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Periodic Table of the Elements

Atomic
number
Alkali
metals Noble
(except H) gases
Alkaline 1
Group designation Halogens
earth H
1A 1.008 8A
(1) metals (18)
1 2
2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
1 H He
1.008 (2) Atomic (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) 4.003
3 4 mass 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 8B 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 1B 2B
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80

Periods
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 [98] 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 [209] [210] [222]
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
[223] [226] [227] [267] [268] [271] [272] [270] [276] [281] [280] [285] [284] [289] [288] [293] [294] [294]

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.12 140.91 144.24 [145] 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.05 174.97

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.04 231.04 238.03 [237] [244] [243] [247] [247] [251] [252] [257] [258] [259] [262]
ATOMIC MASSES OF THE ELEMENTS
This table is based on the 2007 table at Pure Appl. Chem., 81, 2131–2156 (2009) with changes to the values for lutetium, molybdenum, nickel,
ytterbium and zinc from the 2005 table, and additions from IUPAC 2011 Periodic Table of the Elements for flerovium and livermorium. Mass
number of the longest-lived isotope of hassium from Phys. Rev. Lett., 97 242501 (2006). The number in parentheses following the atomic mass is
the estimated uncertainty in the last digit.
At No Symbol Name Atomic Mass Notes At No Symbol Name Atomic Mass Notes
89 Ac Actinium [227] 5 101 Md Mendelevium [258] 5
13 Al Aluminium 26.9815386(8) 80 Hg Mercury 200.59(2)
95 Am Americium [243] 5 42 Mo Molybdenum 95.96(2) 1
51 Sb Antimony 121.760(1) 1 60 Nd Neodymium 144.242(3) 1
18 Ar Argon 39.948(1) 1, 2 10 Ne Neon 20.1797(6) 1, 3
33 As Arsenic 74.92160(2) 93 Np Neptunium [237] 5
85 At Astatine [210] 5 28 Ni Nickel 58.6934(4)
56 Ba Barium 137.327(7) 41 Nb Niobium 92.90638(2)
97 Bk Berkelium [247] 5 7 N Nitrogen 14.0067(2) 1, 2, 4
4 Be Beryllium 9.012182(3) 102 No Nobelium [259] 5
83 Bi Bismuth 208.98040(1) 76 Os Osmium 190.23(3) 1
107 Bh Bohrium [272] 5 8 O Oxygen 15.9994(3) 1, 2, 4
5 B Boron 10.811(7) 1, 2, 3, 4 46 Pd Palladium 106.42(1) 1
35 Br Bromine 79.904(1) 4 15 P Phosphorus 30.973762(2)
48 Cd Cadmium 112.411(8) 1 78 Pt Platinum 195.084(9)
55 Cs Cesium 132.9054519(2) 94 Pu Plutonium [244] 5
20 Ca Calcium 40.078(4) 1 84 Po Polonium [209] 5
98 Cf Californium [251] 5 19 K Potassium 39.0983(1) 1
6 C Carbon 12.0107(8) 1, 2, 4 59 Pr Praseodymium 140.90765(2)
58 Ce Cerium 140.116(1) 1 61 Pm Promethium [145] 5
17 Cl Chlorine 35.453(2) 3, 4 91 Pa Protactinium 231.03588(2) 5
24 Cr Chromium 51.9961(6) 88 Ra Radium [226] 5
27 Co Cobalt 58.933195(5) 86 Rn Radon [222] 5
112 Cn Copernicium [285] 5 75 Re Rhenium 186.207(1)
29 Cu Copper 63.546(3) 2 45 Rh Rhodium 102.90550(2)
96 Cm Curium [247] 5 111 Rg Roentgenium [280] 5
110 Ds Darmstadtium [281] 5 37 Rb Rubidium 85.4678(3) 1
105 Db Dubnium [268] 5 44 Ru Ruthenium 101.07(2) 1
66 Dy Dysprosium 162.500(1) 1 104 Rf Rutherfordium [265] 5
99 Es Einsteinium [252] 5 62 Sm Samarium 150.36(2) 1
68 Er Erbium 167.259(3) 1 21 Sc Scandium 44.955912(6)
63 Eu Europium 151.964(1) 1 106 Sg Seaborgium [271] 5
100 Fm Fermium [257] 5 34 Se Selenium 78.96(3)
114 Fl Flerovium [289] 5 14 Si Silicon 28.0855(3) 2, 4
9 F Fluorine 18.9984032(5) 47 Ag Silver 107.8682(2) 1
87 Fr Francium [223] 5 11 Na Sodium 22.98976928(2)
64 Gd Gadolinium 157.25(3) 1 38 Sr Strontium 87.62(1) 1, 2
31 Ga Gallium 69.723(1) 16 S Sulfur 32.065(5) 1, 2, 4
32 Ge Germanium 72.64(1) 73 Ta Tantalum 180.94788(2)
79 Au Gold 196.966569(4) 43 Tc Technetium [98] 5
72 Hf Hafnium 178.49(2) 52 Te Tellurium 127.60(3) 1
108 Hs Hassium [270] 5 65 Tb Terbium 158.92535(2)
2 He Helium 4.002602(2) 1, 2 81 Tl Thallium 204.3833(2) 4
67 Ho Holmium 164.93032(2) 90 Th Thorium 232.03806(2) 1, 5
1 H Hydrogen 1.00794(7) 1, 2, 3, 4 69 Tm Thulium 168.93421(2)
49 In Indium 114.818(3) 50 Sn Tin 118.710(7) 1
53 I Iodine 126.90447(3) 22 Ti Titanium 47.867(1)
77 Ir Iridium 192.217(3) 74 W Tungsten 183.84(1)
26 Fe Iron 55.845(2) 118 Uuo Ununoctium [294] 5
36 Kr Krypton 83.798(2) 1, 3 117 Uus Ununseptium [294] 5
57 La Lanthanum 138.90547(7) 1 115 Uup Ununpentium [288] 5
103 Lr Lawrencium [262] 5 113 Uut Ununtrium [284] 5
82 Pb Lead 207.2(1) 1, 2 92 U Uranium 238.02891(3) 1, 3, 5
3 Li Lithium 6.941(2) 1, 2, 3, 4 23 V Vanadium 50.9415(1)
116 Lv Livermorium [293] 5 54 Xe Xenon 131.293(6) 1, 3
71 Lu Lutetium 174.9668(1) 1 70 Yb Ytterbium 173.054(5) 1
12 Mg Magnesium 24.3050(6) 4 39 Y Yttrium 88.90585(2)
25 Mn Manganese 54.938045(5) 30 Zn Zinc 65.38(2)
109 Mt Meitnerium [276] 5 40 Zr Zirconium 91.224(2) 1

1. Geological specimens are known in which the element has an isotopic composition 4. IUPAC recommends a range of masses for H, Li, B, C, N, O, Mg, Si, S, Cl, Br,
outside the limits for normal material. The difference between the atomic mass of the Tl. For simplicity we have decided to use the single masses. In On the Cutting Edge
­element in such specimens and that given in the Table may exceed the stated uncertainty. 0.3, these masses and their ranges are discussed further.
2. Range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial material prevents a more precise 5. Element has no stable nuclides. The value enclosed in brackets, e.g. [209], indicates
value being given; the tabulated value should be applicable to any normal material. the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of the element. However three such ele-
3. Modified isotopic compositions may be found in commercially available material ments (Th, Pa, and U) do have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition,
because it has been subject to an undisclosed or inadvertant isotopic fractionation. and for these an atomic mass is tabulated.
Substantial deviations in atomic mass of the element from that given in the Table
can occur.
 7 th
Edition

Chemistry
The Molecular Nature
of Matter
This page intentionally left blank
 7 th
Edition

Chemistry
The Molecular Nature
of Matter

Neil D. Jespersen
St. John’s University, New York

Alison Hyslop
St. John’s University, New York

With significant contributions by

James E. Brady
St. John’s University, New York
VICE PRESIDENT and PUBLISHER Petra Recter
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 About the Authors

Neil D. Jespersen is a Professor of Chemistry at St. courses since 2000. She was a visiting Assistant Professor at
John’s University in New York. He earned a B.S. with Special Trinity College (CT) from 1998 to 1999. She was a visiting
Attainments in Chemistry at Washington and Lee University scholar at Columbia University (NY) in 2005 and in 2007
(VA) and his Ph.D. in Analytical Chemistry with Joseph and at Brooklyn College in 2009, where she worked on
Jordan at The Pennsylvania State University. He has received research projects in the laboratory of Brian Gibney. Her
awards for excellence in teaching and research from St. John’s research focuses on the synthesis and study of porphyrin-
University and the E. Emmit Reid Award in college teaching based light harvesting compounds. When not in the labora-
from the American Chemical Society’s Middle Atlantic tory, she likes to hike in upstate New York, and practice tae
Region. He chaired the Department of Chemistry for 6 years kwon do.
and has mentored the St. John’s student ACS club for over 30
years while continuing to enjoy teaching Quantitative and James E. Brady received his BA degree from Hofstra
Instrumental Analysis courses, along with General Chemistry. College in 1959 and his Ph.D. from Penn State University
He has been an active contributor to the Eastern Analytical under the direction of C. David Schmulbach in 1963. He is
Symposium, chairing it in 1991. Neil authors the Barrons AP Professor Emeritus at St. John’s University, New York, where
Chemistry Study Guide; has edited 2 books on Instrumental he taught graduate and undergraduate courses for 35 years.
Analysis and Thermal Analysis; and has 4 chapters in research His first textbook, General Chemistry: Principles and Structure,
monographs, 50 refereed publications, and 150 abstracts and coauthored with Gerard Humiston, was published in 1975.
presentations. He is active at the local, regional and national An innovative feature of the text was 3D illustrations of mol-
levels of the American Chemical Society, and served on the ecules and crystal structures that could be studied with a ste-
ACS Board of Directors and was named a Fellow of the ACS reo viewer that came tucked into a pocket inside the rear
in 2013. When there is free time you can find him playing cover of the book. The popularity of his approach to teaching
tennis, baseball, and soccer with four grandchildren, or trav- general chemistry is evident in the way his books have shaped
eling with his wife Marilyn. the evolution of textbooks over the last 35 years. He has been
the principal coauthor of various versions of this text, along
Alison Hyslop received her BA degree from Macalester with John Holum, Joel Russell, Fred Senese, Neil Jespersen,
College in 1986 and her Ph.D. from the University of and Alison Hyslop. In 1999, Jim retired from St. John’s
Pennsylvania under the direction of Michael J. Therien in University to devote more time to writing, and since then he
1998. Alison currently chairs the Department of Chemistry has coauthored four editions of this text. He and his wife,
at St. John’s University, New York where she is an Associate June, enjoy their current home in Jacksonville, Florida where
Professor. She has been teaching graduate and undergraduate Jim is also an avid photographer.

v
 Brief Table of Contents

0  | A Very Brief History of Chemistry 1

1  | Scientific Measurements 24
2  | Elements, Compounds, and the Periodic Table 63
3  | The Mole and Stoichiometry 108
4  | Molecular View of Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 155
5  | Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 212
6  | Energy and Chemical Change 251
7  | The Quantum Mechanical Atom 300
8  | The Basics of Chemical Bonding 352
9  | Theories of Bonding and Structure 403
10  | Properties of Gases 465
11  | Intermolecular Attractions and the Properties of Liquids and Solids 515
12  | Mixtures at the Molecular Level: Properties of Solutions 575
13  | Chemical Kinetics 625
14  | Chemical Equilibrium 686
15  | Acids and Bases, A Molecular Look 731
16  | Acid–Base Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions 762
17  | Solubility and Simultaneous Equilibria 816
18  | Thermodynamics 855
19  | Electrochemistry 904
20  | Nuclear Reactions and Their Role in Chemistry 962
21  | Metal Complexes 1002
22  | Organic Compounds, Polymers, and Biochemicals 1033
Appendix A Review of Mathematics A-1
Appendix B Answers to Practice Exercises and Selected Review Problems A-5
Appendix C Tables of Selected Data A-28
Glossary G-1
Index I-1

vi
 Table of Contents

0  | A Very Brief History of Chemistry 1 3.4 Determining Empirical and Molecular
Formulas 120
0.1 Chemistry’s Important Concepts 2
3.5 Stoichiometry and Chemical Equations 129
0.2 Supernovas and the Elements 3
3.6 Limiting Reactants 137
0.3 Elements and the Earth 5
3.7 Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield 141
0.4 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 7
Tools for Problem Solving 144
0.5 Internal Structure of the Atom 8 Review Questions and Problems 146
Tools for Problem Solving 20
Review Questions and Problems 21
4  | Molecular View of Reactions in
Aqueous Solutions 155
1  | Scientific Measurements 24
4.1 Describing Solutions 156
1.1 Laws and Theories: The Scientific
Method 25 4.2 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 158
1.2 Matter and Its Classifications 27 4.3 Equations for Ionic Reactions 160
1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties 31 4.4 Introducing Acids and Bases 164
1.4 Measurement of Physical and Chemical 4.5 Acid–Base Nomenclature 172
Properties 32 4.6 Double Replacement (Metathesis) Reactions 174
1.5 The Uncertainty of Measurements 41 4.7 Molarity 184
1.6 Dimensional Analysis 45 4.8 Solution Stoichiometry 191
1.7 Density and Specific Gravity 49 4.9 Titrations and Chemical Analysis 195
Tools for Problem Solving 55 Tools for Problem Solving 203
Review Questions and Problems 56 Review Questions and Problems 204

