POWER THEFT IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM IN

DISTRIBUTION LINES USING DIFFERENTIAL

POWER MEASUREMENT
A Main project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Submitted by

K. JOHN GILMOUR (18095A0214)

G. ANJUM (17091A0203)
T. CHANDRAVADHAN REDDY (17091A0212)
CH. PRAKASH (18095A0226)
M. SAI CHARAN REDDY (17091A0254)
P. VENKATA VASANTH SAI (17091A0279)
Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Mr.E.Narasimhulu,M.Tech.

Assistant Professor in Dept. of E.E.E

RGMCET

(ESTD-1995)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

RAJEEV GANDHI MEMORIAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)

(Affiliated to JNTU- Anantapuramu, Approved by AICTE-New Delhi,

Accredited by NBA-New Delhi, Accredited by NAAC of UGC with ‘A+’
Grade) NANDYAL-518501, KURNOOL (DIST.), A.P.

2017-2021
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We earnestly take the responsibility to acknowledge the following distinguished

personalities who graciously allowed us to carry out our project work successfully.

We express my gratitude to Mr. E. NARASIMHULU, Associate Professor, in

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, RGMCET, Nandyal for his precious
suggestions apart from general guidance, constant encouragement throughout my work, without
which it would probably not possible for me to bring out the project in this form.

We are thankful to our Head of the Department and Professor Dr.V.Naga Bhaskar
Reddy, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, RGMCET, Nandyal, for
providing us with good facilities and moral support throughout the course.

We are thankful to our principal Dr.T.Jaya Chandra Prasad, who has encouraged and
motivated me to complete the project by providing all necessary facilities to carry out the work
in the college.

We thank our honorable chairman Dr.M.Santhi Ramudu, for providing us with good
faculty and his moral support throughout the course.

A heart full and sincere gratitude to our beloved parents for their tremendous motivation
and moral support. Finally we express our gratitude to our friends and others who have helped us
directly and indirectly in carrying our project work successfully.

Project Associates

K. JOHN GILMOUR (18095A0214)

G. ANJUM (17091A0203)
T. CHANDRAVADHAN REDDY (17091A0212)
CH. PRAKASH (18095A0226)
M. SAI CHARAN REDDY (17091A0254)
P. VENKATA VASANTH SAI (17091A0279)
 ABSTRACT

Science and technology with all its miraculous advancements has fascinated human life to
a great extent that imagining a world without these innovations is hardly possible. While
technology is on the raising slope, we should also note the increasing immoral activities.
With a technical view, “Power Theft” is a non-ignorable crime that is highly prevalent,
and at the same time it directly affects the economy of a nation..
This project is designed to find out such power theft in the normal distribution lines. This
project is using the principle of the differential protection scheme for the identification of
the power theft. The differential protection scheme consists of two CTs (current
transformers) connected at both the terminals of the load. If there is no fault in the load
then the secondary currents of both the CTs will be same. Using the same principle one
CT is connected at the starting end of the distributor and the remaining other CT is
connected to the different loads which are legal. If there is no power theft in the line then
the vector sum of all the CT’s which are connected to the load will be equal to the current
in the main CT. if there is a difference then we can make out that it should either be the
power theft or a fault in the line.
 CONTENTS
CONTENTS i

LIST OF FIGURES ii

LIST OF TABLES iii

Page No.

CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION 1-4

1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Methodology 3
1.2.1 Factors that influence illegal consumers 3
1.2.2 Methods of theft 3
1.2.3 Effects of electricity theft 3
1.3 Literature Survey 4

CHAPTER-2: DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS 5-43

2.1 Arduino Nano 6
2.1.1 Features 10

2.2 LED (Light Emitting Diode)Indicators 11

2.3 Wires 13

2.4 PCB (Printed Circuit Board) 13

2.4.1 Characteristics 16

2.5 Resistor 17

2.5.1 Types of Resistors 17

2.5.2 Applications 18

2.6 Switch 20

2.7 Potentiometer 21

2.7.1 Types of Potentiometers 23

2.7.1.1 Rotatory Potentiometer 23

2.7.1.2 Linear Potentiometer 24

2.7.2 Applications of Potentiometer 25

 2.8 Transistor (BC547) 26

2.8.1 BC 547 Transistor Pin Configuration 27

2.8.2 Features 27

2.8.3 Precautions of Transistor 28

2.8.4 Applications 28

2.9 LCD 29

2.10 Relay 30

2.10.1 Features 30

2.11 Step-Down Transformer 32

2.11.1 Working Principle of Transformer 33

2.11.2 Specifications 34

2.11.3 Applications 34

2.12 Rectifiers 34

2.12.1 Diode 34

2.12.2 Capacitors 35

2.12.3 Bridge Rectifier 36

2.12.4 Advantages of Bridge Rectifier 38

2.13 Voltage Sensor Module 38

2.13.1 Description 38

2.13.2 Features 38

2.14 Buzzer 41

2.14.1 Features and Specifications 41

2.14.2 Applications 42

2.15 7805 Voltage Regulator 42

2.15.1 Features 42

CHAPTER-3: WORKING PROCEDURE 44-47

3.1 Working 45
3.2 Block Diagram Explanation 46
 CASE-1 When theft load is not connected 47
CASE-2 When theft load is connected 47

CHAPTER-4: APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES 48-49

4.1 Advantages 49
4.2 Applications 49
CHAPTER-5: RESULT AND CONCLUSION 50-52
5.1 Results 51
5.2 Conclusion 52
5.3 Future Work 52
APPENDIX 53-56
Program 53
REFERENCES 57
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Name Page No.

Fig.2.1 Arduino nano pinout 6

Fig.2.2 Arduino Nano Chip 7
Fig.2.3 Arduino chip description 9
Fig.2.4 Led schematic symbol and V-I characteristics 12
Fig.2.5 Light Emitting Diode 12
Fig.2.6 Wires 13
Fig.2.7 PCB 16
Fig.2.8 Resistor 17
Fig.2.9 Colour Coding of Resistor 19
Fig.2.10 Types of Switches 21
Fig.2.11 Potentiometer 22
Fig.2.12 Symbol and Construction of potentiometer 22
Fig.2.13 Rotatory potentiometers 23
Fig.2.14 Linear potentiometer 24
Fig.2.15 Circuit diagram of potentiometer as a Voltage Divider 25
Fig.2.16 BC547 Transistor 26
Fig.2.17 Pin Description of LCD 29
Fig.2.18 Relay and Internal Circuit of Relay 31
Fig.2.19 Step-Down Transformer and Circuit Diagram 32
Fig.2.20 Step Down Transformer 33
Fig.2.21 Diode 35
Fig.2.22 Capacitors 36
Fig.2.23 Bridge Rectifier 36
Fig.2.24 Bridge Rectifier During Positive Cycle 36
Fig.2.25 Bridge Rectifier During Negative Cycle 37
Fig.2.26 Bridge Rectifier Output 37
Fig.2.27 Bridge Rectifier Output with Capacitor 37
Fig.2.28 Voltage Sensor Module and Voltage Sensor Module pinout 38
Fig.2.29 Circuit Diagram of the Voltage Sensor Module 39
Fig.2.30 Connection Diagram 40
Fig.2.31 Buzzer 41
Fig.2.32 LM7805 Pin Diagram 42
Fig.3.1 Block Diagram 45
Fig.5.1 practical circuit of the power theft identification system using 51
Differential Power Measurement
Fig.5.2 when there is no power theft that is no illegal load is added and 51
the voltage is displayed on the LCD screen
Fig.5.3 when there is power theft that is illegal load is added, so illegal 51
bulb is blown and the voltage is displayed on the LCD screen
Fig.5.4 when theft load that is illegal load is added, In the LCD “Load 51
Theft Detected” is displayed on the screen

LIST OF TABLES

Table Name Page no

Fig.2.1 Specifications of Arduino nano 11
Fig.2.2 Rotatory Potentiometers types and Applications 24
Fig.2.3 Linear Potentiometers types and Applications 25
Fig.2.4 Pin Description of LCD 30
Fig.2.5 Voltage Sensor Module pinout Configuration 39
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

DEPT. OF EEE, RGMCET Page 1

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
According to the survey, INDIAN POWER SYSTEM faces loss of about
30% of its total production of electricity. This loss is very high which takes place
because of transmission losses, electricity theft, etc. Major portion of its losses is due
to power theft. Power theft is done by taking tapping or hooking from transmission
line or by from the meters. Generally this type of power theft is seen in residential
area which can’t be easily detected as this type of theft is done during night hours.
Moreover, this kind of power theft causes unbalance/overloading of three phases of
distribution transformer. Due to unbalance/overloading condition, the transformer is
damaged due to heating of the overloaded phase. This project based on protection of
transformer from overloading due to theft of power. Basically, it consists of power
board where three phases enters through which the load is supplied instead of taking
tapping from nearby line passing. The power board also contains meter or the current
detector which will compare the outgoing current and the consumed current by the
customer (power delivered and power consumed). If the both the power is different
(which ultimately tells about the power theft) then, the meter will send information
about the area and pole immediately from where losses/theft is being carried out. Also,
it will secure the distribution transformer from unbalance condition. When any of the
three phases of distribution is unbalance or overloaded, this system will try to balance
the three phases which ultimately save the transformer from tripping. As the
transformer is tripped it takes about an hour to get restarted which will affect the
consumers if they are doing some important work or they are in the lift. This system
tries to balance the three phases and prevent from overloading by shifting the load of
loaded phase to the least loaded phase. If all the phases are loaded then this system
will send signal to the transformer for tap changing which will try to compensate the
load.

