INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT

ENGINEERING

UNIT -2
BASICS OF FLIGHT
Structures of the Atmosphere - Temperature,
pressure and altitude relationships, Evolution
of Aerodynamics forces and moments-center
of pressure - aerodynamic center – pressure
coefficients, Airfoils and its nomenclature,
speed of sound, Mach number, concepts of
aircraft stability and control.
 Atmosphere
The Earth's atmosphere is the gaseous envelope that surrounds our planet.
• Properties of Atmosphere
While there is no exact upper limit for the extent of the atmosphere, we think of the
exosphere as the region where our atmosphere merges into space, occurring at an
altitude of approximately 500 km.
Composition
• N2 accounts for 78% of the atmosphere
• O2 for 21% Argon 0.93 %
• Carbon dioxide 0.04 %.
Oxygen can exist in a triatomic form (O3) called ozone which has the significant
property of absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation.
 Layers of Atmosphere Based on
Composition of Constituents
• Homosphere: the lower region, extending from the surface of the earth to a height of 80
to 100 km above the earth. In this layer, gases are more or less uniform in their chemical
composition.

• Heterosphere: it starts from the upper portion of homosphere and extends to height of
60,000 km above the earth. In this layer, chemical composition changes with height.
Concentration of gases keep decreasing as one goes up. Inter molecular distance increases
with height and hence, concentration decreases.
 The Standard Atmosphere
Aerospace vehicles can be divided into two categories:
Atmosphere vehicles: Airplanes and Helicopters- always fly within the sensible
atmosphere.
Space vehicles: Satellites, Lunar vehicle, Deep space probes- operate outside the
sensible atmosphere.
During the design and performance of any aerospace vehicle, the properties of
the atmosphere must be taken into account.
Weather conditions vary around the globe depend on altitude, location on the
globe (longitude and latitude), time of the day, season, and even solar sunspot activity.
Taking all these variations into design is impractical.
Therefore, a Standard Atmosphere is defined in order to relate fight tests, wind
tunnel tests and general airplane design to a common reference.
The standard atmosphere gives ,mean value of pressure, temperature, density
and other properties as functions of altitude.
 International Standard Atmosphere
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is an atmospheric model of how
the pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity of the Earth's atmosphere change over a
wide range of altitudes or elevations. It has been established to provide a common
reference for temperature and pressure and consists of tables of values at various
altitudes, plus some formulas by which those values were derived.

Set of values of various atmospheric parameters like pressure, temperature and density at
different altitude.

the value of different parameter at sea level

Pressure = 1.01325x10^5 Pa
Temperature = 288.16K
Density = 1.225 kg/m3
Kinematic Viscosity = 1.789x10e-5 kg/m-sec
Speed of Sound = 341.1m/sec
THERMOSPHERE/EXOSPHERE
MESOPAUSE

MESOSPHERE
STRATOPAUSE
STARTOSPHERE
TROPOPAUSE
TROPOSPHERE
Atmosphere Layers
 Layers of
Atmosphere
Based on
Temperature
Variation
 Layers of
Atmosphere
Based on
Temperature
Variation (in
Kelvin)
Troposphere:

• The troposphere is the lowest layer of our

atmosphere. Starting at ground level, it extends
upward to about 10 km (6.2 miles or about
33,000 feet) above sea level.
• We humans live in the troposphere, and nearly
all weather occurs in this lowest layer. Most
clouds appear here, mainly because 99% of the
water vapor in the atmosphere is found in the
troposphere.
• Air pressure drops, and temperatures get colder,
as you climb higher in the troposphere.
Stratosphere:
• The next layer up is called the stratosphere. The
stratosphere extends from the top of the troposphere to about
50 km (31 miles) above the ground.
• The ozone layer is found within the stratosphere. Ozone
molecules in this layer absorb high-energy ultraviolet (UV)
light from the Sun, converting the UV energy into heat.
• Unlike the troposphere, the stratosphere actually gets warmer
the higher you go!.
• Commercial passenger jets fly in the lower stratosphere,
partly because this less-turbulent layer provides a smoother
ride.
• The jet stream flows near the border between the troposphere
and the stratosphere.
Mesosphere

• Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere. It extends

upward to a height of about 85 km (53 miles) above our
planet.
• Most meteors burn up in the mesosphere. Unlike the
stratosphere, temperatures once again grow colder as you
rise up through the mesosphere.
• The coldest temperatures in Earth's atmosphere, about -90°
C (-130° F), are found near the top of this layer. The air in
the mesosphere is far too thin to breathe (the air pressure at
the bottom of the layer is well below 1% of the pressure at
sea level and continues dropping as you go higher).
Thermosphere
• The layer of very rare air above the
mesosphere is called the thermosphere.
• High-energy X-rays and UV radiation
from the Sun are absorbed in the
thermosphere, raising its temperature to
hundreds or at times thousands of degrees.
• The thermosphere is more like outer space
than a part of the atmosphere.
• Many satellites actually orbit
Earth within the thermosphere! the top of
the thermosphere can be found anywhere
between 500 and 1,000 km (311 to 621
miles) above the ground.
• Temperatures in the upper thermosphere
can range from about 500° C (932° F) to
2,000° C (3,632° F) or higher.
Exosphere
• Although some experts consider the thermosphere to be the uppermost layer of our atmosphere,
others consider the exosphere to be the actual "final frontier" of Earth's gaseous envelope.
• As you might imagine, the "air" in the exosphere is very, very, very thin, making this layer even more
space-like than the thermosphere.
• In fact, the air in the exosphere is constantly - though very gradually - "leaking" out of Earth's
atmosphere into outer space.
• There is no clear-cut upper boundary where the exosphere finally fades away into space. Different
definitions place the top of the exosphere somewhere between 100,000 km (62,000 miles) and
190,000 km (120,000 miles) above the surface of Earth. The latter value is about halfway to the
Moon!
Ionosphere
• The ionosphere is not a distinct layer like the others
mentioned above.
• Instead, the ionosphere is a series of regions in parts of
the mesosphere and thermosphere where high-energy
radiation from the Sun has knocked electrons loose
from their parent atoms and molecules.
• The electrically charged atoms and molecules that are
formed in this way are called ions, giving the
ionosphere its name and endowing this region with
some special properties.
The Standard Atmosphere

• Average of pressure, temperature, density and other properties as a function of

altitude.
• Defined in order to relate flight testing, wind tunnel calibration, flight design and
performance analysis to a common reference.

International Standard Atmosphere:

Set of values of various atmospheric parameters like pressure, temperature and

density at different altitude.
the value of different parameter at sea level
Pressure = 1.01325x10^5 Pa
Temperature = 288.16K
Density = 1.225 kg/m3
Kinematic Viscosity = 1.789x10e-5kg/m-sec
Speed of Sound = 341.1m/sec
 Aerodynamics

It is the branch of physics that studies the

behavior of air as it interacts with solid objects,
particularly when those objects are in motion.

It involves understanding the forces and resulting

motions of objects in the air, such as lift, drag,
thrust, and stability.

Aerodynamics is crucial in the design of various

vehicles, including airplanes, cars, and rockets, as
it helps optimize their performance and
efficiency by minimizing drag and maximizing lift.
 Airfoil
• An airfoil is any part of an airplane that is designed to
produce lift. Those parts of the airplane specifically
designed to produce lift include the wing and the tail
surface. In modern aircraft, the designers usually provide
an airfoil shape to even the fuselage. A fuselage may not
produce much lift, and this lift may not be produced until
the aircraft is flying relatively fast, but every bit of lift
helps.

• Definition: The cross-sectional shape obtained by

the intersection of the wing with the perpendicular plane
is called an Airfoil. {An airfoil is the shape of a wing or
blade (of a propeller, rotor or turbine) as seen in cross-
section. An aircraft's wings, horizontal, and vertical
stabilizers are built with airfoil-shaped cross sections, as
are helicopter rotor blades.}
 Why? Airfoil

Compared to other cross sections, airfoil shape produces huge amount of lift force with less amount of drag force. (L/D
ratio- High)
Airfoil and its • Airfoil : The cross sectional shape obtained by
the intersection of the wing with the perpendicular
Nomenclature plane
 Airfoil Nomenclature

