1.

Choose the correct answer:

1×6-6

(a) A golf ball has a mass of 40 g and a speed of 50 m/s. If the speed
can be measured within accuracy of 2%, the uncertainty in the
position is

(i) 1-4x10-31 m

(ii) 1-4 10-30 m

(iii) 1-3 x 10-30 m

(iv) 1-3 × 10-31 m

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(2)

(b) Among the following, the thug ionization energy is highest tou

Mg

iBe
iti B

(iv) Al

(c) The pair of species with the same bend order is

O and B₂

(1) O and NO

(ii) NO and Cco

(iv) N₂ and O

(d) The type of hybridization in NH ion is

(1) sp

(1) sp²

(ui) sp

(w) dsp

(e) The shape of SF₄ molecule is:

(i) square planar

(ii) tetrahedral
(iii) T-shape
(iv) see-saw

Answer:
(iv) see-saw

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(f) The oxidation number of chromium in potassium dichromate

(K₂Cr₂O₇) molecule is:

(i) +6
(ii) +4
(iii) +3
(iv) +5

Answer:
(i) +6

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2. Answer the following questions:

(a) Write Schrödinger's wave equation and give the meanings of

the symbols used there.
Answer:
The Schrödinger wave equation is given by:

Ĥψ = Eψ

Where:
Ĥ
is the Hamiltonian operator, representing the total energy of the
system (kinetic + potential energy).

ψ
is the wave function, which describes the quantum state of the
system.

E
is the energy associated with the wave function .

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(b) What are normalised and orthogonal wave functions?

Answer:

Normalised wave functions are those wave functions for which the
integral of the square of the absolute value over all space is equal
to 1. It ensures that the total probability of finding the particle
somewhere in space is 100%.
Orthogonal wave functions are wave functions that, when
integrated over all space, give zero. This means that the wave
functions represent different, independent quantum states.

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(c) Explain in the light of effective nuclear charge why the Cl⁻ ion is
larger in size than the Cl atom.

Answer:
The size of the Cl⁻ ion is larger than the Cl atom because the Cl⁻
ion has gained an extra electron. In the Cl atom, the electron
configuration is , whereas in Cl⁻ it becomes . The added electron
increases the electron-electron repulsion, which leads to a larger
size. Despite having the same number of protons (and thus the
same nuclear charge), the effective nuclear charge (Z_eff) felt by
the outer electrons in Cl⁻ is weaker than in Cl because the
additional electron reduces the attraction from the nucleus,
causing the ion to be larger.

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(d) Zn and Cd have negative values of electron affinity. Explain why.

Answer:
Zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) have negative electron affinities
because the addition of an electron to these elements results in an
unstable configuration. These elements have fully filled d-subshells
in their neutral state, which makes them relatively stable. The
addition of an electron would result in a higher energy
configuration, which is less stable, thus making the process of
gaining an electron endothermic and resulting in a negative
electron affinity.

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(e) Explain two factors on which the electronegativity of an

element depends.

Answer:

1. Atomic Size: Electronegativity increases as the atomic size

decreases. Smaller atoms have a higher effective nuclear charge,
allowing them to attract bonding electrons more strongly.

2. Nuclear Charge: Electronegativity increases with an increase in

nuclear charge. A higher nuclear charge results in a stronger pull
on electrons, making the atom more electronegative.

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(f) What will be the bond order and bond energy when you remove
an electron from the O₂ molecule?
Answer:
When an electron is removed from the O₂ molecule, the bond order
decreases. The bond order is the difference between the number of
bonding and antibonding electrons divided by two. In the case of
the O₂ molecule (with 16 electrons), the bond order is 2. If one
electron is removed (making it O₂⁺), the bond order becomes 2.5.
This leads to a slightly weaker bond compared to the neutral O₂
molecule, and the bond energy will be lower than that of the
neutral O₂.

(g) Using VSEPR theory, predict the structure of the following:

(i) ClF₃

Answer:
The structure of ClF₃ is T-shaped.

Chlorine (Cl) in ClF₃ has 5 electron pairs around it: 3 bonding pairs
(with fluorine) and 2 lone pairs.