2  | Elements, Compounds, and the 5  | Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 212

Periodic Table 63 5.1 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 213
2.1 The Periodic Table 64 5.2 Balancing Redox Equations 220
2.2 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 67 5.3 Acids as Oxidizing Agents 225
2.3 Molecules and Chemical Formulas 70 5.4 Redox Reactions of Metals 229
2.4 Chemical Reactions and Chemical 5.5 Molecular Oxygen as an Oxidizing Agent 233
Equations 77 5.6 Stoichiometry of Redox Reactions 237
2.5 Ionic Compounds 80 Tools for Problem Solving 241
Review Questions and Problems 242
2.6 Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds 86
2.7 Molecular Compounds 91
2.8 Nomenclature of Molecular Compounds 94
6  | Energy and Chemical Change 251
6.1 Energy: The Ability to Do Work 252
Tools for Problem Solving 99
Review Questions and Problems 100 6.2 Heat, Temperature, and Internal Energy 255
6.3 Measuring Heat 258
3  | The Mole and Stoichiometry 108 6.4 Energy of Chemical Reactions 264
3.1 The Mole and Avogadro’s Number 109 6.5 Heat, Work, and the First Law of
3.2 The Mole, Formula Mass, and Stoichiometry 115 Thermodynamics 266
3.3 Chemical Formula and Percentage 6.6 Heats of Reaction 270
Composition 118 6.7 Thermochemical Equations 275

vii
 viii | Contents

6.8 Hess’s Law 277 9.9 Bonding in Solids 448

6.9 Standard Heats of Reaction 283 9.10 Bonding of the Allotropes of the Elements 450
Tools for Problem Solving 291 Tools for Problem Solving 456
Review Questions and Problems 292 Review Questions and Problems 458

7  | The Quantum Mechanical Atom 300 10  | Properties of Gases 465
7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 301 10.1. A Molecular Look at Gases 466
7.2 Line Spectra and the Rydberg Equation 309 10.2. Measurement of Pressure 467
7.3 The Bohr Theory 311 10.3. Gas Laws 472
7.4 The Wave Mechanical Model 314 10.4. Stoichiometry Using Gas Volumes 478
7.5 Quantum Numbers of Electrons in 10.5. Ideal Gas Law 482
Atoms 319 10.6. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 490
7.6 Electron Spin 322 10.7. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 501
7.7 Energy Levels and Ground State Electron 10.8. Real Gases 504
Configurations 324 Tools for Problem Solving 507
7.8 Periodic Table and Ground State Electron Review Questions and Problems 508
Configurations 326
7.9 Atomic Orbitals: Shapes and Orientations 332 11  | Intermolecular Attractions and the
7.10 Periodic Table and Properties of the Properties of Liquids and Solids 515
Elements 336
11.1 Intermolecular Forces 516
Tools for Problem Solving 346
Review Questions and Problems 346 11.2 Intermolecular Forces and Physical
Properties 525
8  | The Basics of Chemical Bonding 352 11.3 Changes of State and Dynamic
Equilibria 531
8.1 E nergy Requirements for Bond
Formation 353 11.4 Vapor Pressures of Liquids and Solids 533
8.2 Ionic Bonding 354 11.5 Boiling Points of Liquids 535
8.3 Octet Rule and Electron Configurations of 11.6 Energy and Changes of State 537
Ions 358 11.7 Phase Diagrams 541
8.4 Lewis Symbols: Keeping Track of Valence 11.8 Le Châtelier’s Principle and Changes
Electrons 362 of State 546
8.5 Covalent Bonds 364 11.9 Determining Heats of Vaporization 547
8.6 Bond Polarity and Electronegativity 368 11.10 Structures of Crystalline Solids 549
8.7 Lewis Structures 373 11.11 Determining the Structure of Solids 557
8.8 Resonance Structures 384 11.12 Crystal Types and Physical Properties 560
8.9 Covalent Compounds of Carbon 387 Tools for Problem Solving 565
Tools for Problem Solving 395 Review Questions and Problems 566
Review Questions and Problems 396
12  | Mixtures at the Molecular Level:
9  | Theories of Bonding and Structure 403 Properties of Solutions 575
9.1 Five Basic Molecular Geometries 404 12.1. Intermolecular Forces and the Formation of
9.2 Molecular Shapes and the VSEPR Model 407 Solutions 576
9.3 Molecular Structure and Dipole 12.2. Heats of Solution 580
Moments 415 12.3. Solubility as a Function of Temperature 584
9.4 Valence Bond Theory 420 12.4. Henry’s Law 586
9.5 Hybrid Orbitals and Molecular 12.5. Concentration Units 588
Geometry 423 12.6. Colligative Properties 595
9.6 Hybrid Orbitals and Multiple Bonds 434 12.7. Heterogeneous Mixtures 614
9.7 Molecular Orbital Theory Basics 440 Tools for Problem Solving 618
9.8 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals 447 Review Questions and Problems 619
   Contents | ix

13  | Chemical Kinetics 625 16.4 Determining Ka and Kb Values 773

13.1 Factors that Affect the Rate of Chemical 16.5 pH of Weak Acid and Weak Base
Change 626 Solutions 776
13.2 Measuring Reaction Rates 628 16.6 Acid–Base Properties of Salt Solutions 781
13.3 Rate Laws 634 16.7 Buffer Solutions 785
13.4 Integrated Rate Laws 643 16.8 Polyprotic Acids 792
13.5 Molecular Basis of Collision Theory 654 16.9 Acid–Base Titrations 798
Tools for Problem Solving 807
13.6 Molecular Basis of Transition State
Review Questions and Problems 808
Theory 657
13.7 Activation Energies 660
13.8 Mechanisms of Reactions 665
17  | Solubility and Simultaneous
Equilibria 816
13.9 Catalysts 671
17.1 Equilibria in Solutions of Slightly
Tools for Problem Solving 675
Soluble Salts 817
Review Questions and Problems 676
17.2 Solubility of Basic Salts Is Influenced
by Acids 828
14  | Chemical Equilibrium 686
17.3 Equilibria in Solutions of Metal Oxides
14.1 Dynamic Equilibrium in Chemical and Sulfides 831
Systems 687
17.4 Selective Precipitation 834
14.2 Equilibrium Laws 690
17.5 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 841
14.3 Equilibrium Laws Based on Pressures or
17.6 Complexation and Solubility 845
Concentrations 694
Tools for Problem Solving 848
14.4 Equilibrium Laws for Heterogeneous Review Questions and Problems 848
Reactions 698
14.5 Position of Equilibrium and the
Equilibrium Constant 699
18  | Thermodynamics855
18.1 First Law of Thermodynamics 856
14.6 Equilibrium and Le Châtelier’s Principle 701
18.2 Spontaneous Change 860
14.7 Calculating Equilibrium Constants 706
18.3 Entropy 862
14.8 Using Equilibrium Constants to Calculate
18.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics 867
Concentrations 709
Tools for Problem Solving 722 18.5 Third Law of Thermodynamics 871
Review Questions and Problems 724 18.6 Standard Free Energy Change, ∆G ° 874
18.7 Maximum Work and ∆G 876
15  | Acids and Bases, A Molecular Look 731 18.8 Free Energy and Equilibrium 880
15.1. Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases 732 18.9 Equilibrium Constants and ∆G ° 886
15.2. Strengths of Brønsted–Lowry Acids 18.10 Bond Energies 890
and Bases 737 Tools for Problem Solving 894
15.3. Periodic Trends in the Strengths of Acids 741 Review Questions and Problems 895
15.4. Lewis Acids and Bases 746
15.5. Acid–Base Properties of Elements and 19  | Electrochemistry904
Their Oxides 750 19.1 Galvanic (Voltaic) Cells 905
15.6. Advanced Ceramics and Acid–Base 19.2 Cell Potentials 910
Chemistry 753 19.3 Utilizing Standard Reduction Potentials 917
Tools for Problem Solving 757 19.4 Ecell
° and ∆G ° 923
Review Questions and Problems 758 19.5 Cell Potentials and Concentrations 926
19.6 Electricity 932
16  | Acid–Base Equilibria in Aqueous 19.7 Electrolytic Cells 939
Solutions762 19.8 Electrolysis Stoichiometry 945
16.1 Water, pH, and “p” Notation 763 19.9 Practical Applications of Electrolysis 949
16.2 pH of Strong Acid and Base Solutions 767 Tools for Problem Solving 954
16.3 Ionization Constants, Ka and Kb 769 Review Questions and Problems 954
 x | Contents

20  | Nuclear Reactions and Their Role in 22  | Organic Compounds, Polymers, and
Chemistry 962 Biochemicals 1033
20.1 Conservation of Mass and Energy 963 22.1 Organic Structures and Functional
20.2 Nuclear Binding Energy 965 Groups 1034
20.3 Radioactivity 967 22.2 Hydrocarbons: Structure, Nomenclature
20.4 Band of Stability 973 and Reactions 1039
20.5 Transmutation 977 22.3 Organic Compounds Containing
Oxygen 1046
20.6 Measuring Radioactivity 980
22.4 Organic Derivatives of Ammonia 1054
20.7 Medical and Analytical Applications of
Radionuclides 984 22.5 Organic Polymers 1056
20.8 Nuclear Fission and Fusion 986 22.6 Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins 1063
Tools for Problem Solving 995 22.7 Nucleic Acids, DNA, and RNA 1072
Review Questions and Problems 995 Tools for Problem Solving 1077
Review Questions and Problems 1079

21  | Metal Complexes 1002 Appendices

21.1 Complex Ions 1003 Appendix A: Review of Mathematics A-1
21.2 Metal Complex Nomenclature 1009
21.3 Coordination Number and Appendix B: Answers to Practice
Structure 1011 Exercises and Selected Review Problems A-5
21.4 Isomers of Metal Complexes 1013
21.5 Bonding in Metal Complexes 1017 Appendix C: Tables of Selected Data A-28
21.6 Biological Functions of Metal Ions 1024 Glossary G-1
Tools for Problem Solving 1027
Review Questions and Problems 1028 Index I-1
 Special Topics