• The following terms are essential in determining the shape of

a typical airfoil:
•

• Upper & Lower surface

• Camber line (or mean camber line) - which is the locus of
points halfway between the upper and lower surfaces as
measured perpendicular to the mean camber itself.
• Leading edge - most forward point of the mean camber line.
• Trailing edge - most rearward point of the mean camber line.
• Chord line - straight line connecting L.E and T.E
• Chord (c) - distance from the L.E to the T.E measured along
the chord line
• Camber – maximum distance between the mean camber line
and chord line, measured perpendicular to chord line.
• Thickness - maximum distance from the bottom edge to the
top edge.
 Contd.
Leading Edge:
The leading edge of an airfoil is the portion that meets the air first. The shape of the leading edge depends upon
the function of the airfoil. If the airfoil is designed to operate at high speed, its leading edge will be very sharp, as on most
current fighter aircraft. If the airfoil is designed to produce a greater amount of lift at a relatively low rate of speed, as in a
Cessna 150 or a Cherokee 140, the leading edge will be thick and fat. Actually, the supersonic fighter aircraft and the light
propeller-driven aircraft are virtually two ends of a spectrum. Most other aircraft lie between these two.
Trailing Edge:
The trailing edge is the back of the airfoil, the portion at which the airflow over the upper surface joins the
airflow over the lower surface. The design of this portion of the airfoil is just as important as the design of the leading
edge. This is because the air flowing over the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil must be directed to meet with as little
turbulence as possible, regardless of the position of the airfoil in the air.

Chord:
The chord of an airfoil is an imaginary straight line drawn through the airfoil from its leading edge to its trailing
edge. We might think of this chord line as the starting point for drawing or designing an airfoil in cross section. It is from
this baseline that we determine how much upper or lower camber there is and how wide the wing is at any point along the
wingspan. The chord also provides a reference for certain other measurements.
 Contd.
Camber:
The camber of an airfoil is the characteristic curve of its upper or lower surface. The camber determines the
airfoil's thickness. But, more important, the camber determines the amount of lift that a wing produces as air flows around
it. A high-speed, low-lift airfoil has very little camber. A low-speed, high-lift airfoil, like that on the Cessna 150, has a very
pronounced camber.
 Airfoil Categories

The ultimate objective of an airfoil is to obtain the lift necessary to keep an airplane in the air. A flat plate at an angle of
attack, for example, could be used to create the lift but the drag is excessive. Sir George Cayley and Otto Lilienthal in
the 1800's demonstrated that curved surfaces produced more lift and less drag than flat surfaces.
Early days - the "cut and try" method. Improvements came from experimentation. Early tests showed, in
addition to a curved surface, the desirability of a rounded leading edge and a sharp trailing edge.
The hit and miss methods of these early days were replaced by much better, systematic methods by the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA).
The purpose here was to determine as much information as possible about "families" of airfoil shapes. During
World War II, NACA investigations produced results that are still in use or influence the design of most of today's
airplanes.
 Types of the airfoil

Symmetrical Airfoil

Asymmetrical or Cambered Airfoil

NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) airfoils Series
NACA four-digit series:
Ex: NACA 0012 or 2415 airfoil.
• Here, the first digit is the maximum camber in hundredths of chord
• The second digit is the location of maximum camber along the chord from the LE in tenths of chord
• The last two digits give the maximum thickness in hundredths of chord.

For the NACA 2415 airfoil, For the NACA 0012 airfoil,
The maximum camber is 0.02c located at 0.4c from The No maximum camber and the maximum
the LE, and the maximum thickness is 0.15c. thickness is 0.12c.
That is, 2 percent camber at 40 percent chord, with That is, 0 percent camber with 12 percent
15 percent thickness. thickness.
NACA 2412 is the Cambered Airfoil
NACA 0012 is the symmetric airfoil.
NACA “five-digit” series
Ex: NACA 23012 airfoil.
• the first digit when multiplied by 3/2 gives the design lift coefficient in tenths
• the next two digits when divided by 2 give the location of maximum camber along the chord from the leading edge in
hundredths of chord
• the final two digits give the maximum thickness in hundredths of chord.

For the NACA 23012 airfoil: the design lift coefficient is 0.3, the location of maximum camber is at 0.15c, and the
airfoil has 12 percent maximum thickness.
NACA “6-series” airfoils
Ex: NACA 641-218.
the first digit simply identifies the series
the second gives the location of minimum pressure in tenths of chord from the LE
The subscript 1 indicates that low drag is maintained at lift coefficients above and below the design lift coefficient
the third digit is the design lift coefficient in tenths
the last two digits give the maximum thickness in hundredths of chord.