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CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 METHODOLOGY

1.2.1 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ILLEGAL CONSUMERS:

There are many factors that encourage people to steal electricity. Of which
socio- economic factors influences people to a great extent in stealing electricity. A
common notion in many people is that, it is dishonest to steal something from their
neighbour but not from the state or public owned utility company. In addition, other
factors that influence illegal consumers are:
• Higher energy prices deject consumers from buying electricity.
. In light of this, rich and highly educated communities also steal electricity to escape
from huge utility bills.
• Growing unemployment rate show severe

1.2.2 METHODS OF THEFT:

Methods used to commit theft fall into the Following broad categories: a.
Connection of supply without a meter Connection of supply without a meter
following disconnection for non-payment or by “squatters” occupying empty properties.
b. By passing the meter with a cable. It coveted into the supply side of the metering
installation (i.e. the meter terminals, the metering cables, the cut-out or the service
cable). c. Interfering with the meter to slow or stop The disc, including use of
electrical devices which stop the meter or cause it to reverse (so-called 'black boxes).
d. Interfering with the timing control Equipment used for two rate tariffs to obtain a
cheaper rate. Methods (c) and (d) usually involve removal of official (certification)
seals and/or company seals. there effect on the customer’s economic situation.

1.2.3 EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY THEFT:

Negative effects of electricity theft are severe and dangerous. Primarily,
electricity theft affects the utility company and then its customers. In addition, electricity
theft overloads the generation unit. In energy market, utility companies expect their
money back from the customers for the electricity supplied, most of which is lost by
them due to the NTL (Non technical losses).Electricity theft is a serious concern for
utility companies as they are under threat of survival because of these incurring
economic losses. It is evident that some utility companies in developing countries are
losing about 10 to 30 percent of their total revenue, which shows that they could not
DEPT. OF EEE, RGMCET Page 3
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

invest on measures to reduce the electricity theft. These economic losses affect the utility
company’s interest in development of the devices in view of improving paint he quality of
supply or for electrification process.

1.3 LITERATURE SURVEY

Following is the brief description of work done on theft detection models by various
researchers:-

[1] The paper uses the approach based on power line communication principle which is use
for detecting theft in electricity. A high frequency signal is introduced in the distribution
network which changes its amplitude and frequency as the load in the lines increases or
decreases. The changes will be detected through the gain detectors if any illegal connection is
made between the poles then there will be modification in the values of gain and through
which the illegal connection in the electricity will be discovered and proper action will be
taken by the authorities to neutralize such connection but this approach is not tried for the
theft detection for the customers illegal use and it is infrastructure based.

[2] Uses the concept of customer’s historic usage pattern of electricity to create the user load
profiling information which is used to detect the unusual flow of electricity and thus provides
the class of customers which could be further synthesized to detect possible fraud customers.
The paper uses many concepts like Extreme Learning Machine, Support Vector Machine.
There are various process carried out in these process of detection. Firstly the usage data of
customers is pre-processed. The processing is done in three steps Data Selection, Data
Separation and Data Normalization. Then there is the process of feature selection which
automatically takes the important features of the data. Then the data is categorized by the
abnormal usage patterns by using ELM. Then the categorized data is further classified by
SVM to detect the possible fraud in electricity. But as we are using SVM. The accuracy of
detection decreases as SVM is not accurate in classifying data to the extent so there is
possibility of getting failure in detection of fraud.

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

CHAPTER-2
DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

2.1 Arduino Nano:
Arduino is an open-source prototyping platform based on easy-to-use hardware
and software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button,
or a Twitter message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED,
publishing something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of
instructions to the microcontroller on the board. It is like the brain of a project.
Because it is so flexible and open source, Arduino is the best solution if you are interested in
creating interactive objects or environments no matter you are artists, designers or hobbyists.
One of Seeed Studio’s motto is “Grow the Difference”, which has now become part of the
culture of the company. This is not just reflected from what we are doing in popularizing
open source culture, but also from our products. Ever since the company funded, we are
continuously creating our own open platform to differentiate from the existing one.
Here at Seeed, you can find not only Arduino boards, such as Arduino Nano and Arduino
Mega, but also many boards that derived from Arduino such as Seeeduino, a joint effort by
Seeed Studio and Arduino. Seeeduino is compatible with Arduino while has more powerful
functions and lower price. To start with, you can try the latest version Seeeduino V4.2 or
Seeeduino Mega that corresponding to Arduino Mega.

Fig.2.1 Arduino nano pinout

Arduino is an open-source platform used for building electronics projects. Arduino consists
of both a physical programmable circuit board (often referred to as a microcontroller) and a
piece of software, or IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that runs on your computer,
used to write and upload computer code to the physical board.

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The Arduino platform has become quite popular with people just starting out with
electronics,and for good reason. Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, the
Arduino does not need a separate piece of hardware (called a programmer) in order to load
new code onto the board – you can simply use a USB cable. Additionally, the Arduino IDE
uses a simplified version of C++, making it easier to learn to program. Finally, Arduino
provides a standard form factor that breaks out the functions of the micro-controller into a
more accessible package.

Fig. 2.2. Arduino Nano Chip

• The micro-USB connector is not soldered to the board very well and is easily broken.
There are multiple versions of this board with different connectors. Refer to the pictures for
examples. You can increase the strength by re-soldering the connector and possibly covering
the connector in epoxy glue or hot-melt glue.
• The 3.3V voltage regulator is a very small, knock-off device. It overheats quickly and
often has no thermal protection, feeding through its input voltage when it fails.
It's recommended to power external components with another regulator so that the power
draw on the Blue Pill does not exceed 100 mA.
• Analogue power and ground is connected directly to digital power and ground, which can
cause additional noise on the ADC input.
• The reset button on some of these boards is very hard to press.
• There is no dedicated USB reset circuitry on this board.
• There is no Schottky diode between USB +5V and system VIN power. So you cannot
power the board directly from a 5 Volt supply, and use USB at the same time.
• Most bluepill boards have the wrong pullup resistor value which prevents native USB
from working properly. The R10 resistor should have a value of 1k5 and be pulled up to
3v3. In spite of this flaw, native USB will work on some PCs. Try the board on your PC
before you bother changing the resistor.

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

• Microcontroller:- most of the arduino board makes use of Atmel AVR.

Microcontroller is the place where all your codes stored and executed.
Microcontroller used in most commonly used arduino UNO is the ATmega328p.

• Pins:- these pins are used to make connections with sensors and module. Common
pins on arduino boards are 5V, 3.3V, GND, Digital, PWM, Analog, AREF.

• Power supply and USB:- USB is used to upload the code onto your arduino board
along with it you can power your arduino board via USB but it might not be always
handy to power your arduino with USB in that case you can use barrel jack which is
provided for power supply. A power supply anywhere between 6-12 volt will be good
to power your arduino.

• (Note:-Do Not use a power supply greater than 20 volt which might overpower your
arduino and destroy it.)

• Reset button:- this button is used to restart your arduino and make it to run the code
from the beginning.

• Power LED indicator:- on the arduino board you will find a LED just next to 'ON'
this LED glows when you connect your arduino to a power supply. If this LED does
not glow either there is problem in the board or you have not connected the arduino
board with power supply properly.

• RX and TX LED:- first of all RX and TX is short term for receive and transmit
respectively. When ever there is data transfer while uploading code or communicating
with bluetooth module etc these LED glow.