● On The Cutting Edge 0.1 | Seeing and ● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 10.1 |
Manipulating Atoms and Molecules 9 Whipped Cream 476
● On The Cutting Edge 0.2 | The Mass ● Chemistry And Current Affairs 10.2 |
Spectrometer and the Experimental Effusion and Nuclear Energy 496
Measurement of Atomic Masses 11
● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 11.1 |
● On The Cutting Edge 0.3 | Atomic Masses Decaffeinated Coffee and Supercritical Carbon
are Changing (Again) 18 Dioxide 545
● On The Cutting Edge 0.4 | Isotope Ratios Help ● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 11.2 |
Solve Crime 19 Giant Crystals 563
● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 1.1 | ● Chemistry And Current Affairs 12.1 | Pure
Density and Wine 53 Water by Reverse Osmosis 605
● On The Cutting Edge 3.1 | Combustion ● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 13.1 |
Analysis 125 Free Radicals, Octane Ratings, Explosions, and
Aging 667
● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 4.1 |
Painful Precipitates—Kidney Stones 164 ● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 14.1 |
The Haber Process: Helping to Feed the World’s
● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 4.2 | Population 703
Hard Water and Its Problems 181
● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 15.1 |
● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 5.1 | Applications of Advanced Ceramic
Polishing Silver—The Easy Way 232 Materials 753
● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 6.1 | ● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 17.1 |
Water, Climate, and the Body’s “Thermal No More Soap Scum—Complex Ions and
Cushion” 260 Solubility 844
● Chemistry And Current Affairs 6.2 | ● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 18.1 |
Runaway Reactions: The Importance of Carved in Stone 872
Thermodynamics 288
● On The Cutting Edge 18.2 | Thermodynamic
● Chemistry And Current Affairs 7.1 | Efficiency and Sustainability 879
The Electron Microscope 316
● Chemistry Outside The Classroom 19.1 |
● On The Cutting Edge 7.2 | Photoelectron Corrosion of Iron and Cathodic Protection 915
Spectroscopy 340
● On The Cutting Edge 20.1 | Positron Emission
● Chemistry And Current Affairs 8.1 | Tomography (PET) 976
Sunlight and Skin Cancer 365
● On The Cutting Edge 9.1 | Graphene and the
Future of Electronics 452

xi
 xii | Preface

Preface

The seventh edition of our textbook continues to emphasize at the atomic level while introducing all concepts in a logical
the molecular nature of matter, strong problem solving, and and understandable manner. The second was to further
clarity of writing that was the basis of the sixth edition of enhance and streamline our approach to teaching effective
Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter by Neil D. Jespers- problem-solving skills. This includes emphasis on estimation
en and James E. Brady. The relationship between the molecu- and answer checking. The third goal was to provide a seam-
lar level and the observable macroscopic properties of matter less, total solution to the General Chemistry course by fully
is presented in increased detail to reinforce and expand this integrating the textbook content with online assessment,
fundamental concept. answer-specific responses, and resources delivered within
Neil Jespersen continues his role as lead author as this text WileyPLUS.
evolves in the electronic age. Neil is an analytical chemist, re-
spected educator, and award-winning teacher who spearheaded Emphasizing the Molecular View of Nature
the emphasis on the connection between the microscopic view
and the macroscopic properties we experience in everyday life. The value of the molecular approach in teaching chemistry is
Alison Hyslop has more than proven herself as a contributing well accepted and has always been a cornerstone in the
author on the previous edition, and will continue to contribute approach taken by Jim Brady and his co-authors in present-
to future editions. Alison is an inorganic chemist with exten- ing chemistry for many years. From his first text, in which
sive experience teaching graduate and undergraduate inorganic novel three-dimensional computer-drawn representations of
chemistry as well as general chemistry. She currently chairs her molecules and crystal structures were presented and observed
department and works collaboratively to enhance the chemis- using stereoscopic viewers, up through the 6th edition of this
try degree programs. James Brady has taken an advisory role text, the atomic/molecular view has dominated the pedagogy.
in this edition. His vision and guidance formed the philoso- This new edition builds on that tradition by employing the
phy and organization of the book. From completely introduc- “molecular basis of chemistry” as a powerful central theme of
ing all topics before they are used to never skipping steps in the text. Through this approach, the student will gain a sound
solving problems, his leadership has made this book accessible appreciation of the nature of matter and how structure deter-
for all chemistry students. mines properties. Some actions we have taken to accomplish
this are as follows:

Philosophy and Goals Chapter Zero: A Very Brief History of Chemistry This
new edition of the textbook begins with the formation of
The philosophy of the text is based on our conviction that a atoms from the origin of the universe. By discussing how
general chemistry course serves a variety of goals in the educa- atoms were initially formed and then moving on to the struc-
tion of a student. First, of course, it must provide a founda- ture of the atoms through discoveries of the subatomic parti-
tion in the basic facts and concepts of chemistry upon which cles, we lay the groundwork for the atomic and molecular view
theoretical models can be constructed. The general chemistry of matter and outline how these concepts are used throughout
course should also give the student an appreciation of the cen- the text. We provide a brief introduction to the distribution of
tral role that chemistry plays among the sciences, as well as the elements throughout the earth and introduce students to the
importance of chemistry in society and day-to-day living. In way we visualize molecules and chemical reactions.
addition, it should enable the student to develop skills in ana-
lytical thinking and problem solving. With these thoughts in Macro-to-Micro Illustrations To help students make the
mind, our aim in structuring the text was to provide a logical connection between the macroscopic world we see and events
progression of topics arranged to provide the maximum flexi- that take place at the molecular level, we have a substantial
bility for the teacher in organizing his or her course. In this number of illustrations that combine both views. A photo-
text, we were guided by three principal goals. The first was to graph, for example, will show a chemical reaction as well as
strengthen the connection between observations on the mac- an artist’s rendition of the chemical interpretation of what is
roscopic scale and the behavior of atoms, molecules, and ions taking place between the atoms, molecules, or ions involved.

xii
 Summary 203
  Preface | xiii
learn how to translate formulas to names and Concentrated solutions of known molarity can be diluted
names to formulas for common acids and bases quantitatively using volumetric glassware such as pipets and
Binary acids are named with the prefix hydro- and the suffix –ic volumetric flasks. When a solution is diluted by adding solvent,
added to the stem of the nonmetal name, followed by the word the amount of solute doesn’t change but the concentration
The goal is to show how models of nature enable chemists to chemistry. We also believe that it is possible to accommo-
acid. The names of the oxoacids are derived from the polyatomic decreases.

better understand their observations and to get students to date students who come into the course
ions: -ate anions give -ic acids, and -ite anions give -ous acids. The
metal oxides are ionic compounds and named as ionic compounds. learn to use withmolaritya wide rangecalculations
in stoichiometric of
Molarity can be used as a conversion factor for solutions to con-
visualize and describe events at the molecular level. problem-solving abilities so that they
The molecular bases are named using the names of the molecules.
willof thefinish
vert the volume the
solution into moles.course
In ionic reactions, the
Use the principles of metathesis to predict reaction concentrations of the ions in a solution of a salt can be derived
with
4.1 | Describing
products skill
and tosets
Solutions that
plan a157chemical will make themfromsuccessful
synthesis in oflater
the molar concentration chem-
the salt, taking into account the
Metathesis or double replacement reactions take place when number of ions formed per formula unit of the salt.
istry courses.
anions and cations of two salts change partners. A metathesis re-
Understand the methods and calculations used
(1) aWe continue toreactants,
use(2)aan “chemical tools” model and ap-
action will occur if there is a net ionic equation. This happens if
precipitate forms from soluble acid–base in titrations and chemical analyses
Titration is a technique used to make quantitative measure-
proach to aid in teaching problem
neutralization occurs, (3) a gas is formed, or (4) a weak electro-
lyte forms from soluble strong electrolytes. You should learn the analysis.
ments of the This
amounts of approach
solutions needed en-a complete
to obtain
reaction. The apparatus is a long graduated tube called a buret
courages students to think of basic
solubility rules (Table 4.1). Strong acids react with strong bases
in neutralization reactions to produce a salt and water. Acids re- skills,
that has a such
stopcock at the as converting
bottom, which is used to control the
flow of titrant. In an acid–base titration, the end point is nor-
Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs

Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs

from grams to moles, as tools
act with insoluble oxides and hydroxides to form water and the
corresponding salt. Many acid–base neutralization reactions can that can
mally be
detected combined
visually using an in
acid–base vari-
indicator. A color
change indicates complete reaction, at which time the addition
ous ways to solve more complex
be viewed as a type of metathesis reaction in which one product
is water. Be sure to learn the reactions that produce gases in me-
problems.
of titrant is stopped Students
and the volume and
added is in-
recorded.

structors have responded positively to this concept in earlier

tathesis reactions, which are listed in Table 4.2.

editions and we continue to employ this strategy in problem

Define and calculate molarity, and use it
as a conversion factor
analysis. Tools
larity provides two conversion are identified
factors by an icon in the margin when
Molarity is the ratio of moles of solute to liters of solution. Mo-
relating moles of solute
they are introduced in a chapter and the tools are summarized
and the volume of a solution.
mol solute 1 L soln
at the end1 Lofsolneach and chapter.
mol solute
(a) (b)
Solvent molecule Solute molecule

tools for Problem solving The following tools were introduced in this chapter. Study them carefully so
you can select the appropriate tool when needed.

Criteria for a balanced ionic equation (Section 4.3)

To be balanced, an equation that includes the formulas of ions must satisfy two criteria: (1) the number of atoms of each kind
must be the same on both sides of the equation, and (2) the net electrical charge shown on each side of the equation must be
the same.

list of strong acids (Section 4.4)

The common strong acids are percholoric acid, HClO4, chloric acid, HClO3, hydrochloric acid, HCl, hydrobromic acid, HBr,
hydroiodic acid, HI, nitric acid, HNO3, and sulfuric acid, H2SO4.

Ionization of acids and bases in water (Section 4.4)

Crystal of solute placed A solution. Solute molecules The anion of a strong acid is often given the symbol X - while the symbol for the anion of a weak acid is A-.
in the solvent. are dispersed throughout
the solvent. HX + H2O h H3O+ + X - strong acids
A significant strength of previous editions
HA + H O m H O + A weak acids
was the four- + -
Figure 4.1 | Formation of a solution of iodine molecules in alcohol. (a) A crystal of
2 3

iodine, I , on its way to the bottom of the beaker is already beginning to dissolve, the
2
step problem-solving process of Analysis, Assembling the Tools,
purplish iodine crystal forming a reddish brown solution. In the hugely enlarged view Solution, and asking Is the Answer Reasonable?, which was4.4ap- | Introducing Acids and Bases 169
beneath the photo, we see the iodine molecules still bound in a crystal. For simplicity, the
solute and solvent particles are shown as spheres. (b) Stirring the mixture helps the iodine plied to all worked examples. Like a mechanic we perform
Jespersen_c04_155-211v1HR.indd 203 8/20/13 6:11 PM
molecules to disperse in the solvent, as illustrated in the molecular view below the photo. an Analysis
where X -(aq)to understand
represents the anion ofand planacid.
the strong how thestrong
For any problem cann, the
base, M(OH) be
reaction is
solved. Then the Tools needed to do the work are assembled
is a saturated solution. If more solute is added it simply does not
dissolve. A solid that is not dissolved is called a precipitate, and a and used to provideM(OH the ) Solution.
h M (aq)This + nOH reinforces
(aq) the notion(4.2) n
n+ -

Problem
chemical reaction Solving
that producesand the Connection
a precipitate between Text- = Solute
is called a precipitation thatandthe
=M
n+Tools
representscan
Solvent be ofcombined
the cation a strong base. in various ways to solve
reaction. The solubility of a solute is the amount required to make general equations for any weak acid, HA, (where A- represents the anion of a weak
book and usually expressedWhen
WileyPLUS students in 100solve
g of the end-of-
The
a saturated solution, as grams dissolved
Dilute
complex
­ problems.
Concentrated
The
acid) and any weak base, B, are
complete solution showing every
chapter
solvent at problems in WileyPLUS,
a given temperature. The temperaturethe mustfeedback
be specified to the answers step in a logical sequence HA(aq ) + H
isOpresented. Finally, as a mechanic
m H O (aq) + A (aq) (4.3) + -
because solubility varies with temperature. An unsaturated solu- 2 3
submitted willthan
tion has less solute guide
requiredthe
for students
saturation, and tomore
thesolute
correct
can answer. For always
and tests the repair job, we show how scientists test their
the answers that are incorrect, the responses will give an answers while asking
dissolve.
B(aq “Is
) + HtheO m AnswerHB (aq)Reasonable?”
+ OH (aq) (4.4) + -
Solubility of a solute usually increases if the temperature increases, 2
­ewhich
xplanation
means thatas moretosolute
whycanthe answer
be dissolved is wrong.
by heating In addition, we
a saturated
have included
solution. question
If the temperature and
of a warm answer-specific
saturated solution is lowered,hints
the and answer-
additional solute should precipitate from the solution, and indeed, this
specific feedback to give the students
tends to happen. However, sometimes the solute doesn’t precipitate,more assistance in solv- Example 4.3
ing problems.
leaving us with a supersaturated solution, a solution that actually con- Writing the Equation for the Ionization of a Molecular Base
tains more solute than required for saturation. Supersaturated solutions
are unstable and can only be prepared if there are no solids present. If Dimethylamine, (CH3)2NH, is a base that is soluble in water. It attracts boll weevils (an
Learning or dust particle isThe
Objectives
even a tiny crystal learning
present, or is added,objectives
each chap- the extra solute for agricultural pest) so they can be destroyed, since this insect has caused billions in losses to
precipitates (Figure 4.3).
ter have been explicitly stated at the beginning of each chap- cotton crops in the United States. Write an equation for the ionization of (CH3)2NH in
water.
ter. These learning objectives give the students guidance as to
Jespersen_c04_155-211v1HR.indd 157 11/4/13 5:31 PM
analysis: We’ve been told that (CH3)2NH is a base, so it’s going to react with water to
what they will learn after they have mastered each section. In form hydroxide ion. This gives us two reactants and one product. We need to determine
the formula for the second product to write and balance the equation.
addition, all of the end-of-chapter Questions and Problems
assembling the tools: The tool is the general equation for the ionization of a weak
are organized by the learning objectives and labeled by the base with water, Equation 4.4, which we use as a template for writing the formulas of
section headers. reactants and products.
solution: The reactants in the equation are (CH3)2NH and H2O. According to Equation
4.4, when the base reacts with water it takes an H+ from H2O, becoming (CH3)2NH2+
Developing Problem-solving Skills and leaving OH- behind. The equation for the reaction is
(CH3)2NH(aq ) + H2O m (CH3)2NH2+(aq) + OH-(aq)
We strongly believe that problem solving reinforces the learn- is the answer reasonable? Compare the equation we’ve written with the general
ing of concepts and that assisting students in improving their equation for reaction of a base with water. Notice that the formula for the product has
one more H and a positive charge, and that the H+ has been added to the nitrogen. Also,
skills in this area is one of the critical aspects of teaching notice that the water has become OH- when it loses H+. The equation is therefore correct.