For the NACA 641-218 airfoil: the 6 is the series designation, the minimum pressure occurs at 0.5c for the basic
symmetric thickness distribution at zero lift, the design lift coefficient is 0.2, and the airfoil is 18 percent thick.
NACA 7-Series
The 7-Series was a further attempt to maximize the regions of laminar flow over an airfoil differentiating the locations
of the minimum pressure on the upper and lower surfaces.

Ex: NACA 747A315.

The first digit denotes the series
The second digit provides the location of the minimum pressure on the upper surface in tenths of chord (40%)
The third digit provides the location of the minimum pressure on the lower surface in tenths of chord (70%).
The fourth character, a letter, indicates the thickness distribution and mean line forms used.
A series of standardized forms derived from earlier families are designated by different letters.
The fifth digit indicates the design lift coefficient in tenths (0.3)
The final two integers are the airfoil thickness in percentage of chord (15%).
NACA 8-Series:
To maximize the extent of laminar flow on the upper and lower surfaces independently.

Ex: NACA 835A216. The 8 designates the series, 3 is the location of minimum pressure on the upper surface in tenths
of chord (0.3c), 5 is the location of minimum pressure on the lower surface in tenths of chord (50%), the letter A
distinguishes airfoils having different camber or thickness forms, 2 denotes the design lift coefficient in tenths (0.2),
and 16 provides the airfoil thickness in percentage of chord (16%).

NACA 1-Series or 16-Series:

To specify the desired pressure distribution over the airfoil (this distribution dictates the lift characteristics of the shape)
and then derive the geometrical shape that produces this pressure distribution.

Ex: NACA 16-212.

The first digit, 1, indicates the series (this series was designed for airfoils with regions of barely supersonic flow).
The 6 specifies the location of minimum pressure in tenths of chord, i.e. 60% back from the leading edge in this case.
Following a dash, the first digit indicates the design lift coefficient in tenths (0.2)
the final two digits specify the maximum thickness in tenths of chord (12%).

Airfoil Database: http://airfoiltools.com

NACA series Advantages Disadvantages Applications
4-Digit 1. Good stall characteristics 1. Low maximum lift coefficient 1. General aviation
2. Small center of pressure movement 2. Relatively high drag 2. Horizontal tails
across large speed range 3. High pitching moment 3. Supersonic jets
3. Roughness has little effect 4. Helicopter blades
5. Shrouds
6. Missile/rocket fins
5-Digit 1. Higher maximum lift coefficient 1. Poor stall behavior 1. General aviation
2. Low pitching moment 2. Relatively high drag 2. Piston-powered bombers,
3. Roughness has little effect transports
3. Commuters
4. Business jets
6-Series 1. High maximum lift coefficient 1. High drag outside of the 1. Piston-powered fighters
2. Very low drag over a small range of optimum range of operating 2. Business jets
operating conditions conditions 3. Jet trainers
3. Optimized for high speed 2. High pitching moment 4. Supersonic jets
3. Poor stall behavior
4. Very susceptible to roughness
7-Series 1. Very low drag over a small range of 1. Reduced maximum lift coefficient Seldom used
operating conditions 2. High drag outside of the optimum
2. Low pitching moment range of operating conditions
3. Poor stall behavior
4. Very susceptible to roughness
16-Series 1. Avoids low pressure peaks 1. Relatively low lift 1. Aircraft propellers
2. Low drag at high speed 2. Ship propellers
Wing planform geometry
 • The aspect ratio is a measure of the narrowness
of the wing planform. It is denoted by A, or
sometimes by (AR),

Where b: Wing Span

: Average chord
 WING SWEEP

CHORD VARIATION ALONG SPAN

If the wings are inclined upwards, they are said

to have dihedral, if inclined downwards they
have anhedral .
 Mach number:
• The Mach number is the ratio of flow velocity after a certain limit of the
sound's speed. In simple words, it is the ratio of the speed of a body to the
speed of sound in the surrounding medium.
• Speed below the speed of sound is termed as subsonic whereas speed
above the speed of sound is termed as supersonic, although scientists
practising aerodynamics most of the time use these terms to describe a
particular range of Mach values.
Regime Subsonic Transonic Sonic Supersonic Hypersonic Higher
hypersonic

Mach <0.8 0.8–1.3 1.0 1.3–5.0 5.0–10.0 >10.0

The various regimes of Mach values are:

Subsonic:
• Commercial aircraft with aerodynamic
features such as rounded nose and leading
edges. The Mach is below 0.8.
Transonic:
• Aircraft that are built with swept wings. The
Mach value is between 0.8-2.1.
Supersonic:
• The aircraft created to go supersonic have a
definite design, it has the complete movement
of the canards, thin aerofoil sections, and sharp
edges. The Mach levels are between 1.2 and
5.0.
Hypersonic:
• These planes have several distinctive
features, such as cooled nickel-titanium skin
and small wings. The Mach values are between
5.0 and 10.0. The U.S. plane X-15 created the
world record of flying at Mach 6.72.
 FORCES ACTING ON THE
AIRPLANE IN FLIGHT
• LIFT: Lift is the upward force created by
an airfoil when it is moved through the air.
• DRAG: Drag is the rearward acting force,
which resists the forward movement of the
airplane through the air.
• GRAVITY (WEIGHT): Gravity is the
downward force, which tends to draw all
bodies vertically toward the center of the
Earth.
• THRUST: The forward force produced by
the ebgine that pulls (pushes) the airplane
through the air.
AIRFLOW OVER THE WING SECTION AND GENERATION OF LIFT

The Basic Principles behind the generation of lift

• The Bernoulli’s principle
• Newton’s Third Law of Motion

A fluid traveling through a The constricted airflow The air is disturbed by

constriction in a pipe formed by two opposed a single wing
airplane wings
The accelerating airflow
Air moving between the over the top surface exerts
wings accelerates less pressure than the
airflow across the bottom
Application
of
Bernoulli’s • Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift force on an
airfoil.

theorem for • For example, if the air flowing over the top surface of an aircraft
wing is moving faster than the air flowing over the bottom surface,

generation
then Bernoulli's principle implies that the pressure on the above
surface of the wing will be lower than the pressure on the bottom
surface (pressure and velocity are inversely proportional)

of lift • This pressure difference results in an upwards lifting

force. Whenever the distribution of speed past the top and bottom
surfaces of a wing is known, the lift forces can be calculated using
Bernoulli's equations.
DRAG:
• Drag is the rearward acting force, which resists the forward movement of the airplane
through the air.
• Drag acts parallel to and in the same direction as the relative wind.

Total drag may be classified into two main types:

 Induced Drag
 Parasite Drag
 Induced Drag
When an aircraft's wing generates lift,
the pressure difference between the
upper and lower surfaces causes air to
spill over the wing tips, creating vortices.

These wingtip vortices create a swirling

airflow pattern that tilts the lift vector
slightly rearward, effectively creating a
rearward component of the lift force,
which we experience as drag.

This rearward component is the induced

drag.
Parasite drag
Parasite drag can be further classified into form drag, skin friction, and interference drag.

• Form drag is caused by the frontal area of the airplane components being exposed to
the airstream.
• Skin friction drag is caused by air passing over the airplane’s surfaces and increases
considerably if the airplane surfaces are rough and dirty.
• Interference drag is caused by interference of the airflow between adjacent parts of the
airplane such as the intersection of wings and tail sections with the fuselage.
 As incidence is increased from zero the following points are
noted:
• The pressure reduction on the upper surface increases
both in intensity and extent until, at large incidence it
actually encroaches on a small part of the front lower
surface;
PRESSURE • The stagnation point moves progressively further back on
the lower surface
DISTRIBUTION ON • The increased pressure on the lower surface covers a
AN AIRFOIL greater proportion of the surface.
FACTORS AFFECTING Aerodynamic forces
A number of the factors that influence lift and drag include:
 Angle of Attack (α)
 Wing Area (S)
 Airfoil Shape
 Airspeed (V)
 Air Density (ρ)