• Voltage regulator:- this controls the amount of voltage which is let into arduino by
turning away extra voltage which may dame our board. This regulator also has a limit
so Do Not burn up arduino by supplying power more than 20 volts.

• Arduino NANO:- the main feature of this board is its size ,it is very small when
compared to an arduino UNO but it is capable of doing most of the thing which any
other Arduino board can do.

• Arduino Mega 2560 Rev3:- This board is used for more complex projects as it has
54 digital pins and 16 analog pins.
Arduino clones
• There are many clone version of arduino which are way cheaper than the original
board. I would recommend a clone arduino for beginners as it serves the same
purpose but at lower cost. Once you are familiar with it you can go for original made
in Italy arduino boards.

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

`The Arduino Nano is a small, complete, and breadboard-friendly board based on the
ATmega328 (Arduino Nano 3.0) or ATmega168 (Arduino Nano 2.x). It has more or less the
same functionality of the Arduino Duemilanove, but in a different package. It lacks only a
DC power jack, and works with a Mini-B USB cable instead of a standard one. The Nano
was designed and is being produced by Gravitech. The Nano 328 is a small, complete, and
breadboard-friendly board based on the ATmega328 (Arduino Nano 3.0) or ATmega168
(Arduino Nano 2.x).It have an integrated on-board USB. As the function, It has almost all the
analog and digital pins that the UNO or Duemilanove has and the same function as
Duemilanove or UNO. This Nano 328(Arduino compatible) can go with the IO Shield for
Arduino Nano, it would be more friendly and convenient for users to enter the Arduino world
and make use of Arduino to make their dream into reality. As an upgrade version of Arduino
Nano, This Nano 328 is 100% compatible to Arduino Nano and its shield and IDEs. On the
hardware part, remarkable changes are taken to improve the flexibility and user
experience. The Arduino Nano is a small, complete, and breadboard-friendly board
based on the ATmega328P (Arduino Nano 3.x). It has more or less the same
functionality of the Arduino Duemilanove, but in a different package. It lacks only a
DC power jack, and works with a Mini-B USB cable instead of a standard one.

Fig 2.3.Arduino chip description

Arduino board designs use a variety of microprocessors and controllers. The boards are
equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to
various expansion boards or breadboards (shields) and other circuits. The boards feature

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

serial communications interfaces, including Universal Serial Bus (USB) on some models,
which are also used for loading programs from personal computers. The microcontrollers are
typically programmed using a dialect of features from the programming
languages C and C++. In addition to using traditional compiler tool chains, the Arduino
project provides an integrated development environment (IDE) based on
the Processing language project.

The Arduino project started in 2003 as a program for students at the Interaction Design
Institute Ivrea in Ivrea, Italy, aiming to provide a low-cost and easy way for novices and
professionals to create devices that interact with their environment
using sensors and actuators. Common examples of such devices intended for beginner
hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats and motion detectors.

The name Arduino comes from a bar in Ivrea, Italy, where some of the founders of the
project used to meet. The bar was named after Arduino of Ivrea, who was the margrave of
the March of Ivrea and King of Italy from 1002 to 1014

2.1.1 Features

1. Power OK blue LED, RST red LED for reset the Nano.

2. Green (TX), red (RX) and orange (L) LED

3. Upgraded 5V voltage sourcing, more powerful drive capability.

4. Mini-B USB for programming and serial monitor, TX&RX breakout for application
as USB-UART convertor.

5. Surface-Mount ICSP header

6. Standard 0.1” spacing DIP (Breadboard Friendly)

7. Power OK red LED, Green (TX), green (RX) and green (L) LED

8. Upgraded 5V voltage sourcing, more powerful drive capability

9. Mini-B USB for programming and serial monitor, TX&RX breakout for application
as USB-UART convertor

10. Surface-Mount ICSP header

Standard 2.54mm spacing DIP (breadboard friendly)

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

Microcontroller ATmega328P – 8 bit AVR family

microcontroller

Operating Voltage 5V

Recommended Input Voltage for Vin pin 7-12V

Analog Input Pins 6(A0-A5)

Digital I/O Pins 14(Out of which 6 provide PWM output)

DC Current on I/O Pins 40mA

DC Current on 3.3V Pin 50mA

Flash Memory 32KB(2 KB is used for Bootloader)

SRAM 2KB

Frequency(Clock Speed) 16 MHz

EEPROM 1KB

Communication IIC, SPI< USART

Dimensions 0.73" x 1.70"

Table.2.1 Specifications of Arduino nano

2.2. LED Indicators:

A “Light Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically a specialised

type of PN junction diode, made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor
material. When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction
band recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce
photons which emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light. Three LED’S are visible in the
design as indicators.

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

Fig.2.4 Led schematic symbol and I-V characteristics curves showing the different
colours available
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as practical
electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness.

Fig.2.5. Light Emitting Diode

When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with holes within
the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence
and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the
energy band gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and
integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many
advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer
lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. However, LEDs

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current
and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

2.3. Wires:
A jump wire (also known as jumper, jumper wire, jumper cable, DuPont wire, or DuPont
cable – named for one manufacturer of them) is an electrical wire or group of them in a cable
with a connector or pin at each end (or sometimes without them – simply "tinned"), which is
normally used to interconnect the components of a breadboard or other prototype or test
circuit, internally or with other equipment or components, without soldering.

Fig:2.6 Wires
2.4. PCB:

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically

connects electrical or electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other
features etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto and/or between sheet
layers of a non-conductive substrate. Components are generally soldered onto the PCB to
both electrically connect and mechanically fasten them to it.

Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. They are also used
in some electrical products, such as passive switch boxes.

Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction, both once popular
but now rarely used. PCBs require additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but
manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Electronic computer-aided design software is
available to do much of the work of layout. Mass-producing circuits with PCBs is cheaper
and faster than with other wiring methods, as components are mounted and wired in one
operation. Large numbers of PCBs can be fabricated at the same time, and the layout only has
to be done once. PCBs can also be made manually in small quantities, with reduced benefits.

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

PCBs can be single-sided (one copper layer), double-sided (two copper layers on both sides
of one substrate layer), or multi-layer (outer and inner layers of copper, alternating with
layers of substrate). Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density, because
circuit traces on the inner layers would otherwise take up surface space between components.
The rise in popularity of multilayer PCBs with more than two, and especially with more than
four, copper planes was concurrent with the adoption of surface mount technology. However,
multilayer PCBs make repair, analysis, and field modification of circuits much more difficult
and usually impractical.

A basic PCB consists of a flat sheet of insulating material and a layer of copper foil,
laminated to the substrate. Chemical etching divides the copper into separate conducting lines
called tracks or circuit traces, pads for connections, vias to pass connections between layers
of copper, and features such as solid conductive areas for electromagnetic shielding or other
purposes. The tracks function as wires fixed in place, and are insulated from each other by air
and the board substrate material. The surface of a PCB may have a coating that protects the
copper from corrosion and reduces the chances of solder shorts between traces or undesired
electrical contact with stray bare wires. For its function in helping to prevent solder shorts,
the coating is called solder resist or solder mask.

A printed circuit board can have multiple copper layers. A two-layer board has copper on
both sides; multi layer boards sandwich additional copper layers between layers of insulating
material. Conductors on different layers are connected with vias, which are copper-plated
holes that function as electrical tunnels through the insulating substrate. Through-hole
component leads sometimes also effectively function as vias. After two-layer PCBs, the next
step up is usually four-layer. Often two layers are dedicated as power supply and ground
planes, and the other two are used for signal wiring between components.

"Through hole" components are mounted by their wire leads passing through the board and
soldered to traces on the other side. "Surface mount" components are attached by their leads
to copper traces on the same side of the board. A board may use both methods for mounting
components. PCBs with only through-hole mounted components are now uncommon.
Surface mounting is used for transistors, diodes, IC chips, resistors and capacitors. Through-
hole mounting may be used for some large components such as electrolytic capacitors and
connectors.

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The pattern to be etched into each copper layer of a PCB is called the "artwork". The etching
is usually done using photo resist which is coated onto the PCB, then exposed to light
projected in the pattern of the artwork. The resist material protects the copper from
dissolution into the etching solution. The etched board is then cleaned. A PCB design can be
mass-reproduced in a way similar to the way photographs can be mass-duplicated from film
negatives using a photographic printer.