Triethylamine, (C2H5)3N, is a base in water. Write an equation for its reaction with the Practice Exercise 4.7
solvent. (Hint: How do nitrogen-containing bases react toward water?)
Ethylamine, a base in water, has the following structure: Practice Exercise 4.8

It is used in the manufacture of many herbicides. Sketch the structure of the nitrogen-
 xiv | Preface

We continue to provide at least two Practice Exercises follow- ■ Image Gallery that includes all line art, and tables
ing the worked examples that give the student an opportunity ■ Test Bank questions
to apply the principles used to solve the preceding example. ■ Classroom Response System (Clicker) questions
These have been thoroughly reviewed and in some cases ex- ■ Solutions Manuals
panded. The answers to all of the Practice Exercises are available
to the student in Appendix B at the back of the book.
■ A database of 3D molecules (available in WileyPLUS )
The end-of-chapter Questions and Problems have ■ All content mapped to learning objectives
­undergone a reworking to ensure that they provide an increas- ■ New visualizations of key concepts
ing range of difficulty, from routine drill-type problems to ■ End-of-chapter questions are available to be used for
significantly more difficult ones, and have been organized ­assessment, assignable and automatically graded
by the learning objectives. Many problems require students ■ End-of-chapter questions that have multiple forms of
to draw on knowledge acquired in earlier chapters. For ­assistance, available to students at the instructor’s discre-
­example, in many of the problems in Chapter 4 and beyond, tion. Assistance includes:
the chemical name of a compound in question is given rather • Question and answer-specific hints
than the formula, so students must apply (and review if nec-
essary) the rules of nomenclature presented in Chapter 2. • Step-by-step tutorials (Go tutorials)
One of the main goals of chemistry instruction is to help • Answer-specific feedback
students develop the ability to solve problems that are more • Office Hour, worked problem-solving videos
thought-provoking than typical review problems. Recognizing • Links to specific sections of the textbook or other media
that students often have difficulty with solving problems that
require application of several different concepts, we continue to In addition, WileyPLUS is now equipped with an adaptive
use the Analyzing and Solving Multi-Concept Problems feature. learning module called ORION. Based on cognitive science,
These problems are more difficult than those in a typical worked WileyPLUS with ORION provides students with a personal,
example and require the use of concepts presented in more than adaptive learning experience so they can build their proficien-
one chapter. Students must combine two or more concepts cy on concepts and use their study time effectively. WileyPLUS
before reaching a solution, and they must reduce a complex with ORION helps students learn by learning about them.
problem into a sum of simpler parts. Problems of this type first
appear in Chapter 4 after students have had a chance to work WileyPLUS with ORION is great as:
on basic problem skills and after sufficient concepts have been ■ An adaptive pre-lecture tool that assesses your stu-
introduced in earlier chapters to make such problems meaning- dents’ conceptual knowledge so they come to class better
ful. Analyzing and Solving Multi-Concept Problems addresses ­prepared,
instructor frustration and students’ deficiencies in problem
solving by teaching students how to deconstruct problems and • A personalized study guide that helps stu-
emphasize the actual thinking that goes into solving problems. dents understand both strengths and areas
Available in WileyPLUS, we include problem sets titled where they need to invest more time, espe-
Bringing it Together that consist mostly of problems that cially in preparation for quizzes and exams.
require students to apply concepts developed in two or more Begin
Unique to ORION, students begin by tak-
of the preceding chapters. These problem sets are available ing a quick diagnostic for any chapter. This will determine
for groups of four to five chapters. Problems have been each student’s baseline proficiency on each topic in the chap-
­selected to provide a range of difficulties so as to challenge ter. Students see their individual diagnostic report to help
students of varying levels of achievement. them decide what to do next with the help of ORION’s
­recommendations.
The WileyPLUS Advantage For each topic, students can either Study or
WileyPLUS is a research-based online environment for effec- Practice. Study directs the student to the specific
tive teaching and learning. WileyPLUS is packed with interac- topic they choose in WileyPLUS, where they can
tive study tools and resources–including the complete online read from the e-textbook, or use the variety of
textbook. Practice relevant resources available there. Students can
WileyPLUS addresses the needs of students, empowering also practice, using questions and feedback pow-
them to be successful. ered by ORION’s adaptive learning engine. Based on the re-
The 7th Edition WileyPLUS course that accompanies sults of their diagnostic and ongoing practice, ORION will
Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter includes: present students with questions appropriate for their current
level of understanding and will continuously adapt to each
■ QuickStart assignments and presentations that are pre- student, helping them build their proficiency.
loaded for every chapter. ORION includes a number of reports and ongoing rec-
■ Lecture Note PowerPoint presentation slides ommendations for students to help them maintain their
   Preface | xv

proficiency over time for each topic. Students some elements and the use of these ranges in forensic
can easily access ORION from multiple places science.
­within WileyPLUS. It does not require any ■ Chapter 0 is entirely new and sets the tone for the rest
­additional registration, and there is no additional of the text. It provides an introduction to the important
Maintain charge for students using this adaptive learning topics that we will address in this book: atomic theory,
system. macroscopic properties rely on the microscopic proper-
ties, energy changes, and the geometric shapes of mol-
About the Adaptive Engine ecules. The atomic theory is introduced after a discussion
ORION includes a powerful algorithm that feeds questions of the origins of the elements from the start of the uni-
to students based on their responses to the diagnostic and to verse, through multiple supernova. A clear connection is
the practice questions. Students who answer questions cor- made between observations at the macroscopic level and
rectly at one difficulty level will soon be given questions at the their interpretation at the molecular level.
next difficulty level. If students start to answer some of those
■ Chapter 1 is devoted to measurements and their units.
questions incorrectly, the system will present questions of
In this edition, we start with the scientific method and
lower difficulty. The adaptive engine also takes into account
the classification of matter, then we move on to scientific
other factors such as reported confidence levels, time spent
measurements. The importance of quantitative measure-
on each question, and changes in response options before
ments with respect to physical properties is introduced
submitting answers.
along with the concepts of intensive and extensive prop-
The questions used for the adaptive practice are numerous
erties. The uncertainty of measurements is described. Sig-
and are not found in the WileyPLUS assignment area. This
nificant figures are developed to provide the student with
ensures that students will not be encountering questions in
a logical method for assessing data. Finally, the method of
ORION that they may also encounter in their WileyPLUS
dimensional analysis is discussed and applied to familiar
assessments.
calculations to develop confidence at an early stage.
ORION also offers a number of reporting options avail-
able for instructors so that instructors can easily monitor stu- ■ Chapter 2 continues the discussion begun in Chapter 0
dent usage and performance. on the structure of the atom. We introduce the periodic
table in this chapter as well as molecules, chemical for-
mulas, and chemical reactions. The concepts of chemical
Significant Changes in the 7th Edition reactions and chemical equations are presented and de-
As noted earlier, our mission in developing this revision was scribed by drawings of molecules and through the use of
to sharpen the focus of the text as it relates to the relation- chemical symbols.
ship between behavior at the molecular level and properties ■ Chapter 3 covers the mole concept and stoichiometry. We
observed at the macroscopic level. have separated the discussion on the mole and Avogadro’s
As much as possible, chapters are written to stand alone as number to emphasize the importance of these concepts.
instructional units, enabling instructors to modify the chapter ■ Chapter 5 deals with redox reactions and includes a
sequence to suit the specific needs of their students. For ex- ­revised section on redox titrations to connect this proce-
ample, if instructors wish to cover the chapter dealing with the dure to the one introduced in Chapter 4. Redox reactions
properties of gases (Chapter 10) early in the course, they can are presented in this chapter because many concomitant
easily do so. While we believe this chapter fits best in sequence laboratory experiments use redox reactions.
with the chapters dealing with the other states of matter, we ■ Chapter 7 is a logical extension of Chapter 0 in our
realize that there are other valid organizational preferences and discussion of how our understanding of the atom has
the chapter has been written to accommodate them. ­developed. The fundamentals of the quantum mechani-
Some of the more significant changes to the organization cal atom are introduced to the extent that the material is
are the following: relevant to the remainder of the text. The discussion con-
■ Short essays addressing special topics are spread through- cerning orbitals has been expanded to include f orbitals.
out the book. Those titled Chemistry Outside the Classroom ■ Chapter 8 is the first of two chapters dealing with
and Chemistry and Current Affairs provide descriptions chemical bonding. We have moved the section devoted
of real-world, practical applications of chemistry to to some common kinds of organic compounds to the
industry, medicine, and the environment. Essays titled end of the chapter to allow for a more logical flow of con-
On the Cutting Edge serve to highlight chemical phenom- cepts within the chapter. The section also serves as a brief
ena that are of current research interest and that have po- introduction to organic chemistry for students whose
tential practical applications in the future. A list of these major requires only one semester of chemistry. For in-
special topics appears at the end of the Table of Contents. structors who do not wish to discuss organic compounds
In these essays we have included discussions on the IUPAC at this point in the course, the section is easily skipped
recommendations for using a range of atomic masses for and may be covered with Chapter 22.
 xvi | Preface

■ Chapter 12 discusses the physical properties of solutions. For Instructors

The discussion on concentration units has been rewrit-
ten to integrate the temperature-independent concentra- Instructor’s Manual by Scott Kirkby of East Tennessee State
tion units with the temperature-dependent concentration University. In addition to lecture outlines, alternate syllabi,
units. and chapter overviews, this manual contains suggestions for
small group active-learning projects, class discussions, tips
■ Chapter 13 covers the kinetics of chemical reactions,
for first-time instructors, class demonstrations, short writing
including mechanisms, and catalysis with the section on
projects, and relevant web links for each chapter.
integrated rate laws is expanded in this new edition.
■ Chapter 20 discusses nuclear reactions and their applica- Test Bank by Justin Meyer of South Dakota School of Mines
tions. In this chapter, we have utilized the masses of the and Technology. The test bank contains over 2,300 questions
subatomic particles as defined by the National Institutes including: multiple-choice, true-false, short answer questions,
of Standards and Technology. Additional Review Prob- fill in the blank questions, and critical thinking problems.
lems were added that address the utilization of radioactive A computerized version of the entire test bank is available
­elements in quantitative analysis. with full editing features to help instructors customize tests.
■ Chapter 22 provides an expanded discussion of organic Instructor’s Solutions Manual by Alison Hyslop, of St.
chemistry with an emphasis on organic structures and John’s University, with contributions by Duane Swank, of Pa-
functional groups. The number of Practice Exercises has cific Lutheran University, contains worked-out solutions to
been increased to give the student the opportunity to work all end-of-chapter problems.
through some examples while reading the chapter.
Digital Image Archive—The text web site includes down-
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(ISBN: 978-1-118-70494-3) Acknowledgments
Laboratory Manual for Principles of General Chemistry, In this edition it is a pleasure to welcome Alison Hyslop who
10th Edition, by Jo Beran of Texas A&M University, Kings- contributed significantly to the sixth edition and now is a
ville. This comprehensive laboratory manual is for use in the co-author for the seventh edition. She has important insights
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friendly layout and design. Containing enough material for we celebrate the tradition of excellence in chemistry teaching
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presents the details of each experiment, including overviews, We express our fond thanks to our spouses, June Brady,
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   Preface | xvii

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This page intentionally left blank
A Very Brief History
0
of Chemistry

Chapter Outline
0.1 | Chemistry’s Important Concepts
0.2 | Supernovas and the Elements
0.3 | Elements and the Earth
0.4 | Dalton’s Atomic Theory
0.5 | Internal Structure of the
Atom

NASA/CXC/SAO/P. Slane et al.

