study. He He had hoped to become a printer, and in
of philosophy. Roscelin was a Nominalist who also provided books of hymns he had com- 1822 he was taken on as an apprentice by the
asserted that universals are nothing more than posed, and in the early 1 1 30s he and HeJoise Providence Patriot. He set up shop as a print-
mere words; Guillaume in Paris upheld a form composed a collection of their own love letters er in Boston and then in New York. He came
of Platonic Realism according to which uni- and religious correspondence. to the conclusion that Philadelphia was a like-
versals exist. Abelard in his own logical writ- Final years. In about 1135 Abelard went to ly market for a new penny paper. He and his
ings brilliantly elaborated an independent the Mont-Sainte-Genevifive outside Paris to partners, William M. Swain and Azariah H.
philosophy of language. While showing how teach, and he wrote in a blaze of energy and of Simmons, founded the Public Ledger in 1836.
words could be used significantly, he stressed celebrity. He produced further drafts of his Within two years the paper had absorbed the
that language itself is not able to demonstrate Theologia in which he analyzed the sources of rival Philadelphia Transcript. Meanwhile, in
the truth of things (res) that lie in the domain belief in the Trinity and praised the pagan 1837, Abell and his partners founded the Bal-
of physics. philosophers of classical antiquity for their timore Sun, which had 12,000 subscribers
Abelard was a peripatetic both in the manner virtues and for their discovery by the use of after a year. Both the Public Ledger and the
in which he wandered from school to school reason of many fundamental aspects of Chris- Sun were oriented to the working man, but
at Paris, Melun, Corbeil, and elsewhere and tian revelation. He also wrote a book called whereas the Ledger dealt freely in scandal and
as one of the exponents of Aristotelian logic Ethica or Scito te ipsum ("Know Thyself"), a sensation, the Sun did not. As manager of the
who were called the Peripatetics. In 1113 or short masterpiece in which he analyzed the Sun, Abell, in cooperation with the publishers
1 1 14 he went north to Laon to study theology notion of sin and reached the drastic conclu- of the New Orleans Daily Picayune, estab-
under Anselm of Laon, the leading biblical sion that human actions do not make a man lished a "pony express" of relay riders between
scholar of the day. He quickly developed a better or worse in the sight of God, for deeds Baltimore and New Orleans to speed the trans-
strong contempt for Anselm's teaching, which are in themselves neither good nor bad. What mission of news. In a historic "news beat," the
he found vacuous, and returned to Paris. counts with God is a man's intention; sin is express delivered in Baltimore the news of the
There he taught openly but was also given as a not something done (it is not res); it is unique- U.S. Army victory at Vera Cruz, Mexico, be-
private pupil the young Heloise, niece of one ly the consent of a human mind to what it fore the U.S. government had learned of it.
of the clergy of the cathedral of Paris, Canon knows to be wrong. Abelard also wrote Dialo- Abell then sent word of the victory by
Fulbert. Abelard and Helo'ise fell in love and gus inter philosophum, Judaeum et Chris- telegram to Pres. James K. Polk. He had en-
had a son whom they called Astralabe. They tianum ("Dialogue Between a Philosopher, a couraged Samuel F.B. Morse in developing the
then married secretly. To escape her uncle's Jew, and a Christian") and a commentary on telegraph and was one of its most enthusiastic
wrath Helo'ise withdrew into the convent of St. Paul's letter to the Romans, the Expositio pioneer users.
Argenteuil outside Paris. Abelard suffered cas- in Epistolam ad Romanos, in which he out- An innovator who stressed technical progress,
tration at Fulbert's instigation. In shame he lined an explanation of the purpose of Christ's Abell used telegraph machines and carrier pi-
embraced the monastic life at the royal abbey life, which was to inspire men to love him by
geons to speed news transmission. Under his
of Saint-Denis near Paris and made the un- example alone. direction, the Baltimore Sun became the first
willing Helo'ise become a nun at Argenteuil. On the Mont-Sainte-Genevieve Abelard drew American newspaper to install a rotary press.
Career as a monk. At Saint-Denis Abelard crowds of pupils, many of them men of future In 1861, when the Civil War began, the Sun
extended his reading in theology and tireless- fame, such as the English humanist John of had a circulation estimated at 30,000. Abell
ly criticized the way of life followed by his fel- Salisbury. He also, however, aroused deep hos- directed the Sun until his death.
low monks. His reading of the Bible and of tility by his criticism of other masters and by
the Fathers of the Church led him to make a his apparent revisions of the traditional teach- Abell, Kjeld (b. Aug. 25, 1901, Ribe, Den.—

collection of quotations that seemed to repre- ings of Christian theology. Within Paris the in- d. March 5,1961, Copenhagen), dramatist and
sent inconsistencies of teaching by the Christ- fluential abbey of Saint- Victor was critical of social critic, best known outside Denmark for
ian Church. He arranged his findings in a his doctrines, while elsewhere William of two plays, Melodien, der blev vsek (1935; En-
compilation entitled Sic et non ("Yes and Saint-Thierry, a former admirer of Abelard, glish adaptation, The Melody That Got Lost,
No"); and for it he wrote a preface in which, recruited the support of Bernard of Clairvaux, 1939) and Anna Sophie Hedvig (1939; Eng.
as a logician and as a keen student of lan- perhaps the most influential figure in Western trans., 1944), which defends the use of force
guage, he formulated basic rules with which Christendom at that time. At a council held at by the oppressed against the oppressor.
students might reconcile apparent contradic- Sens in 1 140, Abelard underwent a resounding Abell studied political science but afterward
tions of meaning and distinguish the various condemnation, which was soon confirmed by began a career as a stage designer in Paris. He
senses in which words had been used over the Pope Innocent II. He withdrew to the monas- then went on to become Denmark's most un-
course of many centuries. He also wrote the tery of Cluny in Burgundy. There, under the conventional man of the theatre, not only as
first version of his book called Theologia, skillful mediation of the abbot, Peter the Ven- an original dramatist but also as a stage de-
which was formally condemned as heretical erable, he made peace with Bernard of Clair- signer who made full use of the technical ap-
and burned by a council held at Soissons in vaux and retired from teaching. Now both sick paratus of the theatre to achieve new and
1121. Abelard's dialectical analysis of the and old, he lived the life of a Cluniac monk. striking scenic effects, as in Daga paa en sky
mystery of God and the Trinity was held to be After his death, his body was first sent to the (1947; "Days on a Cloud") and Skrige (1961;
erroneous, and he himself was placed for a Paraclete; it now lies alongside that of Helo'ise "The Scream").
while in the abbey of Saint-Medard under in the cemetery of Pere-Lachaise in Paris. Epi- Abelson, Philip Hauge (b. April 27, 1913,
house arrest. When he returned to Saint- taphs composed in his honour suggest that Tacoma, Wash., U.S.— d. Aug. 1, 2004,
Denis he applied his Sic et non methods to the Abelard impressed some of his contemporaries Bethesda, Md.), physical chemist who pro-
subject of the abbey's patron saint; he argued as one of the greatest thinkers and teachers of posed the gas diffusion process for separating
that St. Denis of Paris, the martyred apostle of all time. (D.E.L.) uranium-235 from uranium-238 and in col-
Gaul, was not identical with Denis of Athens bibliography. The of Abelard and
Letters laboration with the U.S. physicist Edwin M.
(also known as Dionysius the Areopagite), the Heloise have been translated into English by C.K. McMillan discovered the element neptunium.
convert of St. Paul. The monastic community Scott Moncrieff(1925, reprinted 1964) and by J.T.
After receiving a Ph.D. (1939) in nuclear
of Saint-Denis regarded this criticism of their Muckle (1947), who has also published separately a physics from the University of California at
traditional claims as derogatory to the king- translation of The Story of Abelard's Adversities
Berkeley, Abelson worked as an assistant
dom; and, in order to avoid being brought for (1954). The historical novel Peter Abelard, by
physicist (1939-41) in the department of ter-
trial before the king of France, Abelard fled Helen Waddell (1933), is justly popular and has
restrial magnetism of the Carnegie Institution
from the abbey and sought asylum in the ter- been reprinted many times. More general studies
are Etienne Gilson, Helo'ise et Abelard 938; Heloise
of Washington, D.C. There he began investi-
ritory of Count Theobald of Champagne.
and Abelard, 1953); and Lief Grane, Pierre Abelard gating a material that emitted beta rays (elec-
There he sought the solitude of a hermit's life
(1964; Peter Abelard, 1970). Information concern- trons) and that was produced by irradiating
but was pursued by students who pressed him
ing editions of Abelard's writingsand studies of his uranium with neutrons. After joining forces
to resume his teaching in philosophy. His
thought maybe found in D.E. Luscombe's edition with McMillan, he proved the material to be a
combination of the teaching of secular arts and English translation of Peter Abelard's "Ethics new element, later named neptunium.
with his profession as a monk was heavily crit-
 —
During World War II Abelson worked with 1840s) and by Sierra Leone Creoles, who later 27 Aberdeen
the Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, became prominent as missionaries and as
D.C. His uranium-separation process proved businessmen. Abeokuta's success as the capital
essential to the development of the atomic of the Egbas and as a link in the Lagos-Ibadan bie was directed to take Fort Ticonderoga by
bomb. At the end of the war his report on the oil-palm trade led to wars with Dahomey (now way of preparation for an assault on Montre-
feasibility of building a nuclear-powered sub- Benin). In the battle at Abeokuta in 1851, the al. Although he had a force of 15,000 British
marine led to the U.S. nuclear fleet. Egba, aided by the missionaries and armed by and colonial troops, Abercrombie was defeat-
In 1946 Abelson returned to the Carnegie In- the British, defeated King Gezo's Dahomeyan ed by General Montcalm's army of 3,600 at
stitution and pioneered in utilizing radioactive army (unique in the history of western Africa Ticonderoga in July 1758. In September, Pitt
isotopes. As director of the Geophysics Labo- for its common practice of using women war- recalled Abercrombie and gave his command
ratory of the Carnegie Institution from 1953 to riors). Another Dahomeyan attack was re- to Jeffrey Amherst.
1971, he found amino acids in fossils, and pulsed in 1864. Troubles in the 1860s with the Despite his failure, Abercrombie was pro-
fatty acids in rocks more than 1,000,000,000 British in Lagos led th'e Egba to close the trade moted to lieutenant general in 1759 and gen-
years old. He was president of the Carnegie In- routes to the coast and to expel (1867) its mis- eral in 1772. His remaining years were spent
stitution from 1971 to 1978 and trustee from sionaries and European traders. After the in Parliament, as deputy governor of Stirling
1978. From 1962 through 1984 he was the ed- Yoruba wars (1877-93), in which
civil Castle, and on his estate at Glassaugh, Banff-
itor of Science. Abeokuta opposed Ibadan, the Egba alake shire.
("king") signed an alliance with the British
Abemama Atoll, also spelled apamama, for- Abercrombie, Lascelles (b. Jan. 9, 1881,
governor, Sir Gilbert Carter, that recognized
merly roger simpson island, coral atoll of
the northern Gilbert Islands, part of Kiribati,
the independence of the Egba United Govern-
Ashton upon Mersey, Cheshire, Eng. d. Oct. —
27, 1938, London), poet and critic who was as-
in the west-central Pacific Ocean. Captain
ment (1893-1914). In 1914 the kingdom was
sociated with Georgian poetry.
Charles Bishop, who discovered the atoll in
incorporated into the newly amalgamated
British Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria.
He attended Malvern College, Worcester-
1799, named it Roger Simpson Island for one shire, and Owens College, Manchester, after
of his associates. Seat of the area's ruling fam-
The Abeokuta riots of 1918 protested both the
which he became a journalist and began to
levying of taxes and the "indirect rule" policy
ily in the 19th century, the atoll was the site of write poetry. His first book, Interludes and
of Lord Frederick Lugard, the British gover-
the formal British annexation of the Gilbert Is- Poems (1908), was followed by Mary and the
nor-general, which made the alake, formerly
land group in 1892. Occupied by Japanese Bramble (1910), a dramatic poem
primus inter pares ("first among equals"), the
forces from 1942 to 1943, Abemama became
supreme traditional leader to the detriment of —
Deborah and Emblems of Love (1912), and
a U.S. military base for the following two the prose work Speculative Dialogues (1913).
the other quarter chiefs.
years. The administrative headquarters of All were marked by power, lucidity, love
lyric
Abemama Atoll is at Kariatebike. There is also Modern Abeokuta an agricultural trade
is
of natural beauty, and mysticism.
a hospital and airfield. Pop. (1995) 3,442.
centre (rice, yams, cassava, corn [maize], palm
After World War I, in which he served as a
oil and kernels, cotton, fruits, vegetables) and
Abengourou, town, Cote d'lvoire
eastern munitions examiner, Abercrombie was ap-
an exporting point for cocoa, palm produce,
(Ivory Coast), on the road from Abidjan (the pointed to the first lectureship in poetry at the
fruits,and kola nuts. Rice and cotton were in-
national capital) to Ghana. The major trading University of Liverpool. As professor of Eng-
troduced by the missionaries in the 1850s, and
lish literature at Leeds (1922-29) and London
centre for a productive forest region, it is also cotton weaving and dyeing (with locally grown
the residence of the Anyi (Agni) paramount (1929-35) and as reader in English literature
indigo) are now traditional crafts of the town.
at the University of Oxford (1935-38), he
chief, who is the present king of Indenie (an Abeokuta is the headquarters for the Federal
Anyi kingdom founded in the mid- 18th cen- showed keen critical and philosophical pow-
Ogun-Oshin River Basin Authority with pro-
ers. His critical works include An Essay To-
tury). The king's official residence (built in grams to harness land and water resources for
1882) is decorated with Indenie relics and tap-
wards a Theory of Art (1922) and Poetiy, Its
Lagos, Ogun, and Oyo states for rural devel-
estries. Abengourou has an agricultural-voca-
Music and Meaning (1932). Collected Poems
opment. Irrigation, food-processing, and elec-
tional-training institute and research station (1930) was followed by his most mature poet-
trification projects are included. Local
ic work, The Sale of St. Thomas (1931), a po-
for coffee and cocoa, the region's major crops, industry is limited but now includes fruit-can-
which are sent to Abidjan (100 miles [161 km] etic drama.
ning plants, a plastics factory, a brewery,
south-southwest) for export. The town is the sawmills, and an aluminum-products factory. Aberdare, Welsh aberdar town ("commu-
seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, several South of the town are the Aro granite quarries, nity"), Rhondda Cynon Taff county borough,
schools, and one of the largest hospitals in the which provide building materials for much of historic county of Glamorgan (Morgannwg),
interior. Pop. (1988) 58,974. southern Nigeria, and a huge, modern cement Wales, on the River Cynon. The community
e
plant at Ewekoro (18 miles [29 km] south). dates from the Middle Ages. Its Saint John's
Abenra, also spelled aabenraa, city, seat of
Abeokuta was a walled town, and relics of the Church was built about 1 189. Aberdare's main
Sanderjyllands amtskommune (county com-
old wall still exist. Notable buildings include growth in the 19th century was based on iron
mune), southeastern Jutland, Denmark, at the
the Ake (the residence of the alake) and Cen- ore (first ironworks, 1799) and coal, particu-
head of Abenra Fjord. First mentioned in the
tenary Hall (1930). Secondary schools and pri- larly steam coal for export after 1836. A
12th century when attacked by the Wends, it
was granted a charter (1335) and grew from a mary teachers' colleges at Abeokuta are now branch (1811) of the Glamorganshire Canal
supplemented by the University of Lagos and, later, railways provided outlets to the
fishing village into a thriving port in the 17th
Abeokuta campus (1984), which specializes in South Wales coast. In the 20th century the
and 18th centuries. Medieval landmarks in-
science, agriculture, and technology. Pop. town's iron industry ceased, and coal mining
clude the St. Nicholas Church (a 13th-century
(1991) 352,735. declined in the vicinity. Aberdare now serves
church; restored 1949-56) and Brandlund Slot
as the chief shopping and service centre for the
(a fortress, begun 1411, rebuilt 1807). The city Aberbrothock (Scotland): see Arbroath.
was German from 1864 until a plebiscite in
Cynon valley. Modern industries include the
Aberconwy, former district (1974-96) in manufacture of cables, smokeless fuel, and, at
1920 and was known as Apenrade. Abenra is
Gwynedd county, northwestern Wales. The Hirwaun to the northwest, light engineering
a marketing centre with a large import trade
region is now part of the county borough of and electrical products. Pop. (1991) 29,040.
and the largest port in southeastern Jutland.
Conwy.
Local industries include machinery produc- Aberdare Range, mountain range, forming a
tion, food processing, pipe-organ building, and Abercrombie, James, Abercrombie also section of the eastern rim of the Great Rift
fishing. Pop. (2000 est.) city, 16,126; mun., spelled abercromby (b. 1706, Glassaugh, Valley in west-central Kenya, northeast of
22,020. Banffshire, Scot.— d. April 23/28, 1781, Stir- Naivasha and Gilgil and just south of the
ling, Stirlingshire), British general in the Equator. The range has an average elevation
Abensperg und Traun, Otto Ferdinand,
French and Indian Wars, commander of the of 11,000 feet (3.350 m) and culminates in
Graf von (count of): see Traun, Otto Ferdi-
British forces in the failed attack on the Oldoinyo Lesatima (13.120 feet [3,999 m])
nand, Graf von Abensperg und.
French Ticonderoga.
at and Ilkinangop (12,815 feet [3,906 m]). The
Abeokuta, town, capital of Ogun state, south- A lieutenant colonel of the Royal Scots early Aberdares slope gradually east and southeast,
western Nigeria. It is situated on the east bank in his military career, Abercrombie was pro- providing a fine example of an immature, con-
of the Ogun River, around a group of rocky moted 1746 and served in the
to colonel in sequent drainage pattern, before the ground
outcroppings that rise above the surrounding Flemish campaign in the War of Austrian rises again to the cone of Mount Kenya
wooded savanna. It lies on the main railway Succession. Promoted to major general in (17,058 feet [5,199 m]).
(1899) from Lagos, 48 miles (78 km) south, 1756, he was ordered to accompany Lord
Aberdaugleddyf (Wales): see Milford Haven.
and on the older trunk road from Lagos to Loudoun to America as his second in com-
Ibadan; it also has road connections to Ilaro, mand. Abercrombie's first independent com- Aberdeen, city and royal burgh
historic
Shagamu, Iseyin, and Ketou (Benin). mand came in December 1757, when William (town) astride the Rivers Dee and Don on
Abeokuta ("Refuge Among Rocks") was Pitt, at the insistence of George II, made him Scotland's North Sea coast. Aberdeen is a busy
founded in about 1830 by Sodeke (Shodeke), commander in chief.His title notwithstand- seaport, a centre of Scotland's fishing industry,
a hunter and leader of the Egba refugees who ing, his actions were largely determined by the and the commercial capital of northeastern
fled from the disintegrating Oyo empire. The ministry in London. With Augustus Lord Scotland. It also is the principal British centre
town was also settled by missionaries (in the Howe as his second in command, Abercrom- of the North Sea oil industry. Aberdeen city
 Wii-rdet-n 28 for the nearby 1 13-square-mile (293-square- his indecision hampered the peacekeeping ef-
km) Aberdeen Proving Ground (established forts of his foreign secretary, the 4th Eail ol
1917). a U.S. Army test site lot guns, ammu- < l.irendon. War became inevitable alter Ab-
constitutes an independent council area that nition, and military vehicles; one of the erdeen and Clarendon sent the British fleet to
covers the burgh of Aberdeen and the sur- world's largest collections of weapons is dis- Constantinople (September 23) and then,
rounding countryside. Most of the city, in- played there in the U.S. Army Ordnance Mu- three months Black Sea. Both
later, into the
cluding the historic centres of Old Aberdeen seum. Inc. 1892. Pop. (2000) 13,842. Great Britain and France declared war against
and New Aberdeen, the historic county
lies in