In multi-layer boards, the layers of material are laminated together in an alternating

sandwich: copper, substrate, copper, substrate, copper, etc.; each plane of copper is etched,
and any internal vias (that will not extend to both outer surfaces of the finished multilayer
board) are plated-through, before the layers are laminated together. Only the outer layers
need be coated; the inner copper layers are protected by the adjacent substrate layers.

FR-4 glass epoxy is the most common insulating substrate. Another substrate material
is cotton paper impregnated with phenolic resin, often tan or brown.

When a PCB has no components installed, it is less ambiguously called a printed wiring
board (PWB) or etched wiring board. However, the term "printed wiring board" has fallen
into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit
assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA). In informal
usage, the term "printed circuit board" most commonly means "printed circuit assembly"
(with components). The IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card
assembly (CCA),[4] and for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. "Card" is
another widely used informal term for a "printed circuit assembly". For example, expansion
card.

A PCB may be "silkscreen" printed with a legend identifying the components, test points, or
identifying text. Originally, an actual silkscreen printing process was used for this purpose,
but today other, finer quality printing methods are usually used instead. Normally the screen
printing is not significant to the function of the PCBA.

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Fig.2.7.PCB

A minimal PCB for a single component, used for prototyping, is called a breakout board. The
purpose of a breakout board is to "break out" the leads of a component on separate terminals
so that manual connections to them can be made easily. Breakout boards are especially used
for surface-mount components or any components with fine lead pitch.

Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate.

2.4.1 Characteristics:

The first PCBs used through-hole technology, mounting electronic components

by leads inserted through holes on one side of the board and soldered onto copper traces on
the other side. Boards may be single-sided, with an unplated component side, or more
compact double-sided boards, with components soldered on both sides. Horizontal
installation of through-hole parts with two axial leads (such as resistors, capacitors, and
diodes) is done by bending the leads 90 degrees in the same direction, inserting the part in the
board (often bending leads located on the back of the board in opposite directions to improve
the part's mechanical strength), soldering the leads, and trimming off the ends. Leads may
be soldered either manually or by a wave soldering machine.

Through-hole manufacture adds to board cost by requiring many holes to be drilled

accurately, and it limits the available routing area for signal traces on layers immediately
below the top layer on multi-layer boards, since the holes must pass through all layers to the
opposite side. Once surface-mounting came into use, small-sized SMD components were
used where possible, with through-hole mounting only of components unsuitably large for
surface-mounting due to power requirements or mechanical limitations, or subject to

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mechanical stress which might damage the PCB (e.g. by lifting the copper off the board
surface).

2.5. RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance
as a circuit element.

Fig.2.8 Resistor
The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's
terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:
V=IR (4.1)
Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in
units of ohms. The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of
current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant
(independent of the voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings. Resistors are
common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as
well as resistance wire (wire made of a high- resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).
Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can
also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
2.5.1 Types of Resistors:

There are many thousands of different Types of Resistors and are produced in a variety of
forms because their particular characteristics and accuracy suit certain areas of application,
such as High Stability, High Voltage, High Current etc., or are used as general purpose
resistors where their characteristics are less of a problem. All modern fixed value resistors
can be classified into four broad groups, Carbon Composition Resistor - Made of carbon dust

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or graphite paste, low wattage values. Film or Cermet Resistor - Made from conductive metal
oxide paste, very low wattage values. Wire-wound Resistor - Metallic bodies for heat sink
mounting, very high wattage ratings.

Semiconductor Resistor - High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology.

Resistance Color Code: In order to identify the nominal resistance and the tolerance of a
resistor, manufacturers typically use a color band system known as the resistor color code.
The electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components,
usually for resistors. The power rating is not indicated in the resistor color code and must be
determined by experience using the physical size of the resistor as a guide. For resistors with
5% or 10% tolerance, the color code consists of 4 color bands. For resistors with 1%
or 2% tolerance, the color code consists of 5 bands. Tight tolerance resistors may have
three bands for significant figures rather than two, or an additional band indicating
temperature coefficient, in units of ppm/K.

2.5.2 Application:

Resistors are used with transducers to make sensor subsystems. Transducers are electronic
components which convert energy from one form into another, where one of the forms of
energy is electrical. Microphones and switches are input transducers. Output transducers
include loudspeakers, filament lamps and LEDs.

In other circuits, resistors are used to direct current flow to particular parts of the circuit, or
may be used to determine the voltage gain of an amplifier. Resistors are used with capacitors
to introduce time delays.

Most electronic circuits require resistors to make them work properly and it is obviously
important to find out something about the different types of resistor available, and to be able
to choose the correct resistor value, in Ω,KΩ or MΩ for a particular application.

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Fig:2.9. Color Coding of Resistor

1. On most resistors, you'll see there are three rainbow-colored bands, then a space, then
a fourth band colored brown, red, gold, or silver.
2. Turn the resistor so the three rainbow bands are on the left.
3. The first two of the rainbow bands tell you the first two digits of the resistance.
Suppose you have a resistor like the one shown here, with colored bands that are
brown, black, and red and a fourth golden band. You can see from the color chart
below that brown means 1 and black means 0, so the resistance is going to start with
"10". The third band is a decimal multiplier: it tells you how many powers of ten to
multiply the first two numbers by (or how many zeros to add on the end, if you prefer
to think of it that way). Red means 2, so we multiply the 10 we've got already by 10 ×
10 = 100 and get 1000. Our resistor is 1000 ohms.
4. The final band is called the tolerance and it tells you how accurate the resistance value
you've just figured out is likely to be. If you have a final band colored gold, it means
the resistance is accurate to within plus or minus 5 percent. So while the officially
stated resistance is 1000 ohms, in practice, the real resistance is likely to be anywhere
between 950 and 1050 ohms.
5. If there are five bands instead of four, the first three bands give the value of the
resistance, the fourth band is the decimal multiplier, and the final band is the
tolerance. Five-band resistors quoted with three digits and a multiplier, like this, are
necessarily more accurate than four-band resistors, so they have a lower tolerance
value.

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2.6. SWITCHES
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can disconnect or connect
the conducting path in an electrical circuit, interrupting the electric current or diverting it
from one conductor to another. The most common type of switch is an electromechanical
device consisting of one or more sets of movable electrical contacts connected to external
circuits. When a pair of contacts is touching current can pass between them, while when the
contacts are separated no current can flow.
Switches are made in many different configurations; they may have multiple sets of contacts
controlled by the same knob or actuator, and the contacts may operate simultaneously,
sequentially, or alternately. A switch may be operated manually, for example, a light
switch or a keyboard button, or may function as a sensing element to sense the position of a
machine part, liquid level, pressure, or temperature, such as a thermostat. Many specialized
forms exist, such as the toggle switch, rotary switch, mercury switch, pushbutton
switch, reversing switch, relay, and circuit breaker. A common use is control of lighting,
where multiple switches may be wired into one circuit to allow convenient control of light
fixtures. Switches in high-powered circuits must have special construction to prevent
destructive arcing when they are opened.
The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one
or more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of
contacts can be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and
electricity can flow between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the
switch is non-conducting. The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states
(open or closed) are usually (there are other types of actions) either an "alternate action" (flip
the switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary" (push for "on" and release for "off")
type.
A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a
computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch.
Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for
example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine
tool is in a position to accept another workpiece. Switches may be operated by process
variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in
a process and used to automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a
temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by
another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a
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motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system,
providing a visible point of isolation that can be padlocked if necessary to prevent accidental
operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.

Fig.2.10 Types of Switches

An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits on
voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes, and
would change state without "bouncing" between on and off positions.
Practical switches fall short of this ideal; as the result of roughness and oxide films, they
exhibit contact resistance, limits on the current and voltage they can handle, finite switching
time, etc. The ideal switch is often used in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system
of equations to be solved, but this can lead to a less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment
of the effects of non-ideal properties is required in the design of large networks of switches,
as for example used in telephone exchanges.

2.7. POTENTIOMETER

The Potentiometer is an electric instrument that used to measure the EMF (electro motive
force) of a given cell, the internal resistance of a cell. And also it is used to compare EMFs of
different cells. It can also use as a variable resistor in most of the applications. These
potentiometers are used in huge quantities in the manufacture of electronics equipment that
provides a way of adjusting electronic circuits so that the correct outputs are obtained.
Although their most obvious use must be for volume controls on radios and other electronic
equipment used for audio.