1
2 Chapter 0 | A Very Brief History of Chemistry

This Chapter I n this introductory chapter we attempt to answer the large questions: “Where did we
come from?” and “Where are we going?” In suggesting where we came from, we draw
in Context upon cosmology’s current theories about the start of the universe and the sequential syn-
thesis of the elements. To the question of where we are going, this chapter suggests some of
the “Important Concepts” that the science of chemistry uses to entice us toward the future.
These goals also set the theme on how scientists ply their trade. All of the information in
this text is the result of a scientist asking a question, and then through scientific observation
and research finding an answer. The same person who asks a question may not find the answer,
and the time between asking and answering a question can be minutes or hundreds of years.
In the end, we have an explanation of how chemists describe the physical world around us.
Advances in modern chemistry, physics, and mathematics allow us to explain our chem-
ical surroundings with more clarity than ever. There will be more involved details to mas-
ter, especially if your career plans include a significant amount of chemical work. However,
you should be aware of the big picture and modern ideas. If you do that, it will certainly
make the study of chemistry more meaningful for you. So, sit back and enjoy this chapter.

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• develop a sense of the scope and purpose of the chemical sciences
• learn how the elements were formed
• understand that the distribution of substances around the world is not accidental
• appreciate the powerful nature of the atomic theory
• understand how we came to know about the structure of the atom

0.1 | Chemistry’s Important Concepts

Although this seems to be a rather large and heavy textbook, and it must contain a lot of
information that needs to be learned, there are a few guiding ideas that bring it all together.
The intent of this section is to give an overall view of the main concepts of chemistry, and
then we will fill in the details as we go along.
The atomic theory as explained by John Dalton in 1813 is the first of these important
concepts. This theory describes atoms, the basic building blocks of our world. Dalton, in
the most fundamental way, described the nature of atoms and how they interact with each
other. Since then, chemists and physicists have been working out the fine details of atomic
structure and chemical interactions. Many of these details are described in later chapters.
The second important concept is that we can tell a lot about what happens on the
atomic scale with careful observations on the laboratory or macroscopic scale. In fact, until
recently when instruments were developed to see, really detect, individual atoms and mol-
ecules, this was the only way that scientists could deduce what was happening.
Our third concept is that knowledge of energy changes and the probability of different
arrangements of atoms help scientists predict how atoms interact. All energy of atoms can be
classified as either kinetic energy (energy of motion) or potential energy (energy of position)
and the sum of the two cannot change. In addition, atoms and molecules will tend toward
the most probable arrangement. In general, we find that chemical reactions occur when the
energy, potential and kinetic, of the atoms decreases and/or the atoms achieve their most
probable arrangement.
The significance of geometric shapes of molecules is the fourth important concept. Large
molecules such as DNA, RNA, enzymes, and antibodies have a three-dimensional structure
that is important to their function. The three-dimensional shapes of much smaller ­molecules
also affect their properties and reactivity. Indeed, the three-dimensional shape of these smaller
structures dictates the shapes of the larger molecules. In this book we develop understanding
three-dimensional shapes and the relationship between structure, properties, and reactivity.
These are the four important concepts that are developed throughout this book. Each of
the following chapters adds increasing layers of details and depth. Recalling these concepts
throughout your chemistry course will help keep you from being overwhelmed by the
amount of material.
 0.2 | Supernovas and the Elements 3

Using the chapter titles alone, assign one or two of chemistry’s big ideas to each chapter Practice Exercise 0.1
and explain why you made your choice.1

0.2 | Supernovas and the Elements

In the Beginning
We turn to physical cosmology for one of our most important ideas, the “big-bang”
theory, to begin the story of chemistry. The big-bang theory postulates that the universe,
as we know it, experienced a tremendous explosion of energy and subatomic particles
approximately 14 billion years ago and that it has been expanding ever since.
Perhaps the first experimental data that suggested that the universe is expanding were
observations by Edwin Hubble and others that the majority of stars and galaxies seem to
shine with light that is shifted toward the red end of the visible spectrum. The well-known
Doppler effect that explains why the whistle of a train has a higher pitch, or frequency,
when the train is approaching and a lower pitch as it moves away, was used to give mean-
ing to the red-shift observations. “Hubble’s law” proposes that the size of the red shift is
proportional to the distance and speed of the star moving away from the earth. Cosmologists
concluded that the only way to explain these data was to propose a universe that was
expanding in all directions.
Working backwards, it was not difficult to imagine that the entire universe started from
a single point that physicists call a singularity. Over time, the observations made by astron-
omers have all been explained by this theory. Interestingly, one of the supporting experi-
ments was the serendipitous discovery in 1964 by two astronomers, Penzias and Wilson,
who were trying to make very accurate measurements with a radio telescope. A persistent
static was present no matter where they pointed the telescope. They expended great effort
to clean the telescope in an attempt to remove the static. They even scrubbed off the
“white dielectric material,” also known as pigeon droppings, from the telescope, to no
avail. In the end, they questioned whether the static was more significant than just being
some random noise. After careful calculations they concluded that the static was indeed
microwave radiation characteristic of a temperature that matched the predicted tempera-
ture of the universe after cooling for 14 billion years. Today this is recognized as evidence
that strongly supports the big-bang theory.

The First Elements

Using the big-bang theory, quantum mechanics, and some complex mathematics, physi-
cists and cosmologists are able to provide us with some ideas on how the universe might
have developed. The extreme temperature, density, and pressure of the singularity at the
start of the universe allowed only the most basic particles such as quarks to exist. Within
one second after the big bang, the universe expanded and cooled to
about ten billion degrees, allowing the basic units of matter, quarks, Estimates of the Most Abundant
in groups of three, to form protons and neutrons. Within three min- Table 0.1
Isotopes in the Solar System
utes, the temperature dropped to about a billion degrees, allowing Isotope Solar System Atom Percent
nucleosynthesis, creation of atomic nuclei, to occur. In nucleosyn-
Hydrogen-1 90.886
thesis collisions between protons and neutrons resulted in the forma-
tion of deuterium, helium, and lithium nuclei. Helium-4 8.029
When the universe became cool enough that nucleosynthesis Oxygen-16 0.457
could no longer occur, 91% of all atoms were hydrogen atoms, 8% Carbon-12 0.316
were helium atoms, and all the rest comprised less than 1% of all the Nitrogen-14 0.102
atoms as shown in Table 0.1. As the universe cooled further, electrons
Neon-20 0.100
combined with these nuclei to form neutral atoms.

1
Answers to the Practice Exercises are found in Appendix B at the back of the book.
 4 Chapter 0 | A Very Brief History of Chemistry

If the initial expansion of the universe had an even distribution of atoms, it would have
remained as a dark, uniform, sea of atoms. Instead there were small disturbances in the
dispersion of matter that grew with time. This led to the formation of the first stars as the
matter coalesced.

Practice Exercise 0.2 Suggest conditions that are favorable for nucleosynthesis.
Practice Exercise 0.3 Suggest why only the lightest elements were formed during the big bang.

Elements Formed in Stars

As the stars grew in size, the temperature and pressure within each star increased to the
point where nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium started and stars began to
shine. Heat generated from the fusion of hydrogen to helium maintained the volume and
pressures within a star for millions of years. During that time the helium, being heavier
than hydrogen, concentrated in the core, or center, of the star. In the core, the helium
interfered with the collisions of the hydrogen nuclei and the rate of these nuclear reactions
decreased. The star then cooled and contracted under gravitational forces. As the size
decreased, the temperature and pressure of the core rose again and at about 100 million
degrees the fusion of helium nuclei into carbon began. After a while the carbon was con-
centrated in the core and the helium core became a layer surrounding the carbon core. The
hydrogen was still mostly found in the outer layer of the star.
Continuing, the carbon nuclei entered into nuclear reactions that produced argon. As
the amount of argon increased, it migrated inward and became the core, now surrounded
by a layer rich in carbon, then a helium layer, and finally the outer hydrogen layer.
We now have a pattern: Each successively heavier element becomes concentrated in the
core of the star and when there are enough nuclei, nuclear reactions begin to produce an
even heavier nucleus, which then concentrates in the core and repeats the process. In that
way, oxygen and silicon cores are formed and then are forced out into layers by heavier
elements. These layers and their nuclear reactions produce large quantities of heat to fuel
and expand the star. A rapidly expanding star cannot generate enough heat to keep the
hydrogen layer white hot, and as it cools the color becomes red. Stars like this are called
red giants. Figure 0.1 illustrates the layered structure of a red giant star.

Massive red stars have developed

a layered structure with heavier
H,He elements layered near the center.
He,N
He,C,22Ne
O,C
O,Ne,Mg
Si,S
Fe,NI
Core

Red Giant Star

Figure 0.1 | Artist’s rendering of the layered structure of a red giant star. Layering increases the
density of specific nuclei that can fuse into larger elements, forming new layers.
 0.3 | Elements and the Earth 5

Suggest why a core and enriched layers of nuclei are needed for nucleosynthesis in stars. Practice Exercise 0.4
Suggest why, after some 14 billion years, hydrogen still makes up the overwhelming major- Practice Exercise 0.5
ity of the atoms in the universe.

Elements Formed in Supernovas

Finally, the silicon started fusing in nuclear reactions to form iron. The iron-forming reac-
tion actually consumes heat and starts to cool the core. This cooling causes a cataclysmic
collapse of the star, and as the nuclei rush toward the core the increase in pressure and
density does two things. First, the speeding nuclei destroy many of the iron nuclei, creat-
ing a rich mixture of smaller particles such as helium nuclei and neutrons. In addition, the
temperature of the collapsing star reaches levels that cannot be achieved even in the most
massive stars. At its culmination, the collapsing star disintegrates, spewing all of its matter
into interstellar space. This is called a supernova; in it exists a mix of nuclei that have very
high energies and an atom density that has sufficient numbers of collisions to create even
the heaviest elements. These conditions for nucleosynthesis last for less than a minute,
perhaps for just seconds, when the expansion and cooling then make these reactions
improbable.
The remnants of a supernova are eventually brought together to form a new star to repeat
the process. In some instances, the formation of the new star leaves a ring of debris around
it. This debris eventually accretes (clumps together) to form planets, moons, and asteroids.

Why don’t elements heavier than iron form in stars? Practice Exercises 0.6
What conditions do supernovas provide for synthesis of heavier elements? Practice Exercises 0.7

0.3 | Elements and the Earth

As the stars formed, planets also formed from the debris surrounding the stars. The forma-
tion of the planets and the composition of the planets depended upon the matter that was
available.

Planet Building
Nebula is the word that describes the debris left after the formation of a star forms a disk
that can accrete into planets, moons, and asteroids. Depending on the debris, the planets
can be rocky like the earth, Mars, and Venus or gaseous as Jupiter and Saturn. The final
chemical makeup of a planet depends on the materials that accreted at the start and the
elements that were retained by the gravitational forces of the planet itself. You can find a
list of all the known elements inside the front cover of this book.
Table 0.2 lists the atom abundance in the whole earth, the crust, the oceans, and the
atmosphere. We might expect that the distribution of the elements will be uniform on
earth because the nebula that the earth condensed from had a relatively uniform distribu-
tion. Taking a quick look around us, we see that the earth does not have a uniform distri-
bution of elements either on or below the surface, while the atmosphere and oceans tend
to have more uniform compositions.