According to VSEPR theory, 5 electron pairs result in a trigonal

bipyramidal electron geometry, but the lone pairs will occupy
equatorial positions, leaving the fluorine atoms in the axial
positions, which results in a T-shaped molecular geometry.

(ii) XeF₂

Answer:
The structure of XeF₂ is linear.

Xenon (Xe) in XeF₂ has 5 electron pairs: 2 bonding pairs (with

fluorine) and 3 lone pairs.

According to VSEPR theory, the 5 electron pairs result in a trigonal

bipyramidal electron geometry. The 3 lone pairs occupy the
equatorial positions, and the 2 fluorine atoms occupy the axial
positions, resulting in a linear molecular geometry.

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(h) There is a decrease in bond angle from NH₃ (107°) to H₂O

(104.5°) and an increase in bond angle from OF₂ (105°) to
OCl₂ (111°). Explain why.

Answer:

The bond angle decreases from NH₃ (107°) to H₂O (104.5°)

because water (H₂O) has two lone pairs of electrons, which cause
more repulsion and compress the bond angle, whereas ammonia
(NH₃) has one lone pair, resulting in less repulsion and a larger
bond angle.

The bond angle increases from OF₂ (105°) to OCl₂ (111°) because in
OF₂, fluorine is highly electronegative, which pulls electron density
towards itself and causes more lone pair repulsion, thus reducing
the bond angle. In OCl₂, chlorine is less electronegative than
fluorine, leading to less lone pair repulsion and a larger bond
angle.

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(i) Explain covalent character in ionic compounds with the help of

Fajans' rules.

Answer:
Fajans' rules explain how covalent character arises in ionic
compounds. According to these rules:

1. Charge and Size of Ions: The covalent character increases if the

cation is small and highly charged and the anion is large and
polarizable. Smaller cations can polarize larger anions more,
distorting their electron clouds and making the bond more
covalent.

2. Polarizability of Anion: Larger anions are more polarizable,

meaning their electron cloud can be easily distorted by a small,
highly charged cation, resulting in more covalent character.

3. Cation-Anion Interaction: The stronger the attraction between

the cation and the anion, the more ionic the compound. But when
this interaction leads to polarization of the anion, covalent
character is introduced.
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3. Answer any two of the following questions:

(a)
(i) Draw the shapes of different d-orbitals.

Answer:
The five d-orbitals have the following shapes:

dₓᵧ: Resembles a four-lobed shape with two lobes along the x-axis
and two along the y-axis.

dᵧ²₋z²: Resembles a four-lobed shape with two lobes along the y-

axis and two along the z-axis.

dₓ²₋y²: Resembles a four-lobed shape with two lobes along the x-

axis and two along the y-axis.

dₓz: Resembles a four-lobed shape with two lobes along the x-axis
and two along the z-axis.

dzy: Has a shape resembling a “dumbbell” on the z-axis, with lobes

along the y-axis.

(ii) Explain the contour boundary diagram.

Answer:
A contour boundary diagram is used to represent the probability
distribution of an electron in an orbital. The boundary is drawn
where the probability of finding the electron is equal to a certain
value (e.g., 90%). The diagram is typically represented by a series of
concentric lines or regions that outline where the electron is most
likely to be found, helping visualize the shape of orbitals.

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(b)
(i) An atom of an element contains 29 electrons and 35 neutrons.
Deduce the number of protons and write the electronic
configuration of the element.

Answer:

The number of protons is 29, as the number of protons is equal to

the atomic number of the element.

The element with atomic number 29 is Copper (Cu).

The electronic configuration of copper (Cu) is:

[Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s²

(ii) Using the (n + 1) rule, predict which of the following orbitals has
the highest energy: 5p, 5d, 5f, 6s, 6p
Answer:
The (n + 1) rule states that the energy of orbitals increases with the
value of (n + 1), where n is the principal quantum number.
According to this rule:

5p: n = 5 → (n + 1) = 6

5d: n = 5 → (n + 1) = 6

5f: n = 5 → (n + 1) = 6

6s: n = 6 → (n + 1) = 7

6p: n = 6 → (n + 1) = 7

Thus, 6p and 6s
have the highest energy due to the higher (n + 1) value. Between
these, 6p has slightly higher energy than 6s.

c)
(i) The velocity associated with a proton moving in a potential
difference of 1000 V is 4.37 × 10⁵ m/s. If a hockey ball of 0.1 kg is
moving with this velocity, calculate the wavelength associated with
this velocity.