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Fig.2.11 Potentiometer
Why is Potentiometer chosen over Voltmeter to measure the potential (EMF) of a cell? When
we use Voltmeter, current flows through the circuit and because of the internal resistance of
the cell, always terminal potential will be less than the actual cell potential. In this circuit,
when the potential difference is balanced (using a Galvanometer null detection), no current
flows in the circuit, so the terminal potential will be equal to the actual cell potential. So we
can understand that the Voltmeter measures the terminal potential of a cell, but this measures
actual cell potential. The schematic symbols of this is shown below.

Fig. 2.12.Symbol and Construction of Potentiometer

The basic working principle of this is based on the fact that the fall of the potential across any

portion of the wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire, provided wire has

uniform cross-sectional area and the constant current flowing through it.“When there is no

potential difference between any two nodes there is electric current will flow”. Now the

potentiometer wire is actually a wire with high resistivity (ῥ) with uniform cross-sectional

area A. Thus, throughout the wire, it has uniform resistance. Now this potentiometer terminal

connected to the cell of high EMF V (neglecting its internal resistance) called driver cell or

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the voltage source. Let the current through the potentiometer is I and R is the total resistance

of the potentiometer.

Then by Ohms law V=IR

2.7.1 Types of Potentiometers

A potentiometer is also commonly known as pot. These potentiometers have three terminal

connections. One terminal connected to a sliding contact called wiper and the other two

terminals are connected to a fixed resistance track. The wiper can be moved along the

resistive track either by use of a linear sliding control or a rotary “wiper” contact. Both rotary

and linear controls have the same basic operation. The most common form of the

potentiometer is the single turn rotary potentiometer. This type of potentiometer is often used

in audio volume control (logarithmic taper) as well as many other applications. Different

materials are used to construct potentiometers, including carbon composition, cermet,

conductive plastic, and the metal film.

2.7.1.1 Rotary Potentiometers

These are the most common type of potentiometers, where the wiper moves along a circular

path.

Fig.2.13 Rotatory Potentiometers

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Type Description Application

Single-turn pot Single rotation of approximately Most common pot, used in
270 degrees or ¾ of a full turn applications where a single
turn provides enough control
resolution.
Multi-turn pot Multiple rotation(mostly 5, 10 or Used where high precision
20), for increased prescision. They and resolution required. The
are constructed either with a wiper worm-gear multi turn pots
thwt follows a spiral or helix form, are often used as trimpots on
or by using a worm-gear PCB
Dual-gang pot Two potentiometer combined on the Used in for example stereo
same shaft, enabiling the parallel audio volume control or
setting of two channels, most other applications where 2
common are single turn channels have to be adjusted
potentiometers with equal in parallel.
resistance and taper. More than two
gangs are possible but not very
common
Concentric pot Dual pot meter, where the two Often encountered in car
potentiometers are individually radios, where the volume and
adjusted by means of concentric tone controls are combined.
shafts. Enables the use of two
controls on one unit.
Servo pot A motorized pot meter which can Used where manual and
also be automatically adjusted by a automatic adjustments is
servo motor required. Often seen in audio
equipment, where the
remote-control can turn
volume control knob.

Table.2.2.Rotary Potentiometer types and applications

2.7.1.2 Linear Potentiometers

In these types of Potentiometers the wiper moves along a linear path. Also known as slide

pot, slider, or fader.

Fig.2.14 Linear potentiometers

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Type Description Applications

Slide pot Single linear slider For single channel control or
potentiometer, for audio measurement of distance.
applications also known as a
fader. High quality faders are
often constructed from
conductive plastic
Dual-slide pot Dual slide potentiometer, Often used for stereo control
Single slider controlling two in professional audio or other
potentiometers in parallel. applications where dual
parallel channels are
controlled.
Multi-turn slide Constructed from a spindle Used where high precision
which actuates a linear and resolution is required.
potentiometer wiper. Miltiple The multi turn linear pots are
rotations, for increased used as trimpots on PCB, but
prescision not as common as the worm-
gear trimmer potentiometer.
Motorized fader Fader which can be Used where manual and
automatically adjusted by a automatic adjustment is
servo motor required. Common in studio
audio mixers, where the
servo faders can be
automatically moved to a
saved configuration.

Table.2.3.Linear Potentiometers types and Applications

2.7.2 Applications of Potentiometers

Potentiometer as a Voltage Divider

Fig .2.15.Circuit diagram of Potentiometer as a Voltage Divider

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The potentiometer can be worked as a voltage divider to obtain a manual adjustable output

voltage at the slider from a fixed input voltage applied across the two ends of the

potentiometer. Now the load voltage across RL can be measured as

VL= R2RL. VS/(R1RL+R2RL+R1R2)

2.8. BC547 TRANSISTOR:

The semiconductor device like a transistor is one kind of switch which controls electrically. It
consists of three terminals like an i/p, o/p & a control line. These are named as the emitter
(E), collector(C) and base (B). A transistor works like a switch as well as an amplifier to
convert the waves from audio to electronic. Transistors are smaller in size, long life and can
operate with low voltage supplies. The first transistor was designed with Ge (germanium). In
modern electronics, it is the basic building block and used in various electrical and electronic
systems. This article discusses an overview of BC547 transistor working and its applications.
The BC547 transistor is an NPN transistor. A transistor is nothing but the transfer of
resistance which is used for amplifying the current. A small current of the base terminal of
this transistor will control the large current of emitter and base terminals. The main function
of this transistor is to amplify as well as switching purposes. The maximum gain current of
this transistor is 800A.

Fig,2.16. BC 547-transistor
The similar transistors are like BC548 & BC549. This transistor works in a fixed DC voltage
in the preferred region of its characteristics which is called the biasing. Further, the series of
this transistor can be divided into three groups based on the current gain like BC547A,
BC547B & BC547C.
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2.8.1 BC547 Transistor Pin Configuration

The BC547 transistor includes three pins which include the following.
bc547-transistor-pin-configuration
• Pin1 (Collector): This pin is denoted with symbol ‘C’ and the flow of current will be
through the collector terminal.
• Pin2 (Base): This pin controls the transistor biasing.
• Pin3 (Emitter): The current supplies out through emitter terminal
A Transistor works as an amplifier while functions in the active region to amplify voltage,
current, and power at various configurations. The amplifier circuit uses three configurations
which include the following.
• Common emitter (CE) amplifier
• Common collector (CC) amplifier
• Common base (CB) amplifier
From the above three configurations, CE is the most widely used configuration.
Working States of Transistor
The working states of BC547 transistor include the following.
• Forward Bias.
• Reverse Bias.
In a forward bias mode, the two terminals like emitter & collector are connected to allow the
flow of current through it. Whereas in a reverse bias mode, it doesn’t allow the flow of
current through it because it works as an open switch.
2.8.2 Features
The features of the BC547 transistor include the following.
• The gain of DC current (hFE) = 800 A
• Continuous Ic (collector current) = 100mA
• VBE (emitter-base voltage) = 6V
• IB (base current) = 5mA
• The polarity of the transistor is NPN
• The transition frequency is 300MHz
• It is obtainable in semiconductor package like-92
• Power dissipation is 625mW

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2.8.3 Precautions of this Transistor

The precautions of this transistor include the following.
• To run the transistor for a long time in a circuit, it is very important that it doesn’t
increase the load more than 100mA.
• The voltage should not exceed to 45V DC across the transistor.
• The base resistor should be used for providing the necessary current intended for
saturation.
• Maintain the temperature from the above +150oC to -65 oC.
• Always verify the three terminals of the transistor while connecting in-circuit otherwise
the performance can be reduced and the circuit can be damaged.