A change in any of these factors affects the relationship between lift and drag. This
relation can be explained with help of equations given below
Lift L = (1/2) ρV2SCL
Drag D = (1/2) ρV2SCD
• Angle of Attack (α):The angle of attack is the angle
between the chord line of an airfoil and the direction
of the oncoming airflow. Increasing the angle of attack
typically increases lift up to a certain point (the critical
angle), beyond which the airflow begins to separate
from the surface, causing a stall and a rapid decrease
in lift. This angle is crucial in determining both lift
and drag forces.
• Wing Area (S):Wing area is directly proportional to
the lift and drag forces. A larger wing area produces
more lift, as it allows a greater portion of the airflow
to interact with the airfoil surface. Similarly, an
increase in wing area increases drag since more
surface area is exposed to the airflow.
• Airfoil Shape: The shape of an airfoil significantly
affects the lift-to-drag ratio. Specific airfoil shapes are
designed to optimize performance for certain speeds and
flight conditions. For instance, a cambered airfoil generates
more lift at lower speeds, while a symmetrical airfoil is
suitable for high-speed applications. The curvature and
thickness of an airfoil impact the distribution of pressure
over the wing, affecting both lift and drag.
• Airspeed (V):Lift and drag forces increase with the
square of airspeed. As airspeed increases, the velocity of
airflow over the wing increases, resulting in greater
aerodynamic forces. This is critical because, at higher
speeds, small adjustments in speed can lead to significant
changes in aerodynamic forces.
• Air Density (ρ):Air density affects the magnitude of
aerodynamic forces. Higher air density, which occurs at
lower altitudes, increases both lift and drag. Conversely, at
high altitudes, where the air is less dense, aerodynamic
forces decrease, impacting performance. Air density varies
with altitude, temperature, and humidity.
EFFECT OF ANGLE OF ATTACK ON LIFT AND DRAG

• The angle of attack is the acute angle between the relative wind (the red line) and the
chord line of the wing
The following conclusions may be drawn:
• i. At low incidence the lift is generated by the difference
between the pressure reductions on the upper and lower
surfaces
• ii. At higher incidences the lift is partly due to pressure
reduction on the upper surface and partly due to pressure
increase on the lower surface
• At angles of incidence around 18° or 20° the pressure
reduction on the upper surface suddenly collapses and what
little lift remains is due principally to the pressure increase
on the lower surface. At small negative incidence (for this
airfoil section, about -4°) there will be equal suction effects
on the upper and lower surfaces, and the section would give
no lift. At more negative incidences the lift would be
negative.
Coefficient of lift (Cl)

Cambered airfoil Symmetric Airfoil

Coefficient of drag (Cd) VS AOA
Symmetric Airfoil : A symmetric airfoil has identical upper and lower surfaces, meaning
there is no camber, and thus no lift is generated at zero angle of attack (AOA).

At zero AOA, CL is zero for a symmetric airfoil

because both upper and lower surfaces experience
identical flow, creating no lift.

As AOA increases, CL increases linearly in the positive

direction, and as AOA decreases below zero, CL
becomes negative, creating "negative lift.“

The graph has a positive slope, indicating that lift

increases with AOA.
The slope is roughly constant and linear within a
moderate range of AOA, typically up to around 12–15 The CL vs.AOA graph is typically
degrees for most airfoils. linear in the moderate range of AOA,
For a symmetric airfoil, this linear relationship passes with a distinct slope, followed by a
through the origin. stall region at high angles.
Stalling
• At high AOA, CL reaches a maximum (called the stall point) and then rapidly
decreases as the airfoil stalls.
• The stall AOA for a symmetric airfoil is typically similar for positive and negative
angles due to symmetry.

General Applications:

• Symmetric airfoils are commonly used in applications where lift is required in both
directions, such as helicopter rotors, acrobatic airplane wings, and control surfaces
(e.g., rudders, elevators).
Cambered airfoil

• A cambered airfoil has an asymmetrical shape

with a curved (cambered) upper surface and
typically a flatter lower surface. This shape
generates lift even at zero AOA.

• At zero AOA, a cambered airfoil has a positive

CL, meaning it generates lift without needing to be
angled to the oncoming flow.
• As AOA increases, CL increases linearly up to a
certain point before stall.
• For negative AOA, CL decreases but remains
higher than that of a symmetric airfoil due to the
camber's natural lift-producing shape.
• Similar to symmetric airfoils, a cambered airfoil's CL increases with AOA up to a
maximum (stall angle), beyond which CL drops sharply as the airfoil stalls.

• The stall angle may be slightly different from that of a symmetric airfoil due to
differences in airflow attachment caused by the cambered shape
 Coefficient of drag (Cd) VS AOA

The graph typically shows a curve where Cd

starts low, increases gradually, and then rises
sharply beyond a certain angle.

At small AoA, Cd is relatively low.