of Aberdeenshire, but the city also includes a

Aberdeen, city, seat (1880) of Brown county,
Russia on March 28. 1854. Although he
by the British generals in the
ill-informed
m
northeastern South Dakota, U.S., in the James
small area in the south that belongs to the his- Crimean War, Aberdeen was constitutionally
River valley. Established in 1880 as a railway
toric county of Kincardineshire. Aberdeen is responsible for their mistakes, and he resigned
junction, it was named for Aberdeen in Scot-
the historic county town (seat) of Aberdeen- on Jan. 29, 1855.
land by Alexander Mitchell, president of the
shire. bihi lotiKAPHY. Muriel E. Chamberlain, Lord
Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad.
Aberdeen originated as two separate burghs: Aberdeen A Political Biography (1983).
The city is now the financial and trading cen-
Old Aberdeen, the cathedral and university
tre for a wide agricultural area. It also has Aberdeenshire, also called Aberdeen, coun-
settlement on the Don, and New Aberdeen,
some notable light manufacturing. It is the cil area and historic county of eastern Scot-
the neighbouring trading and fishing village on
home of Northern State College (1901) and land. It projects eastward into the North Sea
the Dee. Old Aberdeen, reputedly founded in
Presentation (junior) College (1951). Author and encompasses coastal lowlands in the north
580 by St. Machar, a disciple of the Celtic mis-
Hamlin Garland, known for his autobiograph- and east and part of the Grampian Mountains
sionary St. Columba, became the seat of the
ical "Middle Border" series, and L. Frank in the west. The council area and the historic
bishopric of Aberdeen and was virtually de-
Baum, who wrote The Wonderful Wizard of county occupy somewhat different areas. The
stroyed by the English in 1336. The present St.
Oz, spent their early years in Aberdeen. Inc. city of Aberdeen is part of the historic county
Machar's Cathedral, begun in 1424, is a forti-
town, 1882; city, 1883. Pop. (2000) 24,658. of Aberdeenshire but constitutes an independ-
fied granite building. Royal charters of 1489
ent council area that forms an enclave within
and 1498 created a "free burgh" with the Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th
the councilarea of Aberdeenshire. The rest of
church as its administrator. Remnants of this Earl of, Viscount Gordon of Ab-
county lies within the council area
the historic
ecclesiastical power survived until 1891, when erdeen, Viscount of Formartine,
of the same name, which also incorporates the
the episcopal burgh was incorporated with Lord Haddo, Methlick, Tarves, and
entire historiccounty of Kincardineshire and
New Aberdeen to form the present city. The Kellie, original name george Gordon (b.
the northeastern portion of the historic coun-
oldest surviving charter (1 179) confers several Jan. 28, 1784, Edinburgh, Scot— d. Dec. 14,
ty of Banffshire.
trade privileges on the burgesses of Aberdeen. 1860, London, Eng.), British foreign secretary
Although Aberdeenshire lies north of the
Some of the oldest streets, from the 13th and and prime minister (1852-55) whose govern-
Highland Boundary Fault, it mainly compris-
14th centuries, survive near the Castlegate, the ment involved Great Britain in the Crimean
es an agricultural lowland drained by rivers
historic marketplace of New Aberdeen and War against Russia (1853-56).
that generally flow east. The land is in the rain
commercial heart of the modern city. The Orphaned at age 11, George Gordon (who
shadow of the Grampians, resulting in a gen-
Castlegate still contains an old Market (City) added his deceased first wife's family name to
erally dry climate with parts of the coast re-
Cross (1686). Nearby are two ancient houses, his own surname in 1818) was reared by his
ceiving less than 25 inches (63.5 cm) of
Provost Skene's House (c. 1545), now a local guardians, the politicians William the
Pitt
precipitation annually. Temperatures are
history museum, and Provost Ross's House Younger and Henry Dundas (afterward Vis-
(1593). The parish church of St. Nicholas count Melville), and inherited the earldom
warm for the latitude, but exposure to cold
(Union Street) is divided into two parts: the winds from the north and east produces win-
and associated titles from his grandfather in
ters that are harsh by British standards.
West Church (built in 1755 by James Gibbs) is 1801. In 1813 he was appointed special am-
separated from the East Church (built in 1838 bassador to Austria. He was a central figure in
Although one or two long cairns from the
by Archibald Simpson) by the original 13th- Neolithic Period survive, the effective settle-
European diplomacy at that time, helping to
century transept and 19th-century steeple. form the coalition that defeated Napoleon I. ment of the area dates from the establishment
Two medieval bridges have survived, the Brig of the Beaker culture, arriving from the south
In 1814, after signing the Treaty of Paris on
at the commencement of the Bronze Age, c.
o' Balgownie (1320), spanning the Don, and behalf of his king, he was created Viscount
the Old Bridge of Dee (1527). Gordon of Aberdeen in the peerage of the 2000-1800 bc. The stone circles and round
The University of Aberdeen was formed in cairns that are so common in the historic
United Kingdom. In the government of the
1860 by the union of two medieval colleges: Duke of Wellington, he was chancellor of the county date from this period. Numerous
King's College, founded as a Roman Catholic earthen houses and a group of massive stone
duchy of Lancaster (January-June 1828) and
hill forts survive from the Iron Age. At the
institution in 1495, and the Protestant foreign secretary (June 1828-November
Marischal College, founded in 1593. Other ed- dawn of history, Celtic tribes that the 2nd-cen-
1830), while in the brief first administration of
ucational institutions include the Robert Gor- Sir Robert Peel (November 1834- April 1,
tury Greek geographer Ptolemy called Taixali
don University (founded as Robert Gordon occupied the historic county. Later, Aberdeen-
1835), he was secretary for war and the
Hospital, 1750), Aberdeen College, and the shire formed part of the territories of the
colonies. As foreign secretary again (Septem-
Scottish Agricultural College, and there are re- northern Picts. Roman marching camps exist
ber 1841 -July 1846) in Peel's second govern-
search institutes for fisheries (Marine Labora- ment, Aberdeen settled long-standing disputes
at Culter, Kintore, and Ythan Wells. Chris-
tory Aberdeen), soil science (Macaulay Land over the eastern and western boundaries be- tianity spread to the county relatively early,
Use Research Institute), and animal nutrition tween Canada and the United States, by the
and Celtic monasteries included those at Old
(Rowett Research Institute). Webster- Ashburton Treaty (1842) and the
Deer and Monymusk.
Aberdeen is an important transport centre by Oregon Treaty (1846). Aberdeenshire played a part in the long strug-
road, rail, sea, and air. The original harbour, On Dec. 28, 1852, Aberdeen formed a coali- gle between the rival houses of Canmore and
the Dee estuary, has been continually im- tion Cabinet of Peelites (of whom he had been
Macbeth. It was at Lumphanan that Macbeth
proved. It was Scotland's premier fishing port fell in 1057. During the Anglo-Norman pene-
acknowledged leader after Peel's death in
from the introduction of steam trawling until tration, great families such as the Balliols, the
1850), Whigs, and a Radical. In 1853, as his
the rise of the North Sea oil industry. Today it Braces, and the Comyns obtained a footing in
ministry reluctantly neared war with Russia
is the chief port of northern Scotland, trading the shire. When the contested succession be-
over conflicts of interest in the Middle East,
mainly with Scandinavia and the Baltic. Typ- tween these three houses resulted in the Scot-
ical port industries— chemicals, fertilizers, and tishWars of Independence, the English king
engineering, as well as Britain's largest granite- Edward I twice traversed the county, in 1296
exporting industry— exist alongside a flourish- and 1303. Robert the Brace's victory in 1307
ing tourist sector. The North Sea oil boom of near Inverurie was a turning point in the strag-
the late 20th century benefited Aberdeen more gle. His ultimate triumph resulted in the set-
than any other city of Scotland, bringing more tlement of new families, most notably the
than 200 new companies and thousands of Forbeses and the Gordons, who emerged as
new foreign residents and financing the con- the principal rivals in the period of feudal
struction of housing, offices, and schools. strife during the 14th and 15th centuries. The