The de Broglie wavelength is given by the formula:

λ = h / (mv)
Where:

h = Planck's constant = 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s

m = mass of the object = 0.1 kg

v = velocity of the object = 4.37 × 10⁵ m/s

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(ii) How many electrons in an atom may have the

following quantum numbers?

1. n = 4, mₗ = -1, mₛ = -1/2

The quantum numbers correspond to an electron in the 4th energy

level (n = 4) with mₗ = -1, which corresponds to a p orbital, and mₛ =
-1/2 for the spin.
Thus, 1 electron may have these quantum numbers.

2. n = 3, l = 0
For n = 3 and l = 0, this corresponds to an s orbital. An s orbital can
hold a maximum of 2 electrons (one with mₛ = +1/2 and the other
with mₛ = -1/2).
Thus, 2 electrons may have these quantum numbers.

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(a) Mention two factors on which the electron affinity of an

element depends. Explain why the electron affinity of F is lower
than that of Cl.

Two factors on which electron affinity depends:

1. Atomic Size

2. Electron-Electron Repulsion

Why the electron affinity of F is lower than that of Cl:

Fluorine is smaller than chlorine, and the added electron
experiences stronger electron-electron repulsion in the 2p orbital
of fluorine than in the 3p orbital of chlorine. This increased
repulsion reduces the electron affinity of fluorine.

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(b) Mention two factors on which the ionization potential of an
element depends. The 1st ionization potential of Be is higher than
that of B, while the 2nd ionization potential of Be is lower than that
of B. Explain.

Two factors on which ionization potential depends:

1. Atomic Size

2. Nuclear Charge

Why the 1st ionization potential of Be is higher than that of B:

Be has a stable 2s² configuration, making it harder to remove an
electron compared to B, which has an electron in the 2p orbital.

Why the 2nd ionization potential of Be is lower than that of B:

After the first ionization, Be forms a stable 2s⁰ configuration, while
B forms 2s². Removing a second electron from Be is harder than
from B because Be is now more stable after the removal of the first
electron.

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(c) Calculate the effective nuclear charge for the last electron of
sodium ion. How do effective nuclear charges vary while moving
down a group?
The formula for effective nuclear charge is:
Z_eff = Z - S

Where:

Z = Atomic number (for Na = 11)

S = Shielding constant (for Na⁺, it is 10, since the electron

configuration is the same as Ne)

So,
Z_eff = 11 - 10 = 1

Thus, the effective nuclear charge for the last electron of Na⁺ is 1.

How effective nuclear charges vary while moving down a group:

As you move down a group, the effective nuclear charge remains
nearly constant because, although the nuclear charge increases, the
shielding effect from additional inner electrons also increases,
counteracting the increase in nuclear charge.

(a) What is Born-Haber cycle? Show with example, how the lattice
energy can be obtained.

The Born-Haber cycle is a hypothetical series of steps that

represent the formation of an ionic solid from its constituent
elements in their standard states. This cycle allows us to calculate
the lattice energy (the energy released when one mole of an ionic
compound is formed from its ions in the gas phase).
Example (for NaCl formation):

1. Sublimation of sodium:
Na(s) → Na(g) (ΔH₁)

2. Ionization of sodium:
Na(g) → Na⁺(g) + e⁻ (ΔH₂)

3. Dissociation of chlorine:
½Cl₂(g) → Cl(g) (ΔH₃)

4. Electron affinity of chlorine:

Cl(g) + e⁻ → Cl⁻(g) (ΔH₄)

5. Lattice formation:
Na⁺(g) + Cl⁻(g) → NaCl(s) (Lattice Energy, ΔH₅)

The total energy for the formation of NaCl is the sum of the above
steps:
ΔH = ΔH₁ + ΔH₂ + ΔH₃ + ΔH₄ + ΔH₅
Lattice Energy is calculated by rearranging the equation to isolate
ΔH₅.