The flow is mostly attached to the airfoil

surface, resulting in minimal drag.
 As AoA increases, Cd also increases, but slowly at first.
 Lift generation improves, but so does drag as the angle causes more air disturbance.
 With further increase in AoA (known as the critical or stall angle), the drag begins to rise
steeply.
 Flow starts to separate from the upper surface, increasing drag significantly.
•Beyond the critical angle, Cd increases sharply due to turbulent flow and air separation.
•Lift decreases after stall, but drag remains high, making this an inefficient flight condition
 HIGH LIFT DEVICES

EFFECT OF AIRFOIL SHAPE ON LIFT AND DRAG

High Lift Devices:
• In aircraft design and aerospace engineering,
a high-lift device is a component or mechanism on
an aircraft's wing that increases the amount
of lift produced by the wing. The device may be a
fixed component, or a movable mechanism which is
deployed when required. Common movable high-
lift devices include wing flaps and slats. Fixed
devices include leading-edge slots, trailing edge
flaps.
• FLAP: A hinged portion of the trailing or leading
edge which can be deflected downwards and so
produce an increase in camber and, sometimes, an
area of the wing.
• The chord length of each flap expands as the flap
is extended, providing greatly increased flap area.
• PLAIN FLAP: Simple construction, good
increase of lift, but high drag. Mainly used on low-
speed aircraft.
• SLOTTED FOWLER FLAP: Fowler flaps increase the
area of your wing by extending out on rails or
tracks. Fowler flaps often have a series of slots to add
energy to the airflow as well - they're called slotted-Fowler
flaps.
• A slotted fowler segmented flap used on some large
turbine aircraft
• This type of trailing edge flap system provides high lift
for both takeoff and landing.

• FOWLER FLAP: Moves rearwards and then down,

initially giving and increase in wing area and then an
increase in camber.
• The split flap gives about the same increase in lift as the plain
flap at low angles of attack but gives slightly more lift at higher
angles as per upper surface camber is not increased, and so
separation is delayed.
LEADING EDGE HIGH LIFT DEVICES:

• There are two forms of leading-edge high lift

device commonly in use: the leading-edge flap and
the leading-edge slot or slat.

• KRUEGER FLAP: A Kruger flap forces the flow to

run more over the top of the airfoil. Kruger flaps
can be built more easily and made more
lightweight than slats, but the disadvantage is their
high level of drag at small angles of attack. In the
case of large passenger aircraft Kruger flaps are
often used on the inner wing together with slats on
the outer wing.
• A leading-edge flap increases the curvature of the
top of the airfoil. This considerably increases the
lift coefficient.
• A movable slat increases the lift through a
combination of increased wing area and increased
camber and through the influence of the flow
with the aid of the slat.
• A leading-edge slot is a gap from the lower surface
to the upper surface of the leading edge, and it
may be fixed, or created by moving part of the
leading edge (the slat).
 CENTER OF PRESSURE

• The centroid of the pressure distribution is called the center

of pressure “the point on the airplane through which the lift
effectively acts”.

• Centre of pressure: The center of pressure is the point where

the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body. In aerospace,
this is the point on the airfoil (or wing) where the resultant
vector (of lift and drag) acts.

• The center of pressure is the point about which the net

moment is zero.
• When the airplane is trimmed, the center of pressure is
precisely located at the center of gravity. With the lift acting
through the center of pressure and with the center of pressure
at the center of gravity, there is no moment and the center of
gravity, and the airplane is trimmed.
As the airfoil angle of attack changes, the
pressure field changes. Due to this, the center of
pressure changes with variation in the angle of
attack. In the airplane's normal range of flight
attitudes, if the angle of attack is increased, the
center of pressure moves forward; and if
decreased, it moves rearward.
CENTER OF PRESSURE

Point where the resultant aerodynamic force is located

distance xcp is called center of pressure

Leading Edge Leading Edge

Center of Pressure changes with the Angle of Attack

Aerodynamic Center

The aerodynamic center is the point at which the pitching moment

coefficient for the airfoil does not vary with lift coefficient
Aerodynamic center doesn’t change with the Angle of Attack
• The lift and drag forces can be applied at a single point, the center of pressure.

• However, the location of the center of pressure moves significantly with a change in angle of
attack and is thus impractical for aerodynamic analysis.

• Instead of center of pressure, Aerodynamic center is used and as a result the incremental lift
and drag due to change in angle of attack acting at this point is sufficient to describe the
aerodynamic forces acting on the given body.