Some 800 acres (324 hectares) of industrial bitterness later intensified when the Forbeses
land were allocated to attract industry associ- generally accepted the Protestant Reformation
ated with oil technology. Area 71 square miles while the Gordons adhered to Roman Catholi-
(184 square km). Pop. (1999 cism. As a stronghold of royalism and episco-
est.) 212,650.
palianism during the English Civil Wars of the
Aberdeen, town, Harford county, northeast- 17th century, Aberdeenshire inevitably was
ern Maryland, U.S., near Chesapeake Bay, 26 the site of much fighting, notably by the army
Aberdeen, detail of an oil painting by
miles (42 km) northeast of Baltimore. Settled led by the marquess of Montrose.
Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1828; in the
about 1 800, it was named for the city in Scot- collection of Viscount Cowdray Meanwhile, trade with the Low Countries,
land. Aberdeen is the principal trading centre By courtesy of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Germany, and Poland had flourished, and in
Edinburgh
the 17th century this produced new wealth another Baptist church in the same city. In 29 aberration
among some of the ancient county families. 1955-56 the two men organized a boycott by
The foundation of three universities marked black citizens of the Montgomery bus system
the growth of learning —
King's College in Old that forced the system's racial desegregation in closest adviser until King's assassination in
Aberdeen (1494), Marischal College in New 1956. This nonviolent boycott marked the be- 1968, at which time Abernathy succeeded him
Aberdeen (1593), and the short-lived Univer- ginning of the Civil Rights Movement that was as president of the SCLC. He headed that or-
sity of Fraserburgh (1597). The episcopalian- to desegregate American society during the ganization until his resignation in 1977, after
ism of the northeast, more receptive to following two decades. which he resumed his work as the pastor of a
cultural expression than was Calvinism, King and Abernathy continued their close Baptist church in Atlanta. His autobiography,
reached its flowering in the celebrated school collaboration as the Civil Rights Movement Aud the W'alh Came Tumbling Down, ap-
of scholars known as the "Aberdeen Doctors." gathered momentum, and in 1957 they found- peared in 1989.
From 1690, after settlement of the Revolu- ed the Southern Christian Leadership Confer-
tion of 1688, more tranquil conditions pre-
Aberpennar (Wales): tee Mountain Ash.
ence (SCLC; with King as president and
vailed. Still, devotion to Jacobitism and
local Abernathy as secretary-treasurer) to organize aberration, in optical systems, such as lenses
episcopalianism persisted and found vent in the nonviolent struggle against segregation and curved mirrors, the deviation of light rays
the risings of 1715 and 1745. Upon the col- throughout the South. In 1961 Abernathy re- through lenses, causing images of objects to be
lapse of the 1745 rebellion, the penal laws de- located his pastoral activities to Atlanta, and blurred. In an ideal system, every point on the
stroyed the ascendancy of episcopalianism and that year he was named vice president at large object will focus to a point of zero size on the
the feudal power of the landowners and paved of the SCLC and King's designated successor image. Practically, however, each image point
the way for the ensuing era of agricultural and there. He continued as King's chief aide and occupies a volume of finite size and unsym-
industrial progress.
The economy of the council area rests on a
mixture of agriculture, fishing, industry, and SPHERICAL ABERRATION
services. The raising of dairy and beef cattle is
the main agricultural activity, but sheep are
important on the higher ground. Peterhead
and Fraserburgh are among the most impor-
tant fishing ports in the United Kingdom and object point
circle of
are also boatbuilding centres. Elsewhere fish-
least confusion
ing has declined, and the small fishing villages
have turned to tourism; Stonehaven combines
both. Tourism is also important in the COMA
Grampians and their scenic valleys. Whisky
distilling and light manufacturing occur in
several towns. However, the exploitation of
North Sea oil is probably the single most im-
portant economic activity in Aberdeenshire.
Pipelines bring oil ashore at Peterhead and St.
object point
Fergus, and the production of goods and serv-
ices for the oil industry is important in other
parts of the council area. Balmoral Castle, the
Scottish Highland residence of the British object point
royal family, stands amid the Grampians in
western Aberdeenshire. Aberdeen city is the optical axis

historic county town (seat) and administrative

centre of Aberdeenshire, although it is not part
of the council area. Area council area, 2,428
square miles (6,289 square km). Pop. (1999
est.) council area, 227,440.

Abergavenny, Welsh y fenni, town ("com-

munity"), historic and present county of Mon- sagittal plane

mouthshire (Sir Fynwy), Wales, at the ASTIGMATISM

confluence of the Rivers Gavenny and Usk.
circle of least confusion
The strategic nature of this site, guarding a
main valley corridor between the Black Moun-
tains and the Brecon Beacons into South
Wales, was recognized by the Romans, who
built the fortress of Gobannium, and by the CURVATURE OF FIELD
Normans, who built an 11th-century castle.
Petzval surface
The market town that grew under the castle's
protection was attacked at various times over
the next 500 years. Abergavenny held impor-
tant cattle and horse fairs in the 18th and 19th
centuries and developed some flannel making;
never participated in the industrial growth of object
it image
the coalfield towns to the west. Now a service
centre and a popular holiday resort, it has also
become a residential base for commuters em- DISTORTION
ployed in other Monmouthshire towns near-
by. Pop. (1991) 14,092.

Abernathy, Ralph David (b. March 11,

1926, Linden, Ala., U.S.— d. April 17, 1990,
Atlanta, Ga.), African American pastor and
civil-rights leader who was Martin Luther
King's chief aide and closest associate during
the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and CHROMATIC ABERRATION
'60s.
The son of a successful farmer, Abernathy
was ordained as a Baptist minister in 1948 and
graduated with a B.S. degree from Alabama
State University in 1950. His interest then
shifted from mathematics to sociology, and he object
red
earned an M.A. degree in the latter from At-
focal focal
lanta University in 1951. That same year he point point
became pastor of the First Baptist Church in
Montgomery, Ala., and he met King a few Several types of aberration
Encyclopaedia Briannca
years later when the latter became pastor of Inc.
 —
aberration, constant of 30 present in a lens: barrel distortion, in which letters with King Abgar V Ukkama of Os-
magnification decreases with distance from roene, whose capital was Edeasa, a Mesopo-
the axis,and pincushion distortion, in which lannan city on the northern fringe of the
metrical shape. CMlring some blurring ol the magnification increases With distance from the Syrian plateau. According to the legend, the
whole image. Unlike plane minor, which
.1 a\is king, afflicted with leprosy, had heaid ol Jesus

yields images free of aberrations, a lens is an The last aberration, chromatic aberration, is miracles and wrote to Jesus acknowledging his
imperfect imago producer, becoming ideal the failure of a lens to focus all colours in the divine mission, asking to be cured, and invit-
onl) lor rays passing through its centre para! same plane. Because the refractive index is ing him to come to Edessa as a safe refuge
lei to the optical axis (a line through the cen- least at the red end of the spectrum, the focal from persecution. In his reply, Jesus allegedly
tre, perpendicular to the lens surfaces). The length of a lens in air will be greater for red commended the king for his faith, expressed
equations developed lor object-image relations and green than for blue and violet. Magnifica- regret that his mission in life precluded a visit.
in a lens having spherical surfaces are only ap- tion affected by chromatic aberration, being
is but promised that after his Ascension into
proximate and deal only with paraxial rays different along the optical axis and perpendi- heaven a disciple would visit Edessa and heal
if. rays making only small angles with the cular to it. The first is called longitudinal the king.
optical axis. When light of only a single wave- chromatic aberration, and the second, lateral A developed form of the legend exists in the
length is present, there are five aberrations to chromatic aberration. Doctrine d
Addai, a Syriac document con-
be considered, called spherical aberration, taining suggestions of primitive Christianity in
aberration, constant of, in astronomy, the
coma, astigmatism, curvature of field, and dis- Edessa. In any event, the letters, probably
maximum amount of the apparent yearly composed early in the 4th century, have been
tortion. A sixth aberration found in lenses (but
aberrational displacement of a star or other ce-
not mirrors) —
namely, chromatic aberra-
lestial body, resulting from the Earth's orbital
considered spurious since the 5th century.
tion— results when light is not monochromat-
motion around the Sun. The value of the con-
They were translated from Syriac into Greek.
ic (not of one wavelength). Armenian, Latin, Arabic, and other ancient
stant, about 20.49" of arc, depends on the
In spherical aberration, rays of light from a languages, clear evidence of the popularity of
ratio of Earth's orbital velocity to the velocity
point on the optical axis of a lens having the legend.
of light. James Bradley, the British astronomer
spherical surfaces do not all meet at the same Abha,
who in 1728 discovered the aberration of southwestern Saudi Arabia. It is
city,
image point. Rays passing through the lens starlight, estimated the value of the constant at on a plain
situated at the western edge of
close to its centre are focused farther away
about 20" and from this calculated a remark- Mount al-Hijaz and is surrounded by hills.
than rays passing through a circular zone near The valley of the Wadi Abha near the city is
ably close value for the velocity of light at
its rim. For every cone of rays from an axial
295,000 kilometres (183,300 miles) per sec- filled with gardens, fields, and streams. The
object point meeting the lens, there is a cone
ond. The aberrational ellipse described by the city consists of four quarters, the largest of
of rays that converges to form an image point, which contains an old fortress. Abha was freed
image of a star in the course of a year has a
the cone being different in length according to
major axis equal in angular distance to twice from Ottoman rule following World War I
the diameter of the circular zone. Wherever a
the constant of aberration. and brought under the control of the Wah-
plane at right angles to the optical axis is made
habls, a Muslim puritanical group, in 1920 by
to intersect a cone, the rays will form a circu- Abertillery, town, Blaenau Gwent county
Abd al-'Aziz ibn Sa'ud. It is characterized by
lar cross section. The area of the cross section borough, historic county of Monmouthshire
forts built on top of the neighbouring hills.
varies with distance along the optical axis, the (Sir Fynwy), Wales, in the valley of the River
Abha lies 50 miles (80 km) east of the Red Sea
smallest size known as the circle of least con- Ebbw. Coal mining was its main economic in-
and 528 miles (850 km) southwest of Riyadh,
fusion. The image most free of spherical aber- terest from about 1850 until the last mines
closed in the 1980s. Nantyglo, to the north,
A coastal road, complet-
the national capital.
ration is found at this distance.
ed in 1979, connects Jidda with Abha. Pop.
Coma, so called because a point image is was the site of famous ironworks. Some light
(1992) 112,316.
blurred into a comet shape, is produced when manufacturing has been introduced to Aber-
rays from an off-axis object point are imaged tillery since the 1930s, mostly with govern- Abhayagiri, important ancient Theravada
by different zones of the lens. In spherical ment assistance, and the town is a commercial Buddhist monastic centre (vihara) built by
aberration, the images of an on-axis object centre. Pop. (1991) 11,680. King Vattagamani Abhaya (29-17 bc) on the
point that fall on a plane at right angles to the northern side of Anuradhapura, the capital of
Aberystwyth, coastal town, Ceredigion
optical axis are circular in shape, of varying Ceylon (Sri Lanka) at that time. Its impor-
county (historic county of Cardiganshire),
size, and superimposed about a common cen- tance lay, in part, in the fact that religious and
Wales, where the River Rheidol flows into
tre; in coma, the images of an off-axis object political power were closely related, so that
Cardigan Bay. Traces of extensive Iron Age
point are circular in shape, of varying size, but monastic centres had much influence on the
earthworks have been found on the hill Pen
displaced with respect to each other. The ac- secular history of the nation. But it is also im-
Dinas, which overlooks the old portand town.
companying diagram shows an exaggerated portant in the history of Theravada Buddhism
The medieval walled town grew around the
case of two images, one resulting from a cen- itself. It was originally associated with the
castle erected by the Normans (1277) on a
tral cone of rays and the other from a cone nearby Mahavihara ("Great Monastery"),
rocky headland immediately north of the
passing through the rim. The usual way for re- which was the traditional centre of religious
mouth of the River Rheidol. The town spread
ducing coma is to employ a diaphragm to and civil power built by Devananpiya-Tissa
northward along the coast, especially after the
eliminate the outer cones of rays. (307-267 bc). But Abhayagiri seceded from
coming of railways. The port, now virtually
Astigmatism, unlike spherical aberration and the Great Monastery toward the end of
unused, once handled coastal, Irish, and even
coma, results from the failure of a single zone Vattagamani's reign in a dispute over the rela-'
transatlantic shipping (Welsh emigrants, for
of a lens to focus the image of an off-axis point tions between monks and the lay community
example, would sail direct for the United
at a single point. As shown in the three-di- and the use of Sanskrit works to augment Pali
States) and served as the outlet for the once-
mensional schematic the two planes at right texts as scripture.
flourishing Cardiganshire lead mines.
angles to one another passing through the op- Although viewed as heretical by the monks
tical axis are the meridian plane and" the sagit-
The town has grown since the late 19th cen-
at the Great Monastery, the Abhayagiri
tury as a holiday resort and rural service cen-
tal plane, the meridian plane being the one monastery advanced in prestige and wealth
tre and is the headquarters of many regional
containing the off-axis object point. Rays not under the patronage of King Gajabahu I (ad
services of western Wales. Though established
in the meridian plane, called skew rays, are fo- 113-135). Abhayagiri continued to flourish
cused farther away from the lens than those
by English conquerors in the Welsh heartland,
until Anuradhapura was abandoned in the
Aberystwyth has become a principal strong-
lying in the plane. In either case the rays do 13th century. Even then, two of its main col-
hold of Welsh culture. The founder college of
not meet in a point focus but as lines perpen- leges continued to operate until the 16th cen-
the University of Wales was established there
dicular to each other. Intermediate between tury.
these two positions the images are elliptical in
in 1872. Modern university buildings and the
shape.
National Library of Wales, one of Britain's abhibhvayatana (Sanskrit: "total mastery
copyright libraries, overlook the town from over the senses"), Pali abhibhayatana, in
Curvature of field and distortion refer to the
location of image points with respect to one
Penglais Hill to the northeast. In the Rheidol Buddhist philosophy, one of the preparatory
valley the inland hamlet of Llanbadarnfawr stages of meditation, in which the senses are
another. Even though the former three aberra-
has become a suburb; its church was once a completely restrained. In Buddhist canons, ab-
tions may be corrected for in the design of a
great centre of Dark Ages learning and Celtic hibhvayatana is divided into eight substages
lens, these two aberrations could remain. In
curvature of field, the image of a plane object
Christianity. Pop. (1991) 11,154. during which man comes to realize that phys-
ical forms in the external world are different
perpendicular to the optical axis will lie on a abettor, in law, a person who becomes equal-
paraboloidal surface called the Petzval surface
from himself, thus freeing himself from at-
ly guilty in the crime of another by knowingly
(after Jozsef Petzval, a Hungarian mathemati-
tachment to the sense objects. These stages be-
and voluntarily aiding the criminal during the
cian). Flat image fields are desirable in pho- act itself. An abettor is one kind of accomplice
come bases for man's deliverance from sensual
pleasures and pains, which are understood to
tography in order to match the film plane and (q.v.), the other being an accessory, who aids
be sufferings.
projection when the enlarging paper or projec- the criminal prior to or after the crime.
tion screen lie on a flat surface. Distortion
Abgar legend, in early Christian times, a
Abhidhamma Pitaka (Pali: "Basket of Spe-
refers to deformation of an image. There are cial Doctrine," or "Further Doctrine"), San-
popular myth that Jesus had an exchange of
two kinds of distortion, either of which may be