2.8.4 Applications
Applications of BC547 transistor include the following.
• This BC547 transistor is used general-purpose, widely used and it is used as an alternative
as well as a substitute to different kinds of transistors. Thus, it can use in different
electronic circuits
• The utmost transition frequency of BC547 is 300MHz so that it will perform well within
RF circuits.
• Amplification of current
• Audio Amplifiers
• Switching Loads < 100mA
• Transistor Darlington Pairs
• Drivers like an LED driver, Relay Driver, etc.
• Amplifiers like Audio, signal, etc..
• Darlington pair
• Quick switching
• PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
These transistors are used to build various electrical and electronic circuits which include the
following.
• Alarm circuits
• LED flasher circuit
• Water level indicator

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• Sensor-based circuits
• Audio Preamp circuits
• RF Circuits
• Touch-sensitive switch circuit
• Heat sensor circuit
• Moisture sensitive alarm
• Latch circuit
• Street light circuit
• Relay driver based on one channel
• Indication of volume level

2.9.LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):

This LCD screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range of applications. A
16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in various devices and
circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other multi segment LEDs.
The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no limitation of
displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments), animations and so
on.
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this
LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely,
Command and Data.
The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an
instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting
the cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed
on the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD. Click
to learn more about internal structure of a LCD.
Pin Diagram:

Fig. 2.17 Pin Description of LCD

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Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE

4 Selects command register when low; and data register when high Register Select

5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write
6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+
16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-
Table.2.4 Pin Description of LCD
2.10. RELAY:
The relay is the device that open or close the contacts to cause the operation of the other
electric control. It detects the intolerable or undesirable condition with an assigned area and
gives the commands to the circuit breaker to disconnect the circuit. It works on the principle
of electromagnetic attraction. It is a electromagnetic switch operated by a relatively small
current that can control much larger current.
2.10.1 Features
Works on 5V 240V Appliances can be controlled from a ARM Processor with a 5V signal
High power loads which cannot be directly controlled from ARM Processors can be switched
on/off with this relay module. Loads like 12V DC Motors, Solenoids, LEDs, etc can be
controlled with this module. Relay board uses high quality relays with a maximum load of
7A/240 V AC or 7A/24V DC Board comes with connectors for easy connections to both the

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ARM processor and the load. The board uses high quality relays, which can handle a
maximum of 7A/240 V AC or 7A/24V DC. Each relay has all three connections - Common,
Normally Open, Normally Closed brought out to 3 pin screw terminals which makes it easy
to make and remove connections. The board has a power indication and a relay status LED to
ease debugging. The board requires a 5V to power supply to power the relay. The relay can
then be turned on and off with 5V HIGH Signal from a ARM Processor. Power input and
relay control signals are brought to header pins on the board. Hence, the board can be easily
interface with our Arduino and development boards using our female to female jumper wires.

The relay takes advantage of the fact that when electricity flows through a coil, it becomes an
electromagnet. The electromagnetic coil attracts a steel plate, which is attached to a switch.
So the switch's motion (ON and OFF) is controlled by the current flowing to the coil, or not,
respectively.
A very useful feature of a relay is that it can be used to electrically isolate different parts of a
circuit. It will allow a low voltage circuit (e.g. 5VDC) to switch the power in a high voltage
circuit (e.g. 100 VAC or more).
The relay operates mechanically, so it can not operate at high speed.

Fig. 2.18. Relay and Internal circuit of Relay

There are many kind of relays. You can select one according to your needs. The various
things to consider when selecting a relay are its size, voltage and current capacity of the
contact points, drive voltage, impedance, number of contacts, resistance of the contacts, etc.
The resistance voltage of the contacts is the maximum voltage that can be conducted at the

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point of contact in the switch. When the maximum is exceeded, the contacts will spark and
melt, sometimes fusing together. The relay will fail. The value is printed on the relay.

2.11.STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER:

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling between
its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux
in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding.
This varying magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the
secondary winding. A transformer whose output voltage is lower than it’s input voltage. A
secondary winding of such a transformer has fewer turns than the primary. Such a
transformer may have multiple secondary windings. It used, for instance, to decrease the
voltage of electricity as it leaves the transmission system and enters the distribution system.
The output voltage of a step-up transformer is higher than its input voltage. Also spelled step
down transformer.

Fig:2.19. Step-down transformer

This is a step-down transformer, as evidenced by the high turn count of the primary winding
and the low turn count of the secondary. As a step-down unit, this transformer converts high-
voltage, low-current power into low-voltage, high-current power.12-0-12,1A Centre-Tapped
Step Down Transformer is a general-purpose. Transformer has 230V primary winding and
centre-tapped secondary winding. The Transformer act as a step-down transformer reducing
230VAC RMS to 12VAC RMS. It can be used in small rectifier circuits to charge a 12V
battery, Power small devices with low voltage ratings like Arduino, PIC, AVR, and
Raspberry Pi and other controllers. To connect the Transformer, you need to connect the
input primary wires to the 230VAC RMS Voltage supply which is the standard wall socket

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voltage in India. The voltage across blue and white wires is 12V and voltage across the two
blue wires is 24V.
2.11.1 Working principle of a transformer:
◼ A transformer is static (or stationary) piece of apparatus which:
1.Transfers electric power from one circuit to another.
2.It does so without a change in frequency.
3.The principle is based on mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common
magnetic flux.

Fig.2.20. Step Down Transformer

◼ Basically a transformer consists o f a :
1.A primary coil or winding.
2.A secondary coil or winding.
3.A core that supports the coils or the windings
A Step Down transformer is a device which converts high primary voltage to a low secondary
voltage. In a step down Transformer, the primary winding of a coil has more turns than the
secondary winding. The above fig shows the step down transformer.
Transformer works on the principle of “Faraday’s law of electromagnetic Induction”. Mutual
induction between the windings is responsible for transmission action in a transformer.
Faraday’s law states that “when the magnetic flux linking a circuit changes, an electromotive
force is induced in the circuit proportional to the rate of change of the flux linkages. The
emf(Electro Motive Force) induced between the two windings is determined by the number
of turns in primary and secondary winding respectively. This ratio is called as Turns Ratio.
The voltage reduction capability of step down transformer depends on the turn ratio of the

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primary and secondary coil. As the number of windings in secondary coil is less as compared
to the number of windings in primary coil, So the amount of flux linkages to the secondary
coil of the transformer will also be less compared to the primary coil.
Accordingly, the emf induced will be less in the secondary coil. Due to this, the voltage
reduces at the secondary winding compared to primary winding.
2.11.2 Specifications:
1. Input Voltage: 220V AC at 50Hz
2. Output Voltage: 24V, 12V or 0V
3. Output Current: 1A
Other center tapped transformers are (12-0-12),(18-0-18),(24-0-24),(2A,3A,5A) etc.
2.11.3 Applications:
1. Rectifier circuits
2. AC-AC step down
3. Full wave rectifiers
2.12. RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube
diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes,
silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon based semiconductor switches. Based upon
contolling the rectifiers divided into two types they are ‘Controlled’ and ‘Uncontrolled’
rectifiers. In this uncontrolled rectifiers are divided into two types they are ‘Half wave
Rectifier’ and ‘Full wave Rectifier’. Again the Full wave rectifier is divided into two types
they are ‘Bridge Rectifier’ and ‘Center-Tap Rectifier’. In our project we use ‘Uncontrolled
Full wave Bridge Rectifier’.

2.12.1 Diode:

• A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a one-way switch for

current. It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts current
from flowing in the opposite direction.

• Diodes are also known as rectifiers because they change alternating current (ac) into
pulsating direct current (dc). Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage, and
current capacity.

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

• Diodes have polarity, determined by an anode (positive lead) and cathode (negative
lead). Most diodes allow current to flow only when positive voltage is applied to the
anode.

• When a diode allows current flow, it is forward-biased. When a diode is reverse-

biased, it acts as an insulator and does not permit current to flow.

• The diode symbol's arrow points against the direction of electron flow. Reason:
Engineers conceived the symbol, and their schematics show current flowing from the
positive (+) side of the voltage source to the negative (-). It's the same convention
used for semiconductor symbols that include arrows—the arrow points in the
permitted direction of "conventional" flow, and against the permitted direction of
electron flow.

Fig.2.21.Diode

2.12.2 Capacitor:

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component

used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does
not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field
between its plates.

Capacitor, device for storing electrical energy, consisting of two conductors in close
proximity and insulated from each other. A simple example of such a storage device is the
parallel-plate capacitor. If positive charges with total charge +Q are deposited on one of the
conductors and an equal amount of negative charge −Q is deposited on the second conductor,
the capacitor is said to have a charge Q.

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

Fig.2.22.Capacitors

2.12.3 Bridge Rectifier

A bridge rectifier uses four diodes to convert both half cycle of the input AC and DC output
In this type of rectifier, the diodes are connected in a specific form as given below.

Fig.2.23. Bridge Rectifier

Positive Half Cycle:

During input positive half cycle, the diode D1 & D2 becomes forward bias while D3 & D4
becomes reverse bias. The diode D1 & D2 form a closed loop that provides a positive output
voltage across the load resistor RL

Fig.2.24.Bridge Rectifier During Positive Cycle

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Negative Half Cycle:

During the negative half cycle, the diode D3 & D4 becomes forward bais while D1 & D2
becomes reverse bias. But the polarity across the load resistor RL remains the same and
provides a positive output across the load.