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(b) Draw the resonating structures of the following molecules and

ions:

(i) SO₂

Resonance structures of SO₂:

O=S=O <=> O≡S-O

(ii) RCOO⁻ (Carboxylate ion)

Resonance structures of RCOO⁻:

OO
|| ||
R-C-O⁻ ↔ R-C=O

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(c) Discuss inter- and intra-molecular hydrogen bonding with
examples.

Intermolecular Hydrogen Bonding: This type of hydrogen bonding

occurs between two molecules. It is weaker than intramolecular
bonding and is common in liquids.
Example: In water (H₂O), the hydrogen atom of one molecule is
attracted to the oxygen atom of another molecule, forming an
intermolecular hydrogen bond.

Intramolecular Hydrogen Bonding: This occurs within a single

molecule, where a hydrogen atom is attracted to an electronegative
atom (like oxygen or nitrogen) in the same molecule.
Example: In the molecule of 2-hydroxybenzoic acid, hydrogen
bonding occurs between the hydroxyl group (-OH) and the carboxyl
group (-COOH) within the same molecule.

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(d) Draw the molecular orbital energy-level diagram for N₂

molecule and calculate the bond order.

The molecular orbital diagram for N₂ molecule is as follows:

σ(1s) σ*(1s)
σ(2s) σ*(2s)
π(2px) π(2py) π*(2px) π*(2py)
σ(2pz) σ*(2pz)
The number of bonding electrons = 10 (5 from each N atom).

The number of antibonding electrons = 4 (2 from each N atom).

Bond order = (Number of bonding electrons - Number of

antibonding electrons) / 2
Bond order = (10 - 4) / 2 = 3

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(e) Explain the following in the light of hydrogen bonding:

(i) Density of ice is lower than water

Hydrogen bonding is responsible for the lower density of ice

compared to liquid water. In ice, the hydrogen bonds form a rigid,
open structure that holds the molecules farther apart. This results
in a lower density, making ice float on water. In liquid water, the
hydrogen bonds are constantly breaking and reforming, allowing
the water molecul
es to be closer together and have a higher density than ice.

(ii) Glycerol is more viscous than glycol

Explanation:
Glycerol (C₃H₈O₃) has three hydroxyl groups (-OH), while glycol
(C₂H₆O₂) has only two. The presence of more -OH groups in glycerol
allows for stronger intermolecular hydrogen bonding, leading to a
more structured arrangement of molecules. This increases the
resistance to flow, making glycerol more viscous than glycol.

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(i) Salicylic acid is insoluble in water

Explanation:
Salicylic acid (C₇H₆O₃) has both a hydroxyl group (-OH) and a
carboxyl group (-COOH), but its hydrophobic benzene ring makes it
less soluble in water. The benzene ring does not interact effectively
with water molecules, and thus, the overall polarity of salicylic acid
is insufficient for it to dissolve well in water. However, it is soluble
in alcohols or other polar solvents.

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6. What is standard electrode potential? Explain two applications of

standard electrode potential in inorganic reactions.

Standard Electrode Potential (E°) is the potential difference

measured under standard conditions (1 M concentration, 1 atm
pressure, and 25°C) for a half-cell in a galvanic (voltaic) cell. It
measures the ability of a half-cell to gain or lose electrons
compared to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), which is
defined as 0 V.

Two applications of standard electrode potential in inorganic

reactions:
1. Prediction of Redox Reactions:
Standard electrode potentials help in predicting whether a redox
reaction will occur spontaneously. A positive electrode potential
indicates that a species is more likely to be reduced (gain
electrons), while a negative electrode potential suggests that the
species is more likely to be oxidized (lose electrons).

For example, the reaction between zinc and copper sulfate: Zn(s) +
Cu²⁺(aq) → Zn²⁺(aq) + Cu(s)
Here, the standard electrode potential of Zn²⁺/Zn is more negative
than Cu²⁺/Cu, so zinc will be oxidized and copper will be reduced.

2. Determining the Strength of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents:

The standard electrode potential helps determine the strength of
oxidizing and reducing agents. A substance with a high positive E°
is a strong oxidizing agent, while a substance with a high negative
E° is a strong reducing agent. For example, fluorine (F₂) with a very
high positive standard electrode potential is a strong oxidizing
agent.