.
skrit abhidharma pitaka. the third — and in less than 50 pages with the entire contents 3 Abhisamayalankaraloka
historically the latest —of the three "baskets." of the seven texts of the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
1

or collections of texts, that together comprise It is the most widely read work of its kind, is

the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism, the held in very high esteem, especially in Burma himself. As an introduction to the seven Abhi-
form predominant in Southeast Asia and Sri and Sri Lanka (Ceylon), and has been the dharma treatisesthe Sarvastivada canon
in
Lanka (Ceylon). The other two collections subject of an extensive exegetical literature in and a systematic digest of their contents, the
are Sufta ("Discourse": Sanskrit Sutra) and the centuries since its composition. Abhidharmakosa deals with a wide range of
Vinaya ("Discipline") Pilakas. Unlike Sutta The subject matter of the Abhidhammattha- philosophical, cosmological, ethical, and sal-
and Vinaya. the seven Abhidhamma works are sangaha includes enumerations of 89 classes vational doctrine.
not generally claimed to represent the words of consciousness. 52 mental properties in var-
of the Buddha himself but of disciples and
ahhijna (Sanskrit: "supernatural knowledge"),
ious combinations, the qualities of matter, the
Pali abhinna, in Buddhist philosophy, mirac-
great scholars. Nevertheless, they are highly kinds of relations betjveen phenomena, the
ulous power obtained especially through med-
venerated, particularly in Burma. varieties of rebirth, and a number of medita-
itation and wisdom. Usually five kinds of
These are not systematic philosophical trea- tion exercises. The purpose of all this analysis
tises but a detailed scholastic reworking, ac-
abhijhd are enumerated: the ability (1) to
is to elicit a realization of the impermanence
travel any distance or take on any form at
cording to schematic classifications, of doc- of all things, leading to Enlightenment and
will; (2) to see everything; (3) to hear every-
trinal material appearing in the Suit as. As emancipation.
thing; (4) to know another's thoughts; (5) to
such they represent a development in a ratio-
nalistic direction of summaries or numerical
Abhidhammavatara (Pali: "Coming of Abhi- recollect former existences.
lists that had come to be used as a basis
dhamma"). the earliest effort at systematizing, A sixthmiraculous power, freedom by unde-
for meditation —
lists that, among the more
in the form of a manual, the doctrines dealt
with in the Abhidhamma (scholastic) section
fined wisdom, is exclusively the prerogative of
Buddhas and arhats (saints). An earlier enu-
mystically inclined, contributed to the Prajhd-
of the Theravada Buddhist canon. The Abhi- meration of three knowledges (tisro-vidyds)
pdramitd ("Perfection of Wisdom") literature
dhammavatara was written in Pali, apparently consists of this sixth abhijhd together with the
of Mahayana Buddhism, the form predomi-
in the 5th century, by the poet and scholar powers of recollecting previous existences and
nant in East Asia. The topics dealt with in
Buddhadatta in the region of the Kaveri River, of seeing everything and thus knowing the fu-
Abhidhamma books include ethics, psychol-
in southern India. ture destinies of all beings.
ogy, and epistemology.
As the last major division of the canon,
Following the closing of the canon in the The first five abhijhds enumerated in Bud-
final centuries bc. a number of commentaries dhism are identical with the siddhis (miracu-
the Abhidhamma corpus has had a checkered
(known in Pali as a(thakathd) on particu- lous powers) known to Indian ascetics in gen-
history. It was not accepted as canonical by
lar canonical texts appeared and culminated eral. Patanjali, example, mentions them
for
the Mahasanghika (Sanskrit: Great Commu- in those produced by Buddhadatta's contem- in his Yoga-sutra (the classical exposition of
nity) school, the forerunners of Mahayana.-
porary. Buddhaghosa. In the Abhidhamma- Yoga) as magical virtues of meditation. Gob-
Another school included within it most of the
vatara Buddhadatta then both summed up lins and deities are said to be endowed natu-
Khuddaka Nikdya ("Short Collection"), the
and gave an original systematization to that rally with such powers.
latest section of the Sutta Pi(aka. And var-
part of the commentary literature dealing with Attainment of the abhijhds by monks is pos-
ious Mahayana texts have been classified as
Abhidhamma. (Among his other works is the sible only through continual meditation di-
Abhidhamma. including the Prajhdpdramitd-
Vinaya-vinicchaya ["Analysis of the Vinaya"]. rected toward the final goal of perfect freedom;
sutras in Tibet and, in China, the Diamond
which similarly summarizes the commentaries the powers themselves are regarded as indica-
Sutra.
on the vinaya [monastic discipline] section of tions of spiritual progress. According to the
The Pali AbhidhammaPi{aka encompasses
the canon.) Buddha, however, indulgence in the abhijhds
the following texts, or pakaranas: ( ) Dham- 1
The Abhidhammavatara is written largely in is to be avoided, since their use is a powerful
masahgani ("Summary of Dharma"). a psy-
verse and has 24 chapters. To a certain extent distraction from the path toward Enlighten-
chologically oriented manual of ethics for
it was superseded in the 2th century by Anu-
1 ment, which is the sixth abhijhd and the final
advanced monks but long popular in Cey-
ruddha's Abhidhammattha-sangaha. goal.
lon; (2) Vibhanga ("Division." or "Classifi-
cation" —
not to be confused with a I'inaya Abhidharma Pitaka: see Abhidhamma Pi- Abhinavagupta (fl. 1014. Kashmir. India),
work or with several suttas bearing the same taka. philosopher, ascetic and aesthetician. and
name), a kind of supplement to the Dham- outstanding representative of the "recogni-
Abhidharmakosa, also called abhidhar-
masahgani. treating many of the same topics; tion" (pratyabhijhd) school of Kashmiri Sai-
ma kosa-s Astra (Sanskrit: "Treasury of
(3) Dhdtukathd ("Discussion of Elements"), vite monism. This school conceived of the
Higher Law"). Chinese a-p'i-ta-mo chu-
another supplementary work; (4) Puggalapan- god Siva (the manifestation of ultimate re-
she lun, Japanese abidatsuma-kusha-ron,
hatti ("Designation of Person"), largely a col- ality), the individual soul, and the universe
encyclopaedic compendium of Abhidharma
lection of excerpts from the Ahgultara Nikdya as essentially one: pratyabhijhd refers to the
(scholasticism), the position of which within
of the Sutta Pifaka, classifying human char- way of realizing this identity. Abhinavagupta
Buddhism has been likened to that of St.
acteristics in relation to stages on the Bud- was a prolific writer on philosophy and aes-
Thomas Aquinas' Summa theologiae for Ro-
dhist path; generally considered the earliest thetics. Among his most notable philosophic
man Catholicism.
Abhidhamma text; (5) Kathdvalthu ("Points
Its author, Vasubandhu. who lived in the
works are the Isvara-pratyabhijhd-vimarsini
of Controversy"), attributed to Moggaliputta, and the more detailed Isvara-pratyabhijhd-
4th or 5th century' in the northwestern part
president of the third Buddhist Council (3rd vivrti-vimarsini. both commentaries on Is'vara-
of India, wrote the work while he was still a
century bc), the only work in the Pali canon pratyabhijhd ("Recognition of God"), by Ut-
monk of the Sarvastivada (Doctrine That All
assigned to a particular author; historically pala, an earlier philosopher of the pratyabhij-
Is Real) order, before he embraced Mahayana.
one of the most important of the seven, the hd school.
on whose texts he was later to write a num-
Kathdvalthu is a series of questions from a
ber of commentaries. As a Sarvastivada work Abhisamayalankaraloka (Sanskrit: "Illumi-
heretical (i.e., non-Theravada) point of view,
the Abhidharmakosa is one of few surviving nation of the Abhisamaydlahkdra"), impor-
with their implications refuted in the answers;
treatments of scholasticism not written in Pali tant contribution to exegetical literature on the
the long first chapter debates the existence
and not produced by Theravadins, who fol- Prdjhaparamita- ("Perfection of Wisdom") su-
of a soul; (6) Yamaka ("Pairs"), a series of
low the Pali canon. The product of both great tras of the Mahayana Buddhist tradition and
questions on psychological phenomena, each
erudition and considerable independence of one of the texts most often studied in Tibetan
dealt with in two opposite ways; (7) Pa([hdna
thought, the Abhidharmakosa authoritatively monasteries.
("Activations," or "Causes"), a complex and
completed the systematization of Sarvastivada The Prajhdpdramitd-sutras, with their em-
voluminous treatment of causality and 23 doctrine and at the same time incorporated phasis on the doctrine of ontological "empti-
other kinds of relationships between phenom-
Mahayanist tendencies. ness" and the attainment of Nirvana through
ena, mental or material.
Translated into Chinese within a century or perfect wisdom, had been systematized in a
Abhidhammattha-sangaha (Pali: "Summa- two, the Abhidharmakosa has been used in terse commentary known as the Abhisamayd-
ry of the Meaning of Abhidhamma"), prob- China, Japan, and Tibet both as a standard lahkdra. (Abhisamaya means either "insight"
ably the most important Buddhist manual introduction to the Hlnayana Buddhism of or "uniting" and designates Buddhist training
of psychology and ethics. A highly popular the southern countries and as a great author- toward Enlightenment; alahkdra is a liter-
pnmer. or digest, of the Abhidhamma cor- ity in matters of doctrine. In China it pro- ary form in verse.) This latter text required
pus (the scholastic section of the canon) of vided the basis for the Abhidharma (Chinese its own commentaries, which continued to

the Theravada tradition, it was composed in Chu-she; Japanese Kusha) sect. The work has be produced in Tibet into modern times. It
India or in Burma, the chief centre for Abhi- inspired numerous commentaries. It also pro- was paraphrased in the present treatise, the
dhamma studies. Written in Pali by the monk vides scholars with a unique amount of infor- Abhisamayalankaraloka. which also offered
Anuruddha. it dates from no earlier than the mation on the doctrinal differences between a detailed commentary on the As(asdhasrikd
8th centurv ad and probably from the 11th ancient Buddhist schools. ("8,000- Verse") Prajhdpdramild.
or 12th. The text is composed of 600 stanzas of The author was Haribhadra. He wrote around
This is a handbook rather than an exposi- poetry plus the equivalent of 8,000 stanzas ad 750. and his text was translated from San-
tory work; it is extremely condensed, dealing of prose commentary supplied by the author skrit into Tibetan in the 10th or 1th century.
1
abhiseka 32 abut were finally dissolved late in the 19th i Samuel 25) and the mother of his son
I

century, with onl) a nominal number retained Chileab be name Abigail vsas also borne by
I

as the king's personal bodyguard. David's sistet (i Chronicles 2: 16), who was the
abhiseka. Sanskrit abhiseka ("sprinkling"). mother of Amasa. commandei ol the army of
Miidjan. chief port, capital, and largest cits
in esoteric Buddhism, a purincaioiy or m_ ' Absalom. From the former (self-Styled "hand-
of Cote d'lvoire (l\or\ (oast) It lies along Samuel 25:25) is derived the collo-
baton rite in which a candidate is sprinkled maid"; 1

the Ebrie Lagoon, which is separated from the

with water or other liquid, signifying a change quial use of the word for a waiting woman.
Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic by the Vridi
in status. Plage sandbar. A village in 1898. it became Abildgaard, Nicolai Abraham, also spelled
OnginalK. abhiseka was an integral part of
NIKOLAJ-ABRAHAM ABILGAARD (b. Sept. II.
the ancient Indian royal consecration
Water from the four oceans was poured out
rite.
1743, Copenhagen, Den. —
d. June 4, 1809,
Frederiksdal), the most renowned Danish
of golden jars onto the head of the seated painter of the late 18th century and one of
monarch during his accession ceremony and the early Neoclassicists.
also during the investiture ceremony of his During 772-77 Abildgaard studied in Rome,
1