Fig.2.25.Bridge Rectifier During Negative Cycle

The output of full wave rectifier has low ripples compared to half wave rectifier but still, it’s
not smooth and steady.

Fig.2.26.Bridge Rectifier Output

In order to make the output voltage smooth & steady, a capacitor is placed at the output as
shown in the figure below.

Fig.2.27.Bridge Rectifier Output With Capacitor

The capacitor charge & discharges which make smooth transitions between the half
cycles.

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2.12.4 Advantages of a Bridge Rectifier:

1. Low ripple in the output DC signal

2. High rectifier efficiency
3. Low Power Loss

2.13. Voltage Sensor Module:

2.13.1 Description:-
Voltage Sensor is a precise low cost sensor for measuring voltage. It is based on principle of
resistive voltage divider design. It can make the red terminal connector input voltage to 5
times smaller. Arduino analog input voltages up to 5V, the voltage detection module input
voltage not greater than 5Vx5=25V (if using 3.3V systems, input voltage not greater than
3.3Vx5=16.5V).
Arduino AVR chips have 10-bit AD, so this module simulates a resolution of 0.00489V
(5V/1023), so the minimum voltage of input voltage detection module is
0.00489Vx5=0.02445V.
2.13.2 Features & Specifications:-

• Voltage input range: DC 0-25V

• Voltage detection range: DC 0.02445V-25V
• Voltage Analog Resolution: 0.00489V
• DC input connector: Terminal cathode connected to VCC, GND negative pole
• Output interface: "+" connect 5/3.3V, "-" connect GND, "s" connect the Arduino AD
pins

Fig.2.28.Voltage Sensor Module and Voltage Sensor Module Pinout

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

Voltage Sensor is a precise low-cost sensor for measuring voltage. It is based on the
principle of resistive voltage divider design. It can make the red terminal connector input
voltage to 5 times smaller.
Pin Name Description
VCC
Positive terminal of the External voltage source (0-25V)
GND Negative terminal of the External voltage source
S Analog pin connected to Analog pin of Arduino
+ Not Connected
- Ground Pin connected to GND of Arduino
Table2.5. Voltage Sensor Module Pinout Configuration
Input Voltage: 0 to 25V
Voltage Detection Range: 0.02445 to 25
Analog Voltage Resolution: 0.00489V
Needs no external components
Easy to use with Microcontrollers
Small, cheap and easily available
Dimensions: 4 × 3 × 2 cm
Brief about Voltage Sensor Module
Voltage Detection Sensor Module is a simple and very useful module that uses a potential
divider to reduce any input voltage by a factor of 5. This allows us to use the Analog input
pin of a microcontroller to monitor voltages higher than it capable of sensing. For example,
with a 0V - 5V Analog input range, you are able to measure a voltage up to 25V. This
module also includes convenient screw terminals for easy and secure connections of a wire.
The internal circuit diagram of the Voltage Sensor Module is given below.

Fig.2.29.Circuit Diagram of the Voltage Sensor Module

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

The voltage circuit consists of a voltage divider circuit of two resistors in which R1 is 30K
and R2 is 7.5K.
This is a simple but very useful module which uses a potential divider to reduce an input
voltage by a factor of 5. The Voltage Sensor Module 25V allows you to use the analog input
of a microcontroller to monitor voltages much higher than it capable of sensing.

For example with a 0-5V analog input range, you are able to measure a voltage up to 25V.
This voltage sensor module also includes convenient screw terminals for easy and secure
connection of a wire.

This module is based on the principle of resistive voltage divider design, can make the red
terminal connector input voltage to 5 times smaller. Arduino analog input voltages up to 5 v,
the voltage detection module input voltage not greater than 5Vx5=25V (if using 3.3V
systems, input voltage not greater than 3.3Vx5=16.5V).
Arduino AVR chips have 10-bit AD, so this module simulates a resolution of 0.00489V
(5V/1023), so the minimum voltage of input voltage detection module is
0.00489Vx5=0.02445V.

Note:
Keep in mind, you are restricted to voltages that are less than 25 volts. More than that and
you will exceed the voltage limit of your Arduino input.

Fig.2.30.Connection Diagram

1. Output Interface: “+ ” connected 5/3.3V, “-” connected GND, “s” connected Arduino
AD pins
2. DC input interface: red terminal positive with VCC, negative with GND
3. You can also use the IICLCD1602 LCD to display voltage.

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

4. By 3P connector, connect this module with the expansion of board Arduino, not only
makes it easier for you to detect voltage battery. Package Includes :1×Voltage
Detection Sensor Module

2.14:BUZZER:

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling device, which may be mechanical,

electromechanical, or piezoelectric (piezo for short). Typical uses of buzzers and beepers
include alarm devices, timers, and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or
keystroke.

Fig.2.31 Buzzer

1 : one that buzzes specifically : an electric signaling device that makes a buzzing sound. 2 :
the sound of a buzzer.

2.14.1 Features and Specifications

• Rated Voltage: 6V DC

• Operating Voltage: 4-8V DC

• Rated current: <30mA

• Sound Type: Continuous Beep

• Resonant Frequency: ~2300 Hz

• Small and neat sealed package

• Breadboard and Perf board friendly

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

2.14.2 Applications:

• Alarming Circuits, where the user has to be alarmed about something

• Communication equipments

• Automobile electronics

• Portable equipments, due to its compact size

2.15 7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

7805 is a three terminal linear voltage regulator IC with a fixed output voltage of 5V which is
useful in a wide range of applications. Currently, the 7805 Voltage Regulator IC is
manufactured by Texas Instruments, ON Semiconductor, STMicroelectronics, Diodes
incorporated, Infineon Technologies, etc.

Fig2.32 LM7805 Pin Diagram

Pin1-Input
The function of this pin is to give the input voltage. It should be in the range of 7V to 35V.
We apply an unregulated voltage to this pin for regulation. For 7.2V input, the PIN achieves
its maximum efficiency.

Pin 2- Ground
We connect the ground to this pin. For output and input, this pin is equally neutral (0V).

Pin 3-Output
This pin is used to take the regulated output. It will be 5V

2.15.1 Features

• It can deliver up to 1.5 A of current (with heat sink).

• Has both internal current limiting and thermal shutdown features.

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CHAPTER-2 DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

• Requires very minimum external components to fully function.

In this 7805 voltage regulator lots of energy is dissipated or exhausted in the form of ‘heat’.
So to reduce that heat or to cool down the voltage regulator quickly we use ‘Heat sink’
which is fitted to it by means of screw.

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CHAPTER-3 WORKING PROCEDURE

CHAPTER-3
WORKING PROCEDURE

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CHAPTER-3 WORKING PROCEDURE

3.1 WORKING:

The working procedure of the ‘Power Theft Identification System of Distribution Lines Using
Differential Power Measurement is explained below.

This project is designed to find out such power theft in the normal distribution lines. In this
project we use differential protection scheme. The Differential protection scheme consist of
two CT’s (Current Transformer) connected at both the terminals of the load. If there is no
fault in the load then the secondary currents of both the CT’s will be same.

So, by using same principle one CT is connected at the starting of the distribution line and the
remaining other CT’s are connected to the different legal loads. If there is no power theft in
the line then the vector sum of the all CT’s which are connected to the loads will be equal to
the current in the main CT. If there is a difference then there is a power theft or any fault in
the line.

This can be simply understand by its Block Diagram

Fig.3.1 Block Diagram

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CHAPTER-3 WORKING PROCEDURE

3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION:

The Fig.3.1. is the block diagram of the power theft identification system of distribution lines
using differential power measurement. It works on the principle of differential protection
scheme .

In the Block Diagram it consists :

➢ Current transformer (CT’s)

➢ Loads
➢ Arduino Nano
➢ LCD

The current transformers is used for the measurements of high current values .It is a stepdown
current transformer. Primary is connected to the where the current is to be measured. At the
secondary terminals stepdown current is obtained and the current is obtained in analog form it
is converted to digital by ADC block

There are two types of loads in block diagram that is Legal load and Illegal load . legal loads
are the loads which is connected by the meter and Ct’s are connected at each legal loads.
Illegal loads are the loads which are not connected by the meter and theft the power illegally
and CT’s are not present at this loads.

Arduino nano is a small, complete, and breadboard-friendly board based on ATmega328P.

its operating voltage is 5V and it has both Analog and Digital pins . it has SRAM of 2KB and
EEPROM of 1KB and one crystal oscillator is connected to it , this crystal oscillator gives the
electrical signals to the microcontroller at constant frequency of 16MHz.