heir apparent. In Tantric, or esoteric. Bud- where he was primarily influenced by antique
dhism, the abhiseka rite is a necessary prelude sculpture and Roman wall paintings. His style
to initiation into mystical teaching or rites. was classical, though with a romantic trend,
Four classes of abhiseka are known, each of and he had a remarkable sense of colour.
them associated with one of the four Tantras Many of his paintings are melodramatic in-
(teachings) suitable to four groups of people terpretations of episodes from ancient litera-
with progressively superior levels of sensibility. ture. He taught at the Danish Royal Academy
They are the master consecration, secret con- of Fine Arts, of which he became director
secration, knowledge of prajna ("wisdom"), in 1789. Bertel Thorvaldsen. the prominent
and the fourth consecration. Danish sculptor, was his pupil.
Abia, state, east-central Nigeria. Abia was ad-
Abilene, city, seat (1861) of Dickinson
ministratively created in 1991 from the eastern
county, east-central Kansas, U.S. The city lies
half of former Imo state. It is bordered by the Abidjan and the Ebrie Lagoon, Cote d'lvoire
along the Smoky Hill River. Settled in 1858
of Enugu to the north, Cross River and
states Q Picou — De Wys Inc
and known as Mud Creek, it was named
Akwa Ibom to the east. Rivers to the south, about 1860 for the biblical Abilene (which
a town in 1903. Abidjan was a rail terminus
and Imo and Anambra to the west. Abia means "grassy plain"). Development was slow
from 1904 but had to depend on the meagre
includes areas of oil-palm bush and tropical until Joseph McCoy, a cattle entrepreneur
facilities of Port-Bouet on the sandbar's ocean
rain forest in its southern part and woodland
shore. It succeeded Bingerville as capital of and later mayor of Abilene, selected it for the
savanna in its hilly north. Most of the pop- northern terminus of the Texas cattle drives
the French colony in 1934 and retained that
ulation is engaged in agriculture; yams, taro,
position after independence in 1960. Districts in 1867, the year the Kansas Pacific Railroad
corn (maize), rice, and cassava are the staple
within the city include Plateau. Cocody (site reached this point. The biggest year of cattle
crops, and oil palm is the main cash crop.
of the National University of Cote d'lvoire),
Mineral resources include lead and zinc.
Treichville, Adjame, Koumassi, and Marcory.
The state's chief industrial centre is Aba,
TheVridi Canal opened the lagoon to the sea
which lies on the railway north from Port
in 1950, and the city soon became the finan-
Harcourt and manufactures textiles, pharma-
cial centre of French-speaking West Africa.
ceuticals, soap, plastics, cement, footware, and
The first of two bridges linking the mainland
cosmetics. Umuahia, the state capital, has a
to Petit-Bassam Island was built in 1958. Abid-
palm-oil-processing plant and several brew-
jan's modern deepwater port exports coffee,
eries. Abia state is mainly inhabited by the
cocoa, timber, bananas, pineapples, and man-
Igbo (Ibo) people and is one of the most
ganese. From the administrative and business
densely populated areas in Nigeria. The main
sectors on the mainland, the city stretches
highway network serves Umuahia and Aba.
southward to the industrial area on Petit-
Pop. (1991)2,297,978.
Bassam and the mineral and petroleum docks
'Abid al-Bukhari, also called buakhar, along the Vridi Canal. There are a number
army of Saharan blacks organized inMorocco of wide, shady streets and gardened squares
by the 'Alawi ruler Isma'il (reigned 1672- in the city; the university (1958) lies on the
1727). Earlier rulers had recruited black slaves eastern mainland. Abidjan has a museum of
(Arabic: 'abid) into their armies, and these traditional Ivorian art, a national library, and
men or their descendants eventually formed several agricultural and scientific research in-
the core of Isma'U's guard. stitutes. The city is a communications centre
The 'abid were sent to a special camp at and the site of an international airport (at Port-
Mechra' er-Remel to beget children. The com- Bouet, an autonomous municipality within Place of Meditation, Eisenhower Center, Abilene.
munal children, male and female, were pre- Kan.
Abidjan). North of the city is Banco National
Alan Pttcairn from Grant Heilman
sented to the ruler when they were about Park, a magnificent tropical rain forest. Pop.
10 years old and proceeded to a prescribed (1990 est.) 2,168,000. drives to Abilene over the Chisholm Trail was
course of training. The boys acquired such
abietic acid, the most abundant of several 1871, when more than 5,000 cowboys driving
skills as masonry, horsemanship, archery, and
closely related organic acids that constitute 700,000 cows arrived at the yards. With the
musketry, whereas the girls were prepared for
most of rosin, the solid portion of the oleo- prosperity of the cattlemen came an era of law-
domestic life or for entertainment. At the age
resin of coniferous trees. Commercial abietic lessness. The famed gunman Wild Bill Hickok
of 15 they were divided among the various
acid is usually a glassy or partly crystalline, served as the town's marshal in 1871. The ap-
army corps and married, and eventually the
pearance of homesteaders and fenced ranges
yellowish solid that melts at temperatures as
cycle would repeat itself with their children.
low as 85° C (185° F). It belongs to the discouraged the Texas cattle trade, much of
Ismail's army, numbering 150,000 men at
diterpene group of organic compounds (com- which was diverted to Wichita. Abilene is still
its peak, consisted mainly of the "graduates"
pounds derived from four isoprene units). a shipping point for livestock, as well as for
of the Mechra' er-Remel camp and supple-
Rosin has been used for centuries for caulk- grain and other agricultural products, and it
mentary slaves pirated from black Saharan
ing ships. It is also rubbed on the bows of has some light industry. President Dwight D.
tribes, all foreigners whose sole allegiance was
musical instruments to make them less slip- Eisenhower spent his boyhood in Abilene, and
to the ruler. The 'abid were highly favoured by
pery. In modern times methods have been he is buried at the Eisenhower Center, which
Isma'il, well paid, and often politically power-
developed for improving the properties of the also encompasses his family home and library.
ful; in 1697-98 they were even given the right
rosin acids, which are soft, tacky, and low- Inc. 1869. Pop. (1990)6.242.
to own property.
After Isma'il's death the quality of the corps melting and subject to rapid deterioration by Abilene, city, seat (1883) of Taylor county
could not be sustained. Discipline slackened, oxidation in air. Stability is greatly increased (and partly in Jones County), west-central
and, as preferential pay was no longer forth- by heat treatment. Texas, U.S. It lies on low, rolling plains 153
coming, the 'abid took to brigandage. Many Rosin acids are converted into ester gum by miles (246 km) west of Fort Worth. Founded
reaction with controlled amounts of glycerol in 1881 as the new railhead (Texas and Pa-
left their outposts and shifted into the cities,
and others became farmers or peasants. Those or other polyhydric alcohols. Ester gum has cific Railway) for the overland Texas cattle
drying properties and is used in paints, var- drives, it took not only the business of the
who remained in the army were an unsta-
ble element, ready for intrigue. Under strong
nishes, and lacquers. previous railhead, Abilene, Kan., but also its
rulers, the 'Abid al-Bukhari were periodically Abigail, in the Old Testament, the wife of biblical name. The city's economy, originally
reorganized, though they never regained their Nabal of southern Judah, on whose death based solely on livestock and agriculture, has
former military and numerical strength. The she became one of the first wives of David expanded to include industry. Petroleum and
natural gas are produced in a multicounty There she remained for 18 years, creating 33 Ableman v. Booth
area, of which Abilene is the centre. The many important roles, among them Lady Tea-
city's manufactures include light machinery, zle in Richard Brinsley Sheridan's The School
aerospace structures, and band instruments. for Scandal (1777). She was equally successful The sharp relief in close proximity to the sea
Abilene is the site of Hardin-Simmons Uni- in tragedy and comedy. In 1782 Mrs. Abing- givesAbkhazia a wet climate. Near-subtropical
versity (1891), Abilene Christian University ton went from Drury Lane to Covent Garden. conditions prevail in the lowland, where the
(1906),.and McMurry University (1923). Dyess She left the stage in 1790, returning in 1797 average January temperature remains above
Air Force Base lies just southwest. The West for another two years. She was a leader of freezing point and annual rainfall is 47 to 55
Texas Fair, rodeos, and livestock shows are fashion, and a headdress of hers called the inches (1,200 to 1,400 mm). On the mountain
annual events. Old Abilene Town (northeast) Abington cap was very widely worn. slopes, climatic conditions are more severe
is a reconstructed Texas frontier town. Inc. and is heavier. Wide areas of the low-
rainfall
abiogenesis: see spontaneous generation.
1881. Pop. (1994 est.) city, 110,034; Abilene land and foreland zones have been cleared of
MSA, 121,904. Abipon, South American Indian people who the forests of oak, beech, and hornbeam that
formerly lived on the lower Bermejo River once covered Abkhazia.
Abingdon, town White
("parish"), Vale of
in the Argentine Gran Chaco. They spoke a The Abkhaz were vassals of the Byzantine
Horse district, county of Oxfordshire, En-
language (also called Callaga) belonging to the Empire when they became Christian under
gland. It lies south of Oxford at the confluence
Guaycuruan group of the Guaycurii-Charruan Justinian I (c. 550). In the 8th century the in-
of the Rivers Thames and Ock.
languages. About 1750 their numbers were es- dependent kingdom of Abkhazia was formed.
The town was founded by the Saxons and
timated at 5,000, but in the second half of the Later a part of Georgia, it secured its indepen-
grew up around a Benedictine abbey estab-
19th century they became extinct as a people. dence in 1463 only to come under the rule
lished in 676. In 1556, after the abbey had been
Seminomadic bands of Abipon hunted, of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.
dissolved, Abingdon was granted its first royal
fished, gathered food, and practiced a limited Islam subsequently replaced Christianity in
charter. The abbey remains include a Per-
degree of agriculture before the introduction parts of the region. In 1810 a treaty with Rus-
pendicular gateway and the restored Checker
of the horse. The latter event transformed sia was signed acknowledging a protectorate.
Hall, now used as an Elizabethan-style the-
the whole social system of the Chaco. Agri- Russia annexed Abkhazia in 1864, and the
atre. The arched bridge over the Thames
culture was practically abandoned, and semi- Soviet authorities proclaimed its autonomy as
(1416; widened 1929) provides a view of the
wild cattle, rhea, guanaco, deer, and peccary a region in 1919 and raised it to the status of
Early English tower and Perpendicular spire
were hunted on horseback. Abipon horsemen a republic in 1921. It became an autonomous
of St. Helen's Church. The county hall (1677-
also raided Spanish farms and ranches, even republic within the Georgian republic in 1930,
80) houses a museum collection. St. Nicholas'
threatening large cities such as Asuncion and and it remained part of Georgia when the lat-
Church, the west front of which was built
Corrientes. ter attained independence in 1991. In 1992,
in 1180, stands nearby. Schools in the town
By 1750 the Jesuits had settled the Abipon however, secessionists in Abkhazia staged an
include Abingdon (Roysse's) School —
one of
on missions that later became the Argentine armed revolt against the Georgian central gov-
the oldest public (independent) schools in En-
cities of Reconquista and Resistencia. White ernment in a bid to obtain Abkhazian inde-
gland —and Radley College (1847). The town
military pacification campaigns in the 19th pendence. The rebels established control over
also has a number of light industries and is a
century circumscribed the Abipon's hunting Abkhazia in 1993, and the following year they
popular Thames-side resort. Pop. (1991)
grounds. Many of the Indians were slaugh- declared an independent sovereign republic,
35,234.
tered, and others were assimilated into the though this was opposed by Russia as well as
Abington, town("township"), Plymouth general population. Georgia.
county, eastern Massachusetts, U.S. It lies 20 Prior to the rebellion, ethnic Georgians had
Abitibi River, river, northeastern Ontario,
miles (32 km) southeast of Boston. Known as made up almost half of Abkhazia's popula-
Canada. From its source in the shallow 359-
Manamooskeagin ("Land of Many Beavers") square-mile (931 -square-kilometre) Abitibi
tion, while ethnic Abkhaz had accounted for
to the Indians, it was settled in 1668, incorpo- lessthan one-fifth; Armenians and Russians
Lake, lying across the Ontario-Quebec bor-
rated in 1712, and named for Abington. Eng. made up the remainder. In 1993, however,
der, the river descends 868 feet (265 m) as it
An iron foundry was established there in 1769, flows generally northward for 340 miles (547
most Georgians and some Russians and Ar-
and about 1815 Jesse Reed invented a ma- menians fled Abkhazia for other parts of
km) to join the Moose River and empty into
chine that mass-produced tacks, thus enabling Georgia. The majority of the population is
the southern end of James Bay. The heavily
the footwear industry to thrive. Abington is concentrated in the coastal lowland, where
forested Abitibi River valley supports an ex-
reputed to have produced half of all the boots
tensive pulp and paper industry, centred at
the larger settlements are located — the capital,
worn by the Union Army in the American Sokhumi Ochamchire, and the resort
(a. v.),
Iroquois Falls. Gold mining has long been im-
Civil War. From 1846 to 1865 it was a centre centres of Gagra and Novy Afon. Although
portant in the lake region, and tourism has be-
of the Abolitionist movement. Now primarily the amount of arable land is small, agriculture
come increasingly significant in the economy.
residential, it has some light manufacturing, constitutes the predominant economic activ-
Abitibi is an Algonkian Indian term (abitah,
notably printing and machine-tool industries. ity in the republic. In the foreland zone an
"middle," and nipi, "water") describing the
Pop. (2000) 14,605. excellent tobacco is grown; the coastal zone
lake's midway location on an old canoe route
is noted for its tea, silk, and fruits. Oil is ex-
Abington, urban township. Montgomery between the Ottawa Valley and James Bay.
tracted from the nut of the tung tree, which
county, southeastern Pennsylvania, U.S.
Abkhaz, also called Abkhazian, Abkhaz ap- is widely grown together with eucalyptus and
Abington is a northern suburb of Philadelphia, swa, any member of a Caucasian people living bamboo. Grapes have been cultivated in the
encompassing the communities of Ardsley, chiefly in the Abkhazia republic in northwest- area since ancient times. Inland, on the higher
Glenside, McKinley, Noble, North Glenside,
ernmost Georgia. The Bzyb Abkhaz, who have slopes, timber production is the major occu-
and Roslyn. Organized in the 1700s, it be-
a distinct dialect, are found around the Bzyb pation. Coal mining centres on Tqvarcheli,
came a station on the North Pennsylvania River; the Abzhui Abkhaz, on whose dialect the largest inland city. Power is supplied by
Railroad in 1855. During the U.S. War of
the literary language is based, live near the several hydroelectric plants. The coastal re-
Independence, an American skirmish with the Kodori River; and the Zamurzakan Abkhaz sorts and Lake Ritsa are popular holiday and
British took place at nearby Edge Hill. The
are found in the southeast. The Abaza people, convalescent centres.
township's manufactures include pressed steel,
who speak a similar language, dwell north of The main line of communication in the
chemicals, and metal and plastic products.
the main Caucasus mountain chain around republic is the electrified railway along the
The Ogontz campus of Pennsylvania State the sources of the Kuban and Zelenchuk coast, with a branch to Tqvarcheli. Roads also
University opened in Abington in 1950. Inc.
rivers in Karachay-Cherkessia, Russia. Abaza parallel the coast and lead inland. Area 3,343
1906. Pop. (1999 est.) 55,077.
and Abkhaz are so similar that many linguists square miles (8,600 square km). Pop. (1993
Abington, Fanny, nee Frances barton (b. consider them to be dialects of a single lan- est.) 516,600.

1737, London, Eng.— d. March 4, 1815, Lon- guage. The traditional economy of the Abkhaz
Abkhazo-Adyghian languages, also called
don), English actress admired both for her is based on cattle breeding, agriculture, viti-
NORTHWEST CAUCASIAN LANGUAGES, gTOUp
craft and for her leadership in fashion. culture, and beekeeping. In religion they are
of languages spoken primarily in the north-
She was at first a flower girl, hence her later chiefly Sunnite Muslims and Eastern Ortho-
western part of the Caucasus Mountains.
nickname, Nosegay Fan, and a street singer.
Employment by a French milliner gave her
dox Christians. —
The languages of this group Abkhaz, Abaza,
Abkhazia, also spelled abkhaziya, republic Adyghian, Kabardian (Circassian), and the
taste in dress and a knowledge of French that
she later found useful. She first appeared on
in northwestern Georgia, between the Black nearly extinct Ubykh —
are noted for the great
Sea (south) and the crest line of the Great number of distinctive consonants and limited
the stage at the Haymarket Theatre, London, number of distinctive vowels in their sound
Caucasus range (north).
in 1755. In 1756 she joined the Drury Lane
Bordering the eastern shores of the Black systems.
company but was overshadowed by Hannah Sea, the republic consists of a narrow coastal
Pritchard and Kitty Clive. After an unfortu- Ableman v. Booth
(1859). case in which the
lowland broken by mountain spurs, followed
nate marriage to her music master in 1759, she U.S. Supreme Court upheld both the consti-
by a hilly foreland zone of eroded marine and tutionality of the Fugitive Slave Act and the
was known as Mrs. Abington. She spent five river terraces that merge into the steep slopes
successful years in Ireland and was then in- supremacy of the federal government over
of the Caucasus Mountains.
vited by David Garrick to rejoin Drury Lane. state governments.
ablution 34 New Hampshire. Later it included some east- Russian throne from the infant empeioi Ivan
ern tribes as south as the Delaware tribe
tar VI. In July 1741 the Swedes declared war
Although thev relied primarily on hunting on Russia, announcing that thev would with-
Sherman Booth was an Abolitionist newspa- and fishing, some corn (maize) was grown draw when Elizabeth became the Russian em-
per editor in Wisconsin who had been sen- throughout the coastal region, more inten- press. Although they lost a major battle at
tenced to jail hv a federal court for assisting sively from north to south. In the north the Vilmanstrand (August 1741), the Swedes ad-
a runaway slave —
a clear violation of the typical dwelling was the birch-bark-covered vanced toward Si. Petersburg; their threat to
1850 Fugitive Slave Act. which required all wigwam occupied by several families. The the Russian capital enabled Elizabeth to stage
Americans to cooperate in the capture and birch-bark canoe was in general use. Game a successful coup d'etat (Dec. 6 [Nov. 25, old
return of escaped slaves. Wisconsin (as well as was taken in snares and traps and by bow and style], 1741); thereupon the Swedes retreated
several other Nonhern states), however, had arrow. Each tribe consisted of small bands into Finland.
responded to the federal act by passing a "per- under a headman, or civil chief, who advised But Elizabeth reneged on the agreement. Rus-
sonal liberty law." severely impeding enforce- but had little compulsory authority, there was sian troops conquered Helsingfors and Abo
ment by federal authorities of the Fugitive a separate war chief. A general council of (modern Turku, then the capital of Finland)
Slave Act within its borders. all the men and women decided matters re- and occupied a large portion of Finland. Hos-
As a consequence. Booth was released on a lating to war; a grand council of chiefs and tilities ended in 1742; Russia, taking advan-
wnt of habeas corpus, issued by a judge of representatives of each family decided other tage of a succession crisis in Sweden, offered
the Wisconsin Supreme Court. U.S. District questions of importance to the group. There to return most of Finland if Sweden would ac-
Marshal Ableman, however, obtained a writ was institutionalized comradeship with mu- cept the Russian-supported candidate —
Adolf
of error from the U.S. Supreme Court in or- tual responsibility, which united two men for Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp-Eutin —
as heir
der to have the state court's action reviewed. life. Belief in a culture hero who will return to apparent.
The Supreme Court rendered a unanimous help the people in time of great need persists The Swedes agreed; the final settlement,
opinion reversing the Wisconsin court. Chief to the present. signed at Abo (August 1743), gave Russia a
Justice Roger B. Taney's opinion denied the Chiefly as a result of missionary influence, strip of southern Finland that included the
right of state courts to interfere in federal beginning in the 17th century the Abnaki cities of Vilmanstrand and Frederikshamn.
cases, prohibited statesfrom releasing federal favoured French interests and carried on a Russian troops were to leave the remainder of
prisoners through writs of habeas corpus, and war against the English. After several severe Finland when Adolf Frederick was officially
upheld the constitutionality of the Fugitive defeats in 1724 and 1725, the Abnaki were designated crown prince; in the meantime,
Slave Act. reduced in number, and most withdrew to Russian forces were to be allowed to occupy
Canada, eventually settling at Saint-Francois- Sweden to make sure that nothing interfered
ablution, in religion, a prescribed washing of
du-Lac in Quebec. The population in the late with his selection. Russia was thus able to ex-
part or all of the body or of possessions, such
20th century was about 5,000. ert a tremendous influence on Swedish affairs.
as clothing or ceremonial objects, with the
But after the peace settlement, Russian influ-
intent of purification or dedication. Water, or Abney, Sir William de Wiveleslie (b. July
water with salt or some other traditional in- 24, 1843, Derby, Derbyshire, Eng. d. Dec. — ence was short-lived; all the Russian troops
were withdrawn from Sweden by July 1744,
gredient, is most commonly used, but washing 3, 1920, Folkestone, Kent), a specialist in the
with blood is not uncommon in the history
and Adolf Frederick quickly ended his depen-
chemistry of photography, especially noted for
of religions, and urine of the sacred cow has
dence on Russia.
his development of a photographic emulsion
been used in India. that he used to map the solar spectrum far
The territorial provisions of the treaty were
longer lasting. In 788, while Russia was at war
1
The devout follower of Shinto, for example, into the infrared.
with Turkey, Sweden tried to alter the treaty's
rinses hands and mouth with water before
approaching a shrine. Monks of the Thera- provisions. King Gustav III, demanding the
vada Buddhist tradition wash themselves in return of Karelia and Finland, declared war
the monastery pool before meditation. The
on Russia (June 1788). Although the Swedes
presented a threat to St. Petersburg and won a
upper-caste Hindu bathes ceremonially in wa-
ter before performing daily morning worship
major victory at Svenskund (July 9-10, 1790,
(puja) in the home. Jewish law requires ritual
new style), the Treaty of Varala (August 1790)
restored the prewar (1788) borders, which re-
immersion of their whole bodies by women
prior to marriage and after menstruation, as
mained as they had been set by the Treaty of
well as by new converts to Judaism. Washing Abo until 1809 (Treaty of Frederikshamn).
of the hands after rising in the morning and ABO blood group system, method of clas-
before meals that include bread are also ex- sifying human blood on the basis of the inher-
amples of ablution in Judaism. The Roman ited properties of red blood cells (erythrocytes)
Catholic priest (and priests of some Orthodox as determined by their possession or lack of
churches) celebrating the eucharistic liturgy the so-called antigens A (including A, and A 2 )
prepares himself by ritual washing of his hands and B. Persons may, thus, have type A, type B,
in the lavabo. Seven days after Baptism those
Abney type O, or type AB blood. (Antigens of other
newly baptized in Eastern Orthodox churches blood group systems may also be present.)
BBC Hullon Picture Library
often go through a ceremony in which holy oil An antigen is a substance that can, in cer-
is washed from the forehead. Among some of Commissioned in the Royal Engineers tain circumstances, excite the production of
the Brethren sects in the rural United States, (1861), he taught chemistry and photogra- a corresponding antibody. An antibody is a
ceremonial foot washing is performed on cer- phy at the School of Military Engineering substance capable of reacting specifically with
tain occasions. Muslim piety requires that the at Chatham. He succeeded to various educa- particular antigens. Blood group antigens are
devout wash their hands, feet, and face before tional posts there and elsewhere. carried on the surface of the red cells.
each of the five daily prayers; the use of sand In 1874 Abney made the first quantitative Blood containing red cells with type A anti-
is permitted where water is unavailable. measurements of the action of light on photo- gen on their surface has in its serum (fluid)
Like most ritual acts, ablution may carry a graphic materials. In 1880 he discovered the antibodies against type B red cells. If, in trans-
wide range of meanings to those who perform photographic developing properties of hydro- fusion, type B blood is injected into persons
it. The stain of ritual uncleanness may be felt quinone. Elected to the Royal Society (1876), with type A blood, the red cells in the injected
to be as real as contamination with unseen he also held posts with other learned societies blood are destroyed by the antibodies in the
germs is for the medically minded; the act of and won various honours. He was knighted in recipient's blood. In the same way, type A
cleansing may be only a gesture, symbolic of 1900. red cells are destroyed by anti-A antibodies in
desired purity of soul. Or, as Carl Jung and
abnormal psychology: see psychopathology.
type B blood. Type Oblood can be injected
others have suggested in studies of uncon- into persons with type A, B, or O blood un-
scious elements in religious symbolism, both Abo (Finland): see Turku. less there is incompatibility with respect to
o
objective and subjective aspects may be fused some other blood group system also present.
in the ritual act.
Abo, Treaty of (1743), peace settlement that
concluded the Russo-Swedish War of 1 74 1 -43 Persons with type AB blood can receive type
Abnaki, also called wabanaki, a confederacy by obliging Sweden to cede a strip of southern A, B, or O blood.
of Algonkian-speaking Indian tribes in north- Finland to Russia and to become temporarily Blood group O is commonest throughout the
east North America, which was organized to world, reaching a frequency of 100 percent in
dependent on Russia. As a result of the Great
furnish resistance and protection against the Northern War (Treaty of Nystad, 1721), Swe- Amerindians of South and Central America
Iroquois League, especially the Mohawk, of den had lost Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, and part and in the southern two-thirds of the United
what is now northern New York state. In States. Type B is high in Asia, with a maxi-
of Karelia to Russia. In 1741 Sweden reached
its earliest known organization it consisted a secret understanding (through French me-
mum in Northern India; it is low in Europe
of tribes east and northeast of present New diators) with Elizabeth, a daughter of Peter
and Africa and absent among American Indi-
York: Malecite in present New Brunswick; ans and in most Australian Aborigines. Type
I the Great; Elizabeth agreed to return the
Passamaquoddy and Penobscot in present Baltic territories to Sweden in exchange for
A is common all over the world and appears
|