The power supply is given to the step down transformer , this transformer step down the
voltage from 230V to 12V-0V-12V that is center tapped transformer . Maximum output will
be 24V . this is given to the Rectifier that is Full wave Diode Bridge Rectifier

This rectifier which converts AC voltage to the DC voltage and the out put of this has some
ripples which is reduced by the filter connected after the rectifier so pure DC output is
obtained by the using of the 7805 voltage regulator the output of this voltage regulator will
be 5V constant . This voltage is given to the supply input to the Arduino Nano because every
basic electronic circuit will operate under regulated 5V DC.

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CHAPTER-3 WORKING PROCEDURE

There will be two loads where one will be the legal load and other will be the theft load that
is we use bulbs as loads. In this prototype we connect the theft load manually to show that
theft is detected when the illegal load is connected .

The working is ecplained in two cases, that is

Case-1: When theft load is not connected

Case-2: When theft load is connected

CASE-1: WHEN THEFT LOAD IS NOT CONNECTED

When only Legal load is connected , only that load is blown and the secondary currents at
both the CT’s are same, so the vector sum of secondary of the CT’s will be same , this is
given to the Arduino. so by the program which is written in the Arduino it compares the two
currents and the currents is same then the output is displayed on the LCD screen that is the
current value displayed on the screen and the buzzer will not blown.

CASE-2: WHEN THEFT LOAD IS CONNECTED

When the illegal load is connected , both the legal load and the theft load is blown and the
secondary currents of both CT’s are not same, then there is a difference in the vector sum of
secondary of the CT’s. this is given to the Arduino. By the program it compares the two
currents and the currents are not same then the output s displayed on the LCD screen is
“Theft detected” and the current value is displayed on the screen and the buzzer will blown.

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CHAPTER-4 APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES

CHAPTER-4
APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES

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CHAPTER-4 APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES

APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES

4.1 ADVANTAGES

➢ Real time Power monitoring.

➢ It will automatically find all the power theft.
➢ A data log can also be maintained which will be very useful to know what is the time
and quantity of power theft and any judicial dispute.
➢ We can use the same project for measuring the fault using differential protection
scheme.

4.2 APPLICATIONS

➢ Can be used in distribution feeders

➢ Can be used in industries and complexes where the power theft load will be there

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CHAPTER-5 RESULT AND CONCLUSION

CHAPTER -5
RESULT AND CONCLUSION

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 CHAPTER-5 RESULT AND CONCLUSION

5.1 RESULTS

Fig.5.2 shows the when there is no power theft that is no

Fig. 5.1 shows the practical circuit of the power theft illegal load is added and the voltage is displayed on the
identification system using Differential Power Measurement. LCD screen

Fig.3.2 shows the practical circuit

of the power theft
identification system using Differential Power
Measurement.

Fig.5.3 shows the when there is power theft that is Fig.5.4 shows the when theft load that is illegal load is
added, In the LCD “Load Theft Detected” is displayed on
illegal load is added, so illegal bulb is blown and the
the screen
voltage is displayed on the LCD screen

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CHAPTER-5 RESULT AND CONCLUSION

The above figures are the “Result diagrams of Power theft Identification system of
Distribution lines using Differential Power Measurement”

The proposed Power Theft Identification System of Distribution Lines using Differential
Power Measurement is cost effective and one of the simple way to find the power theft in
distribution lines. By this it helps to increase our nation economy because power is used
illegally which effect the nations economy directly and the installation cost is more but we
can find the power theft in particular area and particular distribution line which reduces the
time of identification of power theft now a days. Although installation cost is more it can last
for many years. By using CT’s, the secondary currents of main and load CT’s is given to the
Arduino Nano and with the help of program it compares the both currents , If there is
difference between two currents then there is a theft in power. If the two currents is same then
there is no power theft. This will help to tackle the problem of electricity theft which is very
high in India.

5.2 CONCLUSION

It is found that overloading, due to various reasons such as power theft, unbalance condition
due to loading of any phase are the prime cause of failure transformer. Most of them are
caused due to low maintenance as many localities are situated at remote areas

so this system will help to prevent transformers from being damaged or overload condition.
This will help to tackle the problem of electricity theft and transformer damage, as the failure
rate is very high in INDIA, around 25% per annum, which is not favorably comparable to
international norms of 1-2%

5.3 FUTURE SCOPE

Further this prototype is extended to find the power theft in effective manner by using
modern techniques. Still research is going on this project. We believe that this project will
reduce the power theft in our country

DEPT. OF EEE. RGMCET Page 52

 APPENDIX

PROGRAM:

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>//import the LCD library

LiquidCrystal lcd(13, 12, 6, 5, 4, 3);// Pins used for RS,E,D4,D5,D6,D7

int x;

#define relay 7

#define buzzer 10

void setup() {

lcd.begin(16,2);//LCD 16x2 initialization

pinMode(relay, OUTPUT);

pinMode(buzzer, OUTPUT);

digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW);

digitalWrite(relay, LOW);

lcd.setCursor(0,0); //Initially set the cursor position of LCD to 1st Columb 1st row.

lcd.print("Engineers Garage");//After initialising print data

lcd.setCursor(0,1); //Initially set the cursor position of LCD to 1st Columb 2nd row.

lcd.print(" "); //print blank to clear all the data on LCD

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 APPENDIX

delay(3000);

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print(" LOAD DETECTION ");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print(" AND SHUTDOWN ");

delay(3000);

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print(" ");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print(" ");

void loop() {

x=analogRead(A0)*(5.0/1023.0)*100;

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

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 APPENDIX

lcd.print(" OVER LOAD ");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print(" DETECTION ");

lcd.setCursor(13,1);

lcd.print(x);

if(x>385 && x <470){

digitalWrite(relay, HIGH);

lcd.setCursor(0,0);

lcd.print(" LOAD DETECTED ");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print(" ");

for(int i=0;i<3;i++){

digitalWrite(buzzer,HIGH);

delay(500);

digitalWrite(buzzer,LOW);

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 APPENDIX

delay(500);

else if(x<280){

digitalWrite(relay, LOW);

else;

} // end loop
#

DEPT. OF EEE. RGMCET Page 56

 REFERENCES

REFERENCES:

[1] J. L. Del Monaco, “The role of distributed generation in the critical electric power
infrastructure,” in IEEE-Power Engineering Soc. Winter Meeting, vol. 1, 2001, pp. 144–145.
[2] L. Philipson, “Distributed and dispersed generation: addressing the spectrum of consumer
needs,” in IEEE-Power Engineering Soc. Summer Meeting, vol. 3, 2000, pp. 1663–1665.
[3] D. Casadei, G. Grandi, R. K. Jardan, and F. Profumo, “ Control strategy of a power line
for household supply,” in Proc. IEEE Power Electronics Specialist Conf., vol. 2, 1999, pp.
607–612. [4] R. K. Jardan, O. Dranga, and D. Bereknyei, “ Standby power supply using
alternative energy through co-phase shifting technologies,” in Proc. 3rd Int. Conf.
TELESCON Telecommunications Energy Special, 2000, pp. 215–219. [5] M. Etezadi-Amoli
and K. Choma,“Electrical performance characteristics of a distribution transformer,”inIEEE-
Power Engineering Soc.Winter Meeting, vol. 2, 2001, pp. 736–740.
[6] “ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM ” by ASHFAQ HUSSAIN. [7]”ELECTRICAL
TECHNOLOGY VOL-II” by B.L. THAREJA . [8] ”MICROCONTROLLER” by MAZIDI
AND MAZIDI.
[7]H. T. M. R. a. H. B. W.A. Doorduin, Feasibility study of Electricity Theft detection using
Mobile Remote Check Meters, 2004.
[8] K. S. K. T. M. I. S. K. A. J. Nagi, "Detection of Abnormalities and Electricity Theft using
Genetic Support Vector Machines," IEEE Xplore, 2009.
[9] M. V. R. Aryadevi Remanidevi Devidas, "Wireless Smart Grid Design for Monitoring
and Optimizing Electric Transmission in India," in Fourth International Conference on
Sensor Technologies and Applications, 2009.
[10] X. X. C. W. Lijuan Chen, "Research on Antielectricity Stealing Method Base on State
Estimation," IEEE, 2011.
[11] N. J. C. A. Solomon, "A Methodology for the Design of an Electricity Theft Monitoring
System," Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology, 2011.

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