Maine; and tribes in present Vermont and Swedish support in her efforts to seize the
to exist to the exclusion of type A among
2
the Australian Aborigines and Eskimos and in The situation in the United States was more 35 abortion
parts of Indonesia, the Pacific, India, Canada, complex because slavery was a domestic
and the northern United States. The world rather than a colonial phenomenon, being the
high occurs among the Blackfoot and Blood social and economic base of the plantations of historical museum are maintained in Abomey.
Indians and surrounding tribes in Alberta and 1 1 Southern states. Moreover, slavery had Pop. (1992) 66,600.
Montana; this concentration in a continent gained new vitality when an extremely prof-
Abominable Snowman, Tibetan yeti,
otherwise so strongly type O is a puzzle that itable cotton-based agriculture developed in
mythical monster supposed to inhabit the Hi-
some scholars believe is evidence for repeated the South in the early 19th century. Reacting
malayas at about the level of the snow line.
waves of migration into the New World from to abolitionist attacks that branded its "pecu-
Though reports of actual sightings of such a
Asia. Gene A 2 reaches a frequency of 50 per- liar institution" as brutal and immoral, the
creature are rare, certain mysterious markings
cent in certain Lapps; it is uncommon or rare South had intensified its system of slave con-
in the snow have traditionally been attributed
elsewhere. trol, particularly afteMhe Nat Turner revolt of
to it. Those not caused by lumps of snow or
Stomach cancer is 20 percent more frequent 1831. By that time, American abolitionists re-
stones falling from higher regions and bounc-
in persons of type A than in people of types O alized the failure of gradualism and persua-
ing across the lower slopes have probably been
or B; pernicious anemia and possibly bron- sion, and they subsequently turned to a more
produced by bears. At certain gaits bears place
chopneumonia in infants are also associated militant policy, demanding immediate aboli-
the hindfoot partly over the imprint of the
with type A. Type O is associated with a 40 tion by law.
forefoot, thus making a very large imprint that
percent higher frequency of duodenal ulcer, Probably the best-known abolitionist was the
looks deceptively like an enormous human
especially in persons who do not secrete water- aggressive agitator William Lloyd Garrison,
footprint positioned in the opposite direction.
soluble antigen (nonsecretors); gastric ulcer is founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society
also more frequent in type O individuals. Ery- (1833-70). Others, drawn from the ranks of Aborigine, Australian: see Australian Abo-
throblastosis fetalis (a type of anemia) occurs the clergy, included Theodore Dwight Weld rigine.
in offspring of ABO-incompatible matings, and Theodore Parker; from the world of let-
abortion, the expulsion of a fetus from the
particularly when the mother is O and the fa- ters, John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell
uterus before it has reached the stage of viabil-
ther A; early loss of embryos is also increased Lowell, and Lydia Maria Child; and, from the
ity (in human beings, usually about the 20th
in ABO-incompatible matings. free-black community, such articulate former
week of gestation). An abortion may occur
The ABO antigens are developed well before slaves as Frederick Douglass and William
spontaneously, in which case it is also called a
birth and remain throughout life. ABO anti- Wells Brown.
miscarriage (q. v.), or it may be brought on pur-
bodies are acquired passively from the mother American abolitionism laboured under the posefully, in which case it is often called an in-
before birth, but by three months the infant is handicap that it threatened the harmony of
duced abortion.
—
making his own it is believed the stimulus North and South in the Union, and it also ran Spontaneous abortions, or miscarriages,
for such antibody formation is from contact counter to the U.S. Constitution, which left
occur for many reasons, including disease,
with ABO-like antigenic substances in nature. the question of slavery to the individual states.
trauma, or genetic or biochemical incompati-
Consequently, the Northern public remained
abolitionism, also called abolition move- bility of mother and fetus. Occasionally a fetus
unwilling to adopt abolitionist policy and was
ment (c. 1783-1888), in western Europe and dies in the uterus but fails to be expelled, a
distrustful of abolitionist extremism. But a
the Americas, the movement chiefly responsi- condition termed a missed abortion.
number of factors combined to give the Induced abortions may be performed for rea-
ble for creating the emotional climate neces-
movement increased momentum. Chief sons that fall into four general categories: to
sary for ending the transatlantic slave trade
among these was the question of permitting or preserve the life or physical or mental well-
and chattel slavery. After the institution of
outlawing slavery in new Western territories,
Roman slavery was gradually converted into being of the mother; to prevent the comple-
with Northerners and Southerners taking in-
that of medieval serfdom, slavery was virtual- tion of a pregnancy that has resulted from rape
creasingly adamant stands on opposite sides of
ly unknown in western Europe until 1442, or incest; to prevent the birth of a child with
that issue throughout the 1840s and '50s.
when the Portuguese brought back black slaves serious deformity, mental deficiency, or genet-
There was also revulsion at the ruthlessness of ic abnormality; or to prevent a birth for social
from the west coast of Africa. Soon after, the
slave hunters under the Fugitive Slave Law
need for plantation labour in the colonies of or economic reasons (such as the extreme
(1850), and the far-reaching emotional re-
North America, South America, and the West youth of the pregnant female or the sorely
sponse to Harriet Beecher Stowe's antislavery
Indies created an immense market for slaves. strained resources of the family unit). By some
novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) further
Between the 15th and 19th centuries, an esti- definitions, abortions that are performed to
strengthened the abolitionist cause.
mated total of 15 million Africans were preserve the well-being of the female or in
Jolted by the raid (1859) of the abolitionist
forcibly transported to the Americas. cases of rape or incest are therapeutic or justi-
extremist John Brown on Harpers Ferry, the
Despite its brutality and inhumanity, the fiable abortions.
South became convinced that its entire way of
slave system aroused little protest until the Numerous medical techniques exist for per-
life, based on the cheap labour provided by
18th century, when rationalist thinkers of the forming abortions. During the first trimester
slaves, was irretrievably threatened by the elec-
Enlightenment began to criticize it for its vio- (up to about 12 weeks after conception), en-
tion to the presidency of Abraham Lincoln
lation of the rights of man, and Quaker and dometrial aspiration, suction, or curettage
(November 1860), who was opposed to the
may be used to remove the contents of the
other evangelical religious groups condemned
spread of slavery into the Western territories.
it for its un-Christian qualities. By the late uterus. In endometrial aspiration, a thin, flex-
The ensuing secession of the Southern states ible tube is inserted up the cervical canal (the
18th century, moral disapproval of slavery was
led to the American Civil War (1861-65). The
widespread, and antislavery reformers won a neck of the womb) and then sucks out the lin-
war, which began as a sectional power struggle
number of deceptively easy victories during ing of the uterus (the endometrium) by means
to preserve the Union, in turn led Lincoln
this period. In Britain, Granville Sharp se- of an pump. This technique is used up
electric
(who had never been an abolitionist) to eman- to the 12th week of pregnancy.
cured a legal decision in 1772 that West Indi-
cipate the slaves in areas of the rebellion by the
an planters could not hold slaves in Britain, In the related but slightly more onerous pro-
Emancipation Proclamation (1863) and led cedure known as dilatation and evacuation
since slavery was contrary to English law. In
further to the freeing of all other slaves in the vacuum
the United States, all of the states north of (also called suction curettage or curet-
United States by the 13th amendment to the tage), the cervical canal enlarged by the in-
Maryland abolished slavery between 1777 and Constitution in 1865.
is

1804. But antislavery sentiments had little ef- sertion of a series of metal dilators while the
Under the pressure of worldwide public opin- patient is after which a rigid
under anesthesia,
fect on the centres of slavery themselves: the
ion, slavery was completely abolished in its
great plantations of the Deep South, the West suction tube inserted into the uterus to
is
last remaining Latin-American strongholds, evacuate its contents. When, in place of suc-
Indies, and South America. Turning their at- Cuba and Brazil, in 1880-86 and 1883-88, re-
tention to these areas, British and American tion, a thin metal tool called a curette is used
spectively. Some slavery still existed in parts of
abolitionists began working in the late 18th to scrape (rather than vacuum out) the con-
Africa and Asia, but the system of African tents of the uterus, the procedure is called di-
century to prohibit the importation of African slavery as a Western phenomenon had ceased
slaves into the British colonies and the United latation and curettage. When combined with
to exist. See also slavery.
States. Under the leadership of William dilatation, both evacuation and curettage can
Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson, these Abomey, town, southern Benin (formerly Da- be used up to about the 1 6th week of preg-
forces succeeded in getting the slave trade to homey). Probably founded in the early 17th nancy.
the British colonies abolished in 1807. The century, it soon became the capital of the king- From 12 to 19 weeks the injection of a saline
United States prohibited the importation of dom of Abomey (later Dahomey), which dom- solution may be used to trigger uterine con-
inated production and trade with the tractions; alternatively, the administration of
slaves that same year, though widespread
smuggling continued until about 1862. European enterprises on the Slave Coast until prostaglandins by injection, suppository, or
Antislavery forces then concentrated on win- the late 19th century. The town is located in other method may be used to induce contrac-
an area where palm nuts and peanuts (ground- tions, but these substances may cause severe
ning the emancipation of those populations al-
ready in slavery. They were triumphant when nuts) are grown; it is connected by road and side effects. Hysterotomy, the surgical removal

slavery was abolished in the British West In- rail to Cotonou, the nation's main commercial of the uterine contents, may be used during
dies by 1838 and in French possessions 10 centre, and to Porto-Novo, the capital. The the second trimester or later. In general, the
years later. Royal Palace, the tombs of the kings, and a more advanced the pregnancy, the greater the
Other documents randomly have
different content
 “What have you that is worth while to me?” asked the King.
“Much. You are threatened in the Ukraine.”
The King thought for some minutes. It rather irked him to give
this man his life since he had already done such damage, but on the
other hand he might be able to obtain some really valuable
information. The whole Ukraine was in some kind of uproar, and
even his most trusted spies had not been able to get to the bottom
of it. The usual method of obtaining information from prisoners in
those days was torture, and in the field of battle it was employed
widely, but often in cases of such desperate men as Peter torture led
them to confess wildly but seldom with truth. The Cossack was
ordinarily a man of his word, and Peter had enough Cossack blood in
him to make him pass for a Cossack in the Ukraine and in the East.
“It pleases me to be merciful to-day,” replied the King. “There
has been too much suffering at my very gates to make me wish for
more. Your death would in no way pay for your crimes, and it is
possible that your information might be of service to the
commonwealth. I could wrest this information from you by torture,
but I prefer an easier way. . . . Now, mark,” he cautioned the
Cossack, “I know certain facts concerning what you have to tell, I
have information from my own men in the Ukraine, and if you utter
so much as one word of a falsehood to me, I will have you taken out
and hanged by the neck from the tower gate. Do you understand?”
“I understand,” answered Peter, turning just a trifle pale at the
threat. He was a bold man, he was a desperate man—otherwise he
would not have ventured back into Krakow after having been
defeated there twice—and he had no fear of death in any form, so
long as he was free and able to fight. But now his knees smote
together at the thought of hanging and he resolved that he would
keep close to the truth. After all, the whole affair was finished for
him. The crystal was in the hands of the King and he was not likely
to part with it easily.
 “One thing,” he said in a low tone, “one thing, your Majesty, I
beg, and that is that you will let none talk of what I say. For if it
were known that I had spoken the truth, my life would not be worth
—that,” he snapped his fingers. “I have your promise, your Majesty.”
“You have.”
“Then hear what I have to say. I am Bogdan, known in the
Ukraine as the Terrible. Two years ago in March I was summoned to
Moscow by one in authority who said that a powerful lord had
something to say to me. Now having an open mind always for new
activities, I went, although our people have but little love for
Muscovites. And there I was taken to one Ivan.”
The King interrupted. “You mean——”
“I mean Ivan himself, chief power among the Muscovites, son of
that blind one. He has the ambition to unite all lands thereabouts
under himself—as Emperor, men say.”
The King bit his lips and his eyes flashed. “This they have told
me,” he exclaimed in an angry voice. “I only wanted the confirmation
of it that you have given me. Ivan—Ivan—that one who makes
friendly proffers to one’s face and strikes in treachery when the back
is turned.” He strode up and down the room for a moment and then
turned to the captive again. His tone was as calm as it had been in
the beginning. “Proceed,” he ordered.
“In this he has partially succeeded, but his ambitions run higher,
and he dreams of establishing his power over the people outside the
borders, the Ruthenians and Lithuanians. Knowing them to be
willingly under Polish domain, however, even the city of Kiev which
fell beneath Tartar rule, he wishes instead to strike a blow at the
Poles in the Ukraine. Some one advised that he loose the Tartars
against the Poles, and an ambassador was even sent to find out
what would induce the Khan to send his warriors to fight the Poles.
The answer that he made was a curious one.”
“And that was——” asked the King.
 “This was his answer. He would lead his Tartars against the Poles
in the Ukraine on one condition, and that was that Ivan should
deliver into his hands the Great Tarnov Crystal.”
At this the whole company started, chief among them Pan
Andrew, for none of them had suspected that such great importance
was even now attached to the stone.
“How did he know of the crystal?” asked the King.
“Every one in the east knows of the Great Tarnov Crystal,”
answered Bogdan. “Every worker of magic, every astrologer, every
chief, every prince, is desirous of possessing this treasure. For it is
said that in addition to being a jewel of great value it has this quality
also, that one may look into it and there read of the future—one
may also find there secrets of great worth, one may see the faces of
men long since in their graves. There are many legends and stories
of it, too, and since the days when it disappeared from Tarnov, when
the Tartars conquered Western lands, there has been search after
search to find it.”
The King thought for a few seconds. “Then the Khan of the
Tartars knew that he was asking Ivan for an impossibility when he
demanded the crystal? Does that mean that he meant to refuse to
go against the Poles?”
“Please—your Majesty—it was no such thing,” Bogdan stated
emphatically. “A short time ago a servant who had left the services
of this man here,” he pointed to Pan Andrew, “went to the land of
the Tartars and there spread the report about, that the crystal was
to be had for the taking, that it was hidden in a country house in the
Ukraine. You may be sure that this reached the ears of the Khan,
whose passion for curious jewels is almost a madness, and when I,
going from Ivan to Tartary, learned this, then Ivan promised the
Khan that he would get him the crystal if it could be gotten.”
“You were the go-between?”
Bogdan bowed.
 “And Ivan sent you to get it from Pan Andrew?”
Bogdan bowed, though not quite so low.
Fire leaped into the King’s eyes. “Dog that you are,” he said.
“Less than beast in all things that Christians believe; for this you
must destroy a man’s house and ruin his fields, yes, and threaten his
life, too, if it would serve your purpose. . . . God knows, my kingly
duties lie heavily upon me. . . . All that I seek in this, my
commonwealth, is peace, peace with my neighbors and happiness
for my people. And yet Poland is ever insulted to the point where
nothing but war is possible. It is not enough that enemies on the
north and west threaten, there must be plots against our happiness
on the south and east. Oh, Poland, Poland, when will the day come
that thy sons and daughters may enjoy the tranquillity that God has
designed for all people? . . . As to you,” he turned again to Bogdan,
“what further have you to say?”
“Only that I have failed,” answered Bogdan miserably. “And only
that I know that I shall go free, for there was never yet Jagiello who
did not keep his word. Though had it not been for this creature
here”—he pointed to the alchemist, who from the rear of the room
had been watching the scene through half-shut eyes—“I should have
had the crystal long ago.”
 The King did not reply. “Take him away,” he said to a guard.
A captain in armor came forward. “Deliver this Bogdan at sunrise
to the guards of the Florian Gate. Tell them to see that he has safe-
conduct through to the border, but that his chains are not to be
struck off until he reaches the frontier. After that let happen what
will, but if he so much as sets foot again upon Polish soil he shall be
hanged to the nearest tree.”
When they had departed, he said to Pan Andrew:
“In this my right and duty of kingship in the Commonwealth of
Poland I commend you most heartily as a man who has been of
great service to his country. It is a most extraordinary and gracious
thing that a family such as yours should be so faithful to its word
through so many years and be willing to suffer so much for an oath
once given. Therefore to you go my whole thanks.”
He took the gold chain from his throat. It was a thing of
wondrous beauty, of heavy solid links cut out of the purest metal.
 “Wear this,” he said placing it with his own hands over Pan
Andrew’s shoulders. “This chain shall ever be to you the token of
your faithfulness. I shall see to it that the state makes return to you
for the property which you have lost, for in so losing it you have
conferred a favor upon us all. Had the crystal been taken by these
thieves and delivered to the Khan of the Tartars it is probably true
that by now the Ukraine had begun to be overrun by Tartars and the
armies of Ivan. In due time I shall see to it that a more formal and
proper reward is given you.”
Here Jan Kanty made a sign that the interview was finished and
the whole company fell upon their knees before the King.
He, too, stooped, but only to pick up the crystal which had lain
upon the floor before him during the entire interview. It seemed to
Joseph, glancing up at that moment, that the instant the King’s eyes
were fixed upon the stone he became suddenly oblivious to
everything else that was before him, and stood as one in a dream or
trance gazing into the depths of the fearsomely beautiful thing.
 CHAPTER XVI
THE LAST OF THE GREAT TARNOV CRYSTAL

J oseph and his father were still kneeling when there came
unexpectedly a certain happening that changed the whole
complexion of the day. It came from the alchemist.
He had been listening attentively through all the talk, he had
followed back and forth the give-and-take of conversation, the
balancing of argument, the gestures, the decisions, even though his
eyes had seemed but half open. Just at this final moment he sprang
up from his place behind the others like a dog leaping for a bone,
and snatched the Tarnov Crystal out of the hands of the King.
Gripping it, he rushed like one gone wholly mad straight for the
door, brushing aside a guard who fell back in astonishment.
“Stop him,” cried Jan Kanty, “he will do something desperate.”
They might better have tried to stop the wind. He was through
the door and out on the balcony and down the steps to the court
below, where the guards, though astonished, had yet no pretext for
seizing him since he was an honored guest, one of the party of Jan
Kanty. Through the little entrance to the court he went at top speed,
just as the King, the scepter bearers, and the guards, followed by
Pan Andrew and Joseph, with Jan Kanty behind, raced along the
balcony and shouted to the guards below. These at once set out in
pursuit, shouting in turn to guards at the farther gates. But the
alchemist was traveling like a hurricane, and passing the men at
arms at the very entrance to the castle, he was off down the slope
to the meadows below where he swung to the left and bore toward
the spot where the Vistula curves about the base of the Wawel.
 Pan Andrew and Joseph continued in pursuit with the guards, but
the King with Jan Kanty, seeing the alchemist’s direction, hurried to
the extreme end of the fortifications where one looks down directly
to the river. At the very water’s edge the alchemist turned and
beckoned to his pursuers to stop, threatening by his motions to
throw himself into the current which at that time of the year was
swollen and swift. They paused, helpless, waiting until he chose to
speak.
“Listen,” he cried, gazing first at the pursuing party that stood
not far distant from him on the shore, and then directly upward
where Jan Kanty and the King were leaning over the wall.
A curious figure he presented as he stood there for a moment in
silence, his garments sadly disordered, his hair twitched hither and
thither by the wind, his features working from emotion—the globe of
amazing beauty in his hands.
“Listen!” His voice now rose shrill and screaming. “It was I that
stole the crystal from Pan Andrew. The first sight of it drove honesty
from my head as it has driven honesty from the heads of many who
have seen it. I saw there all that magicians and astrologers of all
ages have devoutly wished for. I saw there the means of working out
a great name for myself, of becoming famous, of becoming envied
over all the world. I was tempted and I fell, but I shall see to it that
no more trouble comes from this accursed stone.”
He paused, overcome by the effort of so much speaking, but in a
second a flood of wild laughter burst from him. “There was the
student Tring,” he shouted, “yes, Tring—who used to be my student.
Because I looked so much into the crystal my mind grew weak and
he knew and I knew. It was he who said that if we but possessed
the secret of turning brass into gold then we should have power
without stint, and it was he who first directed me to read in the
glass what formula I might find therein for such magic. What did I
find there? . . . Only the reflections of my own crazed brain. And at
last between us we have done nothing but cause want and misery
and suffering all over Krakow. It is because of our madness that half
the city is now but a heap of ashes, that men and women and
children are homeless and in poverty.”
With these words his voice shrank to a wail, and he stood, a
pitiful figure, his shoulders drooping, and his face turned toward the
ground.
“Cease, man! We are thy friends,” shouted the scholar.
“Nay. Such as I have no friends. But”—his shoulders suddenly
straightened—“with such jewels as this that cause strife between
man and man, and war between nation and nation—here—now—I
make an end!”
Then raising himself to such a height that for a moment he
appeared to be a giant, he swung about and hurled the crystal into
the air with all his force.
The sun struck it there as it seemed for a moment to hang
between earth and sky like a glittering bubble or a shining planet.
Then it fell, fell, fell—until it dropped with a splash into the black,
hurried waters of the Vistula River, so that the circles for a moment
beat back the waves of the rushing torrent—then all was as before.
Deep silence fell upon the onlookers. There was in the man’s act
something solemn, something unearthly, something supernatural—
his emotion was so great and the crystal had been such a beauteous
thing; and when Jan Kanty said, “Let us pray,” the whole company
fell upon their knees. When he had finished a simple prayer they
went forward and took up the alchemist where he had fallen, for he
had dropped down as if he had been suddenly overcome by a
sickness. They carried him back to the tower of the Church of Our
Lady Mary where his niece and Pan Andrew’s wife watched over him.

Meanwhile the King called the scholar into conference, and after
much parley, and much weighing of pros and cons, it was decided
that no attempt should be made to rescue the crystal from the bed
of the river. There had been in its history too much of suffering and
misfortune to make it a thing at all desirable to possess, in spite of
the purity of its beauty.
And should its hiding place become known—should a foreign
power again seek to obtain it, what chance had such a power with
the King’s army and the fortified city of the Wawel forever ready in
its defense? Surely never had treasure a safer resting place.
And so to this day it has never been disturbed, though in later
centuries many men have sought for it, and it rests somewhere in
the Vistula River near the Wawel, where the alchemist, Kreutz, threw
it in the year 1462.
Pan Andrew received from the state enough recompense to
rebuild his house in the Ukraine and he repaired there that same
year, taking with him Elzbietka and the alchemist who was broken in
health for a long time as the result of his experiences. When he
came to his senses a few days after he had thrown the crystal into
the river, he had returned to his right mind fully though he had no
remembrance of the dark scenes in which he had played a part. The
student Tring must have left for his home in Germany directly after
the fire, for he was never seen again in Krakow. In later years he
gained some fame in his own native village by the practice of magic,
in which it was said that he often called upon the devil himself for
assistance.
Joseph continued his studies in the university until he reached his
twenty-second year, and then he returned to the Ukraine to manage
his father’s estates. He was shortly afterward married to Elzbietka,
the friend of his boyhood days. . . . And now since we have come to
the happy end of all things in this tale, may we close with the
thought that every Pole carries in his mind—with the words that are
foremost in the Polish National Hymn:

May God Save Poland

 EPILOGUE
THE BROKEN NOTE

I t is the year 1926. The Vistula River now no longer turns at the
Wawel Hill and plunges straight through the Krakow plain
dividing the city of Kazimierz from the city of Krakow, but
instead swings far to the left and surrounds the whole plain, now the
new city. The castles and towers and cathedral of the Wawel still rise
proudly on the hill as in former days; St. Andrew’s which has defied
fire, siege, and war for eight centuries raises its head—two towers—
above Grodzka Street; the old Cloth Hall, beautified during the
Renaissance, still stands in the middle of the central Rynek. And
although the glory of former days is departed from the city and the
kings no longer sit in the castle on the hill, there has come with the
years the growth of a new glory, the glory of culture as seen in the
university of fourteenth century origin, in the schools of fine arts and
music and handicraft and trade. From all Poland come students to
study and to live in this venerable city, which is Gothic in every
corner and every gable save where here and there a bit of
Romanesque wall or arch has survived the Tartar, or the Cossack, or
the Swede.
But the chief glory of the city is the Church of Our Lady Mary. It
no longer stands apart, a monument visible from afar as of old—
other palaces and buildings have shut it in, and one sees its towers
only, until one is close upon it. Then the sudden magnificence leaps
upon the visitor. A splendid silence lurking in its high roof descends
suddenly like the thousands of pigeons that thunder down for
particles of bread. Beneath one’s feet is the old city cemetery; there
on the walls are the tablets and shrines; there at the south doorway
are the iron collars that once clasped the throats of petty criminals
as they stood supplicating the prayers and pennies of the faithful.
Inside, the church is a veritable miracle of beauty. Above its
exquisite wood carvings and choir rises a vaulted roof of sky blue,
studded with stars. Images of stone look down from breaks in the
Gothic fluting—tablets, banners, altars, shrines all strike alike upon
the sight in amazing beauty.
But listen: is the organ playing? Whence come those notes that
float down from above like God’s own music from heaven? They
come from the towers, for the hour is striking on the bell, and a
trumpeter is playing at one of the open tower windows. And that
tune? It is the Heynal, the same tune played by a young man so
many centuries ago when the Tartars burned the city—and listen,
the trumpeter breaks off his song in the middle of a note. . . . Four
times he sounds the Heynal, once at each of the four windows,
west, south, east, north. And many a man or woman or child on
hearing that song thinks of the days when the young life was given
to country and God and duty. . . . Poland has been through many
fires since that time—she has had centuries of war, a century of
extinction. But in all that time the Heynal has sounded with each
passing hour and men have sworn each year to keep the custom
unto the very end of time. Hark, it is sounding now.
May it bring in an epoch of peace to all men!
 NOTES

T he author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to the

following persons for their services in aiding his research:
Professor Roman Dyboski of the English Department of the
University of Krakow; Director Frederic Papee of the university
library, and his assistants, Dr. Sophia Ameisen and Dr. Wojciech
Gelecki; Director Adam Chmiel of the Old Archives Building; Miss
Helene d’Abancour de Franqueville of the library of the Krakow
Academy; Miss Helena Walkowicz, a student in the university, and
Madame Sophia Smoluchowska of Krakow.
The Aqua Phosphorata mentioned on page 108 was a luminous
liquid compounded by the alchemist. Phosphorus as we know it to-
day was first made by Brandt in 1699. In 1602, however, Scipio
Begatello exploited the qualities of the famous Bologna Stone and its
luminous qualities, discovered by Vincenzo Cascariolo about 1595,
and there are other suggestions that similar substances were used
by earlier alchemists and magicians.
In the illustrations Miss Pruszynska has followed faithfully
fifteenth and sixteenth century models. Two old volumes, the Codex
of Baltazar Behem in the University Library, and the Pontifical Ciolka
in the Czartoryski Museum, Krakow, have furnished the models for
the dress, architecture, customs, and colors. For greater detail in
dress, the book of the celebrated Polish artist, Matejko, Costumes in
Poland of Other Days, was the authority. The decorations of the
illustrations are in the style of the Wit Stwosz altarpieces of the
Church of Our Lady Mary.
In the Iuramenta or Book of Oaths in the Old Archives of the City
of Krakow may be found the modified oath of the Krakow trumpeters
as it existed in the year 1671. It had been enlarged and translated
from Latin into Polish. In 1740 the Book of Oaths was rebound in the
form in which it now exists. Appended is a translation of the oath.

IURAMENTUM TUBICINIS

“I swear to Almighty God that I will be obedient to their

honors the gentlemen of the Krakovian council, and faithful
to the whole city in the service which I render with the
trumpet, also that I will be diligent scrupulously in keeping
watch, to the extent of my duties, to wit: the sounding of
the alarm of fire whenever and wherever it appears, in the
city, or behind the city, likewise to sound upon the trumpet
the hours of the night and day (appointed), and without the
permission of his honor the Burgomaster I will sound the
trumpet at no man’s request. I will be clean in all things
and watch the fires in the tower. And all this observe which
belongs to my duties, so help me God.”

THE END

TRANSCRIBER NOTES

Misspelled words and printer errors have been

corrected. Where multiple spellings occur, majority use has
been employed.
Punctuation has been maintained except where obvious
printer errors occur.
[The end of The Trumpeter of Krakow by Eric Philbrook Kelly]
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRUMPETER
OF KRAKOW ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying
copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of
Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything
for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund
from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law
in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated
with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this
agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached
full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge
with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the
terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears,
or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning
of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or
expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or
a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original
“Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must
include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in
paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive
from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for

the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3,
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the
Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim
all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR
NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR
BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK
OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL
NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT,
CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF
YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving
it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or
entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide
a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation,

the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation,
anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with
the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the
following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or
any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission

of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many
small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to
maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About

Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookultra.com