Distribution of the Elements

This uneven distribution can often be understood based on the properties of the elements
such as their melting points, densities, and solubilities. When the earth formed some
4.5 billion years ago, the solid dust and gas particles in the nebula were slowly attracted to
6 Chapter 0 | A Very Brief History of Chemistry

Estimates of the atom percentages in the earth as a whole, the

Table 0.2
crust, the atmosphere, and the oceans.*
Element Earth Crust Atmosphere Oceans
Oxygen 48.2 59.0 20.9 33.02
Iron 14.8 2.1
Silicon 15.0 20.4
Magnesium 16.4 2.0 0.03
Hydrogen 0.67 2.9 66.06
Chlorine 0.34
Sodium 0.20 2.1 0.17
Sulfur 0.52 0.02
Calcium 1.1 2.2 0.006
Potassium 0.01 1.1 0.006
Aluminum 1.5 0.57
Bromine 0.0067
Carbon 0.16 0.0028
Nitrogen 78.1
Argon 0.96
*
Blank entries indicate that an atom is present to a negligible extent.

each other by gravitational and electrostatic forces. Once the earth formed, it began heat-
ing due to the radioactive elements releasing heat as they decayed to stable isotopes. In
addition, bombardment by meteorites also heated the earth’s surface while continued
gravitational contraction also added more heat.
Eventually a large proportion of the earth melted and iron and nickel migrated to the
inner core. Based on measurements of seismic waves (vibrations due to earthquakes) the
actual inner core of the earth is composed of solid iron and nickel that is surrounded by a
liquid layer of these metals. The outer core is superheated lava. Surrounding the core is
the mantle of superheated rock that comprises about 85% of the earth’s mass. The
outer layer, comprising the lighter substances that we observe as solid rock
and soil, is a ten-mile-thick crust. Figure 0.2 illustrates these fea-
tures of the inner workings of the earth.
The outer core, mantle, and crust of the
Mantle earth are not very fluid, and so different mate-
rials did not have the opportunity to separate
Liquid core
on a massive scale as the core did. However
you may have seen the exotic patterns of crys-
Metallic core tals in a granite counter-top. Minerals do
separate, but only in small areas. That is also
why the surface of the earth is not uniform. Minerals or
elements in the crust will separate to a small extent due to
similarities in their composition and structure as well as
by melting points. For instance, gold atoms tend to aggre-
gate with other gold atoms, rather than silicate minerals
(silicon-based rocks) because they have distinctly different

Figure 0.2 | Cutaway model of the interior of the earth

illustrating the solid and liquid cores of iron/nickel. The
mantle and the thin layer called the crust are shown.
 0.4 | Dalton’s Atomic Theory 7

crystal structures, densities, and melting points. When the crust cooled the gold separated
from the silicate rocks as they solidified. This process is called differential crystallization.
Due to the tremendous reservoir of heat in the earth’s core, these processes continue to this
day and are seen frequently in the form of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

0.4 | Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Today we define an atom as the smallest representative sample of an element and a com-
pound as a substance that contains two or more elements, always in a fixed ratio by mass.
Originally, the concept of atoms began nearly 2500 years ago when certain Greek philoso-
phers expressed the belief that matter is ultimately composed of tiny indivisible particles.
The Greek word meaning “not cut,” is the source of our modern word “atom.” The philoso-
phers had no experimental evidence for their concept of atoms and many argued against
this idea. Scientific support for the existence of atoms awaited the discovery of the law of
definite proportions and the law of conservation of mass. Amazingly, these two important
general observations about the nature of compounds and chemical reactions became appar-
ent through the work of many early chemists (or alchemists) whose lab equipment only
measured mass and volume.

Laws of Chemical Combination

Prior to the 19th century, progress in science was slow because there was little understanding
of the need for accurate measurements. As we will discuss in Chapter 1, accurate, precise,
and reproducible measurements are necessary in all the sciences. Despite the lack of accuracy
and precision of early scientific work, over the course of time data accumulated that revealed
some principles that apply to all chemical compounds and chemical reactions.
The first principle is that, when a compound is formed, elements always combine in the
same proportion by mass. For example, when hydrogen and oxygen combine to form
water the mass of oxygen is always eight times the mass of hydrogen—never more and
never less. Similar observations apply to every compound we study. Such observations led
to a generalization, known as the law of definite proportions (or law of definite composi-
tion). That law states that in any chemical compound the elements are always combined in a
definite proportion by mass.
The second observation is that when a reaction is carried out in a sealed vessel, so that
nothing can escape or enter, the total mass after the reaction is over is exactly the same as
at the start. For instance, if we place hydrogen and oxygen into a sealed container and
initiate the reaction to form water, the mass of water and whatever hydrogen or oxygen is
left over is the same as the mass of the hydrogen and oxygen we started with. Such observa-
tions, repeated over and over for large numbers of chemical reactions, led to the general-
ization known as the law of conservation of mass. This law states that mass is neither lost
nor created during a chemical reaction.
Law of Definite Proportions
In a given chemical compound, the elements are always combined in the same Law of definite proportions
­proportions by mass.

Law of Conservation of Mass

No detectable gain or loss of mass occurs in chemical reactions. Mass is conserved. Law of conservation of mass
In Chapter 3 you will see how these laws can be used to perform calculations related to
chemical composition.

The Atomic Theory

The laws of definite proportions and conservation of mass served as the experimental foun-
dation for the atomic theory. They prompted the question: “What must be true about the
nature of matter, given the truth of these laws?”
Other documents randomly have
different content
 “I would change my occupation if I knew enough to do
anything else.”
[227] This is illustrated by the experience of one housekeeper
who frequently does her own work. At these times her ordinary
kitchen expenses come within $50 per month. This sum is
exclusive of fuel, rent, and water. When employing a servant, the
same expenses amount to $80 per month, while if fuel, light, and
water were included (rent not being affected) the difference
would be still greater.
[228] Yet so great is the demand for help that this is apparently
sometimes done. In Milwaukee it is a common thing to see
affixed to houses, or standing upright in the dooryard, well-
painted signs looking as if ready for frequent use, reading “Girl
wanted.”
[229] Behaviour of Servants, p. 298.
[230] A lady recently went to an employment bureau, and in
answer to her application for “a good cook,” received the reply,
“Madam, good cooks are an extinct race.”
One large bureau in Philadelphia reports that the demand for
good servants is twenty per cent greater than the supply.
[231] The character of some of the intelligence offices in
another city is described by F. Hunt, in The American Kitchen
Magazine, November, 1895.
[232] An excellent blank is used by the employment bureau
connected with the Boston Young Women’s Christian Association.
Seven questions are asked the persons to whom the employee
has referred:

“(1) How long have you known her?

(2) Is she temperate, honest, and respectable?
(3) Is she neat in her person, and about her work?
(4) Is she of good disposition?
(5) Is she faithful to her work, and is she trustworthy?
(6) In what capacity did she serve you, and how long?
(7) Was she capable and efficient in that capacity?”
 The bureau states its aim to be “the recommendation of worthy
persons only.” The detailed form of the questions asked is more
successful in preventing an evasion of disqualifications, than is
the personal recommendation of a general character, which often
tells the truth, but not the whole truth.
One large bureau states that it formerly used blank forms,
which it sent out with each employee. Employers were asked to
fill out these blanks and return them at the end of service, and
these were kept on file as recommendations. It was soon found
that employers grew lax and would not take the pains to fill them
out, and the practice was abandoned.
[233] DeFoe says, “To be a good Master is to be a Master that
will do his Servant Justice, and that will make his Servant do him
Justice; he may be kind to a Servant, that will let him sleep when
he shou’d work, but then he is not just to himself, or a good
Governour to his Family.”—Behaviour of Servants, p. 293.
[234] Repeated statements like the following are made by
employers: “A few wealthy families keep a large number of
servants at high wages, which wholly unfits them for general
service and moderate wages, and establishes customs and rates
which cannot be met by the mass of people with moderate
incomes.”
[235] An employer recently engaged a cook at high wages with
sufficient recommendations it was supposed. The first dinner (an
hour delayed) showed her incapacity, and when questioned more
closely it was found that the only domestic work she had ever
done was preparing vegetables in a boarding house. When asked
why she had engaged as a cook, the reply was, “They told me I
could get higher wages if I called myself a cook.” The experience
does not seem to be exceptional.
[236] An employer writes: “I find no place on the schedule for
stating that my cook and coachman have to-day each given
notice of leaving unless the other is discharged.”
[237] “When I began housekeeping in 1870 I had one ‘general
housework girl’ who stayed with me nine years. Now I consider
myself fortunate to retain a cook or a second girl as many
weeks.”
“Thirty years ago I had no difficulty whatever. I do not think my
character has changed meantime, or my method of treating
servants, or our style of living, yet now it is almost impossible to
secure servants.”
“The question is very different now from what it was forty years
ago.”
“The problem in this place grows more perplexing every year.”
“Many housekeepers here are between the Scylla and
Charybdis of trying to tolerate wretched, inefficient servants, and
the impossibility of getting along with them.”
[238] “In advertising recently for a general housework girl
twelve answered the advertisement. Advertising the same week
for my former servant, twenty-two ladies applied personally and
twelve others wrote that a girl was wanted. Although I told each
of the twenty-two that if the girl were even fair I would keep her
myself, only two hesitated on that account to try to secure her.”
The report of a large employment bureau for the year 1889 is
as follows:

Number of employers registered 1,512

Number of employees registered 1,541
Number of employers supplied with servants 1,366
Number of employees supplied with situations 1,375

The number of employees registered exceeds the number of

employers, but many register who are incompetent to fill the
position they seek, and therefore many employers are without
servants. The bureau regrets “its inability at times to supply with
competent help the large number of patrons.”
Another bureau reports 2,659 applications from employers, only
2,099 of which could be filled.
Still another bureau filling about three thousand positions
annually reports that at times it has had six hundred applications
from employers in excess of the number that could be filled with
competent applicants for work.
The domestic employment bureau connected with the Boston
Young Women’s Christian Association reports for the year ending
1890:

Orders registered 2,120

Orders filled 1,753
 [239] “Our committee have been greatly puzzled to know how
to supply the constantly increasing demand for good and efficient
workers in small households, where fair compensation is offered
for moderate requirements. This demand is great in the city, but
more so in the suburbs and country. It is very difficult to find a
woman willing to take service in a family living out of sight of
Boston Common. It is still more difficult to find any one who will
go twenty miles into the country.”—Report of the Women’s
Educational and Industrial Union, Boston, 1888, p. 29.
One employer in an inland city of twenty-five thousand
inhabitants, who has a family of eight, and employs sixteen
servants, writes: “It is impossible here to secure competent
servants.”
Another employer, employing thirteen servants, in a city of
twelve thousand, writes: “It is very difficult to secure servants,
since women here prefer to work in the factories.”
One employer with seven servants and a family of two, in a
large manufacturing city, says: “It is impossible to find well-
trained employees.”
[240] “This is the first time this question has been put to me
directly, and I frankly answer, Yes—to-morrow, if an opportunity
were offered me. For years it has been my wish to find
employment of some kind which would keep me from being a
servant. Mrs. X has been very kind to me, and tried to find me
other work; but, of course, a girl who has been in a kitchen for so
long (thirteen years) is inexperienced in different work.
Nevertheless, I have met girls who had no better education than
I, and now hold high and respectable positions and make a fair
living.”
A colored man, who has been a cook for forty years, replies
with some caution: “I don’t know, unless the other work was in
sight. Can’t say, unless somebody had done offered me another
job, and I could look into it.”
[241] See articles by Mrs. Ellen W. Darwin, The Nineteenth
Century, August, 1890; Miss Amy Bulley, Westminster Review,
February, 1891; Miss Emily Faithful, North American Review, July,
1891; C. J. Rowe, Westminster Review, November, 1890, on the
question in the Australian colonies.
“If things go on much longer in the present state, we shall have
to introduce the American fashion, and live in huge human
menageries.”—M. E. Braddon.
An admirable scientific presentation of the subject of domestic
service in London is given by Charles Booth and Jesse Argyle in
Life and Labour of the People in London, Vol. VIII.
[242] It is of interest to notice some of these occupations. The
list includes apparently nearly every form of work in every kind of
mill and factory, farm work, cigar-making, sewing, dressmaking,
millinery, tailoring, crocheting, lace-making, carpet-making,
copying; places as cash girls, saleswomen, nurses, post-office
clerks, compositors, office attendants; six have been teachers;
others, ladies’ companions, governesses, and matrons. It is of
interest, also, to note that the per cent of native born who have
been engaged in other occupations is slightly higher than the per
cent of foreign born (thirty-one to twenty-five).
[243] One employee writes, “I wanted to see for myself what it
was to be a hired girl.”
[244] An employee in Colorado, who receives $35 a month,
writes: “I choose housework in preference to any other,
principally because for that I receive better pay. The average pay
for store and factory girls is eight and nine dollars a week. After
paying board and room rent, washing, etc., very little is left, and
what is left must be spent for dress—nothing saved.”
“It pays better than other kinds of work.”
“My expenses are less than in any other kind of work.”
“I can make more. I have put $100 in the savings bank in a
year and a half. I had first $10 a month, but now I have $12.”
“I can save more.”
“I can earn more without constant change.”
“I can earn more than in anything else ($15 a month), but do
not save anything as I support my mother.”
“Any one that is industrious and saving can save a great deal
by working at housework.”
“I began to live out when I was thirteen years old, and I am
now twenty-seven. I have saved $1600 in that time. At first I had
$.50 a week; now I have $3.00. One summer I earned $3.00 a
day in the hop-picking season.”
 [245] “We are not as closely confined as girls who work in
stores, and are usually more healthy.”
“I chose it because I thought it was healthy work.”
“There is no healthier work for women.”
“It is healthier than most other kinds of work I could do.”
“You can have better-cooked food and a better room than most
shop-girls.”
[246] “I came to a strange city and chose housework, because
it afforded me a home.”
“I am well treated by the family I am with, feel at home and
under their protection.”
“Housework fell to my lot and I have followed it up because it
has secured me a home.”
“Housework gives me a better home than I could make for
myself in any other way.”
“I have more comforts than in other work.”
“I like a quiet home in a good family better than work in a
public place, like a shop.”
“When I came to ⸺ and saw the looks of the girls in the
large stores and the familiarity of the young men, I preferred to
go into a respectable family where I could have a home.”
[247] The New York Evening Post, January 11, 1896, cites from
London Truth an account of a bill under consideration in the New
Zealand Parliament providing that every domestic servant in the
colony is to have a half-holiday every Wednesday, and that the
employer is to be fined £5 if the domestic is deprived of this
privilege. The “half-holiday” practically means that the servant will
be entitled to leave of absence from two until ten. Inspectors are
to be appointed to enforce the provisions of this measure, if it
becomes a law.
[248] “I choose housework as my regular employment for the
simple reason that young women look forward to the time when
they will have housework of their own to do. I consider that I or
any one in domestic employment will make a better housekeeper
than any young woman who works in a factory.”
“I think you can learn more in doing housework.”
 “It requires both care and study and so keeps our mind in
constant thought and care, and ought to be respected.”
[249] “At home I was my mother’s help even when we had a
girl of our own, and from childhood had always loved to cook,
and learned to do all kinds.”
“My mother was a housekeeper and did most of her own work
and taught me how to help her. When my father and mother
died, and it became necessary for me to earn my own living, the
question was, ‘What can I do?’ The answer was plain—
housework.”
“I have a natural love for cooking, and would rather do it than
anything else in the world.”
“I like it best, was used to it at home, and it seems more
natural-like.”
“I enjoy housework more than anything else.”
“I was a dressmaker several years because my mother thought
dressmaking more respectable than going out to work. But I
always liked housework better, and when my health broke down I
was glad to get a place as parlor maid.”
[250] A successful teacher says: “I have never liked teaching
particularly, and would much rather be a good cook.”
A sewing woman says: “I should prefer to do housework, but
do not wish to leave my home.”
A teacher says: “I am fond of children, and should like nothing
better than to be a nurse-girl, but I will not wear livery.”
[251] Law of the Domestic Relations, p. 599.
[252] Commentaries, II., 258.
[253] Kent, II., 260-261.
[254] Story, On Contracts, II., §§ 1297-1298.
[255] Starkie, On Slander and Libel, p. 19.
[256] Story, On Contracts, II., § 1304.
[257] Daly, IV., 401.
A good discussion of “The Legal Status of Servant Girls” is
given by Oliver E. Lyman, Popular Science Monthly, XXII., 803.
 [258] An article on the last point is found in the Boston Herald,
November 23, 1890.
[259] “Housework soon unfits one for any other kind of work. I
did not realize what I was doing until too late.”
“I should prefer to housework a clerkship in a store or a place
like that of sewing-girl in a tailor-shop, because there would be a
possibility of learning the trade and then going into business for
myself, or at least rising to some responsible place under an
employer.”
“I would give up housework if I could find another position that
would enable me to advance instead of remaining in the same rut
day after day.”
[260] Ante, p. 113.
[261] “You are mistress of no time of your own; other
occupations have well-defined hours, after which one can do as
she pleases without asking any one.”
[262] “Women want the free use of their time evenings and
Sundays.”
“If I could bear the confinement I would go into a mill where I
could have evenings and Sundays.”
“Sunday in a private family is usually anything but a day of rest
to the domestic, for on that day there are usually guests to dinner
or tea or both, which means extra work.”
“I wouldn’t mind working Sundays if it wasn’t for the extra
work.”
“I suppose the reason why more women choose other work is,
they would rather work all day and be done with it, and have
evenings for themselves.”
“Some families have dinner at three o’clock Sundays and lunch
at eight or nine, and that makes it very hard for girls.”
[263] “A great many very ignorant girls can get housework to
do, and a girl who has been used to neatness and the refinement
of a good home does not like to room with a girl who has just
come from Ireland and does not know what neatness means.”
“In ⸺ they have much colored help and do not have white
help, so the white girls think any other work is better than
housework.”
 “In California self-respecting girls do not like to work with
Chinamen—they do not know how to treat women.”
“Before the introduction of Chinese labor a young girl never lost
social caste by doing housework; but since this element came,
household service as an occupation has fallen in the social
scale.”—Employer.
“When a native American girl goes out to housework she loses
caste at once, and can hardly find pleasure in the foreign
immigrants that form the majority of servants, and who make
most of the trouble from their ignorance and preconceived
notions of America.”—Employer.
[264] “The reason for dislike of housework is the want of
liberty, and the submission which girls have to submit to when
they have to comply with whatever rules a mistress may deem
necessary. Therefore many girls go into mechanical pursuits, that
some of their life may be their own.”
“Girls in housework are bossed too much.”
“There are too many mistresses in the house when the mother
and grown-up daughters are all at home.”
“Most of us would like a little more independence, and to do
our work as we please.”
“In housework you receive orders from half a dozen persons, in
a shop or factory from but one.”
“A man doesn’t let his wife and daughters and sons interfere in
the management of his mill or factory—why does a housekeeper
let everybody in the house boss?”
[265] A description of domestic service in Japan is of value on
this point. “From the steward of your household, to your jinrikisha
man or groom, every servant in your establishment does what is
right in his own eyes, and after the manner he thinks best. Mere
blind obedience to orders is not regarded as a virtue in a
Japanese servant; he must do his own thinking, and, if he cannot
grasp the reason for your order, that order will not be carried
out.” “Even in the treaty ports [Japanese attendants] have not
resigned their right of private judgment, but, if faithful and
honest, seek the best good of their employer, even if his best
good involves disobedience of his orders.”—Alice M. Bacon,
Japanese Girls and Women, pp. 299, 301.
 F. R. Feudge, in How I Kept House by Proxy, quotes from her
Chinese cook, who said that he could boast of forty years “of
study and practice in his profession.” “I am always willing to be
told what to do, but never how to execute the order—especially
when in that department I happen to know far more than my
teachers.”—Scribner’s Monthly, September, 1881.
[266] A shrewd young colored woman gives her version,
verbally, of the servant question. She lays great stress on her own
“bringin’ up,” as “she wa’n’t brung up by trash,” and thinks the
average colored girl “only a nigger.” She prefers to live “at
service,” but insists upon “high-toned” employers, and “can’t
abide common folks.”
[267] “In some families no acquaintance can call on the
servant; she may have one or two friends, but the number is
always limited, because, says the lady of the house, not without
truth, ‘Who wants a dozen strange girls running in and out of
one’s back door?’”
[268] “There are reasons why I sometimes feel dissatisfied with
doing housework for other people. I would prefer to do work
where people would say, supposing they were to give a company,
‘There is Miss So and So, let us invite her.’” This is from an
unusually intelligent employee who says she does housework
because she likes to do it best, and because a domestic can have
better-cooked food and a better-ventilated room than most shop-
girls, and who also writes, “Intelligence, brains, and good
judgment are essential in getting up a dinner for six or eight.”
[269] One illustration of this social barrier was found in a small
manufacturing city. The factory employees, all men and skilled
workmen, arranged one winter a series of evening
entertainments. Invitations were sent to the self-supporting
women in the city, the list including dressmakers, milliners,
stenographers, saleswomen, and others, but the social line was
drawn at cooks.
[270] A lady was recently about to complete the engagement
of a cook, a German girl, when the head of the employment
bureau said: “I fear after all that A B will not suit you. You live in
a flat, and as she wishes to take violin lessons her practising
might annoy you.” The incident was narrated to a company of
friends, and created much amusement, until one said, “This
shows how unregenerate we are; why should she not take violin
lessons?” It is not easy to find an answer.
 A gentleman, whose family includes only himself and his wife,
writes: “Our maid-of-all-work is a young Swedish girl of eighteen,
who recently came to America. Three months ago she said, ‘If I
had a musical instrument and a place to practise, I would get a
music teacher and stay with you always.’ A few days later my
married daughter sent us an organ of sweet tone, which was
placed in a small room little used. We gave our maid permission
to use it, and she at once secured a teacher. This morning she
said: ‘My father writes me if I am on the street much. I write him,
No, I enjoy myself better—I practise my music.’ We seem to have
solved the domestic question—at least for a time.”
[271] “I should like work where I could come in contact with
more people who would be of help to me.”
“A young woman doing housework is shut out from all society,
nor can she make any plans for pleasure or study, for her time is
not her own.”
“No one seems to think a girl who works out good enough to
associate with, except those who are in domestic service
themselves.”
“Domestics never have a chance to go to school or study.”
A domestic employee recently went to a public library for a
book. The attendant was about to give it to her, thinking from her
manner and appearance that she was a teacher in a neighboring
school; but when the question was asked and the answer given,
“not a teacher, but a housemaid,” the book was withheld, as
servants were required to bring recommendations.
[272] “Domestics are not admitted into any society, and are
often for want of a little pleasure driven to seek it in company
that is often coarse and vulgar.”
“It is very hard for a young, refined woman to give up a
pleasant home, and live constantly with ignorant and ill-bred
people, as is very often the case where more than one servant is
kept.”
[273] “I fairly hate the word ‘servant.’”
“I don’t like to be called a ‘menial.’”
“The girls in shops call us ‘livers-out.’”
“No woman likes to be called a ‘hired girl.’”
“American girls don’t like the name ‘servants.’”
 “I know many nice girls who would do housework, but they
prefer doing almost anything else rather than be called
‘servants.’”
“Some people call us ‘kitchen mechanics.’”
“I don’t know why we should be called ‘servants’ any more than
other people.”
[274] A woman who had been for years a domestic employee
left her place on account of sickness, and ultimately opened a
small bakeshop. Her former employer called on her one day, and
said, “Well, Sarah, how do you like your work?” She replied, “I
never thought of it before, but now that you speak, I think the
reason I like it so well is because everybody calls me ‘Miss Clark.’”
An employer invited her Sunday-school class to her home to
spend an evening. One of the members went into the kitchen to
render some assistance, and found there the housemaid, an
unusually attractive young woman. The employer said, “Miss M,
this is Kate.” The maid, who never before had showed the
slightest consciousness of occupying an inferior position, said,
under her breath, “I am Miss, too.”
[275] That this jest has a basis of fact in England is evident
from the testimony of the footman of the Earl of Northbrook, who
some time since stated under oath, in a court of law, that
although his regular wages amounted to but $300 annually, yet
he received from $2,000 to $2,500 more each year in the shape
of tips from the Earl’s guests. “Her Majesty’s Servants,” in the
New York Tribune, August 23, 1896.
[276] Mr. W. D. Howells has an excellent discussion of the
feeing system in Harper’s Weekly, May 16, 1896; also, Julia R.
Tutwiler in the American Kitchen Magazine, April, 1896; still a
third is found in the Outlook, August 8, 1896.
[277] One illustration of the fact that domestic service is never
judged by the same social canons as are other occupations, is
seen in the unwillingness shown by a young woman to enter the
service of a family having a questionable reputation. Her
“squeamishness,” as it was called, excited only laughter in a circle
of women, no one of whom would have exchanged calls with the
family in question.
[278] First Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics of
Connecticut, 1885, p. 12.
 [279] An employer writes: “I recently advertised for a young
woman to help me with the children, and be received as one of
the family. The forty answers received formed the most pathetic
reading I have ever seen. My selection was the daughter of a
poor clergyman, and this was the class from which the majority of
the answers came. All desired domestic service if unaccompanied
with social degradation.”
How conscious many are of this inferior position is seen from a
single illustration. An employer recently invited her housemaid to
take a boat-ride with her. The maid replied, “I should love to go if
you wouldn’t be ashamed to be seen with me.”
[280] This is especially true in the matter of wages where
wages and annual earnings are confused, the element of time lost
never being considered. The fact is also often overlooked that
when a young woman lives at home without paying her board,
her family in effect pay a part of her wages and thus enable the
employer to pay her low wages, though nominally more than paid
in housework. Thus one employee writes: “If girls have homes
where their board is given them, they can earn more money on
other kinds of work than in housework.”
[281] Domestic service, as seen by the employee, cannot be
dismissed without suggesting the fact that as many tragedies in
life are found here as elsewhere. One employee had planned to
be a teacher, but sudden deafness prevented, and domestic
service was all she could do. Another hoped to become a
physician, but loss of property prevented her from completing her
education. A similar reason prevented another from becoming a
trained nurse. One had hoped to be a dressmaker, but it became
necessary to earn money at once without serving an
apprenticeship. Could the struggles and disappointments in
thousands of such lives be known, the household employee would
cease to be the butt of jest and ridicule that she sometimes is.
[282] An employer in South Carolina writes: “The difficulty here
can only be removed by the importation of competent servants.”
[283] The following table will indicate the preference:

Number No White help Negroes

City or State
examined preference preferred preferred
Charleston 259 143 65 51
Louisville 200 104 80 16
New Orleans 145 103 35 7
Savannah 106 66 26 14
Texas 67 31 35 1
Washington, D.C. 135 61 54 20
Total 912 508 295 109

The Charleston Employment Bureau advertises, “White help

especially in demand.” In Texas the proportion of the foreign born
population is larger than in any other of the Southern states, and
advertisements from all the leading cities in the state show a
decided preference for German or Swedish domestics. One from
the Fort Worth Gazette reads, “Wanted—A white woman (German
or Swede preferred) as cook in a private family.” This illustrates a
large number of “wants.” An employer writes from Austin, “In
Texas cities domestic service is furnished by Germans and Swedes
to a large extent, and the tendency to employ them is growing.”
[284] “The older generation of negroes who were trained for
service have nearly all died, and the survivors are too old to be
efficient. The younger negroes are too lazy to be of much use.”—
Brenham, Texas.
“Old colored servants that were trained before the war are now
inefficient; the younger ones will not submit to training.”—Austin,
Texas.
“Old trained colored servants are no longer to be had,—
younger ones are not well trained, and consequently cannot do
first class work. White servants are better trained, but scarce, and
therefore independent.”—Austin, Texas.
“We have 80,000 colored people in the city. The old trained
servants of slavery times are mostly passed away, and the
younger ones have not been properly trained.”—Washington, D.C.
“The servants who were trained before ‘freedom’ are too old to
do good work, and they are not training their children to be
efficient.”—Anderson, South Carolina.
“The majority of those now seeking domestic service are
ignorant, uneducated, untrustworthy.”—Biloxi, Mississippi.
“Servants have no training.”—Edgefield, South Carolina.
[285] “One difficulty here is the indifference of our colored
servants to what the morrow may bring forth. They are capable
of living on a very small amount, and they assist each other
during the time unoccupied.”—Charleston, South Carolina.
“The negroes do not know how to render good service as a
rule, and they do not understand the term ‘thorough.’”—
Charleston, South Carolina.
“Colored help have to be very patiently and charitably dealt
with.”—Washington, D.C.
“The difficulty here is the general shiftlessness and liking for
changed conditions that is characteristic of the colored race.”—
Austin, Texas.
“There is special difficulty here during the cotton-picking
season.”—Austin, Texas.
“The majority of our servants, who are negroes, are not willing
to do steady, faithful work for reasonable wages. Their idea of
freedom is to come and go at will, and they expect full wages for
light work.”—Austin, Texas.
“The ease with which subsistence can be obtained in this
productive climate and the high wages earned during the cotton-
picking season make the labor supply unstable.”—Austin, Texas.
“The negroes need training, but rarely remain in one place long
enough to repay one for the trouble of teaching them.”—
Brenham, Texas.
“The negroes will do well enough if one is willing to overlook
carelessness.”—Johnston, South Carolina.
“The colored servants do not like to be kept at steady
employment.”—Trenton, South Carolina.
“The majority work only as a make-shift, with no idea of
remaining.”—Biloxi, Mississippi.
“The whole colored race is in a transitional period which is full
of evils.”—Marion, Alabama.
“Negroes are very stubborn under harsh treatment, but
respond quickly to kind treatment.”—Crescent City, Florida.
“Most of the negroes are indifferent to improving in any way as
long as they have enough to eat, a place to sleep, and clothes to
wear.”—Tallahassee, Florida.
[286] A southern gentleman well known as a student of social
science writes in regard to the importation of negroes to the
North: “There is nothing to hope from it. I have been reared in
the South, and I know the negro well. Speaking as one with no
sectional prejudice and with the broadest sympathy for blacks as
well as whites, I must tell you that in general negroes will not
serve you as well as the Irish, Germans, or Swedes. Personal
attachment alone will secure good service from colored people.”
[287] “I must say from my own experience and observation
that well-trained Chinese are the very best servants to be had
here.”—San Francisco, California.
“I have grown up with Chinamen in the house, and it seems to
me quite revolting and unnatural to have in the heart of the
house an alien woman who speaks your language, knows your
affairs, is even in a way dependent on your companionship, yet is
nothing to you as a friend, and would never be asked even as a
guest into the house if it rested on her personal qualities.”—San
Francisco, California.
“Our Chinese cook is an admirable servant, invariably
respectful, and does his work beautifully; he has the self-respect
to fill every requirement of respectful and obedient behavior that
the occasion calls for.”—San Francisco, California.
“Three Chinese were the most satisfactory servants we ever
employed. In a housekeeping experience of nearly fifty years we
have employed negro, Norwegian, and Irish servants.”—San
Francisco, California.
[288] “The difficulty can only be removed by repealing the
restriction act.”—Centerville, California.
“The Chinese have become very independent since the new
restriction act.”—San Francisco, California.
“The restriction act made the Chinese very independent. They
thought the stopping of the supply would make those already
here able to command higher wages.”—San Francisco, California.
“One difficulty is the exclusion act.”—San Francisco, California.
[289] Co-operative Housekeeping. The book is now out of
print, but the original articles on which it is based can be found in
the Atlantic Monthly, November, 1868, to March, 1869.
[290] A full account of the plan is given in Good Housekeeping,
July 19, 1890. It was also described in nearly all of the daily
papers during May and June, 1890.
 [291] A more complete and possibly more serious account of
Mr. Bellamy’s views than that found in Looking Backward is given
by him in Good Housekeeping, December 21, 1889.
[292] The New York Tribune says of the sewing women in that
city: “They are a product of city life; a sort of vitalized machines,
fitted only to do a certain mechanical work and disabled for any
other industry mainly because they have been fastened to a
sewing-machine all their lives.”
[293] “The men of my family would consider it the greatest
disgrace if one of the women connected with it were to support
herself.”
[294] Mr. Charles Dudley Warner asserts that women teachers
have no social position (Harper’s Monthly, April, 1895). But his
statements can apply only to some of the ultra-fashionable
finishing schools in two or three large cities.
[295] It is the testimony of more than one employer that those
domestics remain longest in a place and are most content who
have a taste for sewing and reading. Those who are wholly
dependent for pleasure on excitement and change form of
necessity a restless class.
[296] The word “servant” has been used many times in this
work, but it has seemed unavoidable in the absence of any other
generally recognized term.
[297] It has been suggested that the word “homemaker” be
applied to the mistress of the house and “housekeeper” to the
employee; “working housekeeper” is often used of an efficient
caretaker who does her work without direction; “domestic” and
“house helper” seem wholly unobjectionable. It certainly is not
necessary in abandoning one objectionable word to adopt
another equally so. The Lynn, Massachusetts, papers, for
example, advertise under “wants” for a “forelady in stitching
room,” “a position as forewoman by a lady thoroughly familiar
with all parts of shoe stitching,” “on millinery an experienced
saleslady.” In other places one finds “a gentlewoman who desires
employment at twenty-five cents an hour.” The public has much
to answer for in the misuse of both “servant” and “lady.”
[298] Japanese Girls and Women, p. 304.
[299] Ante, Chap. II.
 [300] This does not refer to ordinary baker’s bread, but to that
made according to scientific principles, such as is sold at the New
England Kitchen in Boston and by the Boston Health Food
Company.
[301] A beginning in this direction has already been made in
the case of vegetables canned for winter use. In the canning
factories of Western New York an ingenious pea huller is in use
which does away with much of the laborious process hitherto
necessary. In a trial of speed it was recently found that one
machine could shell twenty-eight bushels of peas in twenty
minutes. In some of the largest cities the principle has been
applied, and this vegetable is delivered ready for use; but such
preparation should be made universal and all other vegetables
added to the list.
[302] Cited by Bolles, p. 413.
[303] Bolles, p. 130.
[304] The Oriental Tea Company of Boston sends out coffee
and guarantees it to maintain a temperature of 150° Fahrenheit
for twenty-four hours. The experiment has been tried of sending
it from Boston to St. Louis, with the result of maintaining a
temperature of 148° at the end of three days.
[305] The women connected with two churches in a city in
Indiana have maintained for some time such sales, and they have
proved very remunerative. In one city in New Jersey $1,200 was
raised in a few weeks to pay a church mortgage. In a Long Island
village several hundred dollars was raised for a similar purpose by
the women of the church, who took orders for cooking and
sewing. In an Iowa city funds were obtained in this way for
missionary purposes. In a village of five hundred inhabitants, in
Central New York, the women of one of the churches have sold,
every Saturday afternoon for eight years, ices and ice-creams,
and have cleared annually about seventy-five dollars. In another
town, several women of limited incomes began paying their
contributions to the church by baking bread and cake for other
families, and finding it remunerative continued the work as a
means of support. In one Western city an annual sale is held at
Thanksgiving time, and about one hundred dollars netted for
home missionary purposes.
[306] The Woman’s Exchange, The Forum, May, 1892.
 [307] Many illustrations of this can be given outside of those
connected with the Exchange:
Mrs. A, in Central New York, has made a handsome living by
making chicken salad to be sold in New York City.
Mrs. B, in a small Eastern village, has for several years baked
bread, pies, and cake for her neighbors, and in this way has
supported herself, three children, and a father. She has recently
built a separate bakehouse, and bakes from thirty to one hundred
loaves daily, according to the season, and other things in
proportion. She says she always had a “knack” at baking, and
that when she employs an assistant she has nearly every
afternoon to herself.
Mrs. C, in a Western city, supports herself, three children, and
an invalid husband, by making cake.
Mrs. D makes a good living by selling Saratoga potatoes to
grocers.
Mrs. E has cleared $400 a year by making preserves and jellies
on private orders.
Mrs. F partially supports herself and family by making food for
the sick.
Mrs. G supports a family of five by making jams and pickles.
Mrs. H has built up a large business, employing from three to
five assistants, in making cake and salad.
Mrs. I, in a small Eastern city, began by borrowing a barrel of
flour, and now has a salesroom where she sells daily from eighty
to one hundred dozen Parker House rolls, in addition to bread
made in every possible way, from every kind of grain.
Mrs. J, in a small Western city, sells salt-risings bread to the
value of $30 a week; and Mrs. K, in the same place, Boston
brown bread to the value of $75 a week.
Mrs. L, living on a farm near a Southern city, has built up “an
exceedingly remunerative business” by selling to city grocers
preserves, pickles, cakes, and pies. “One cause of her success
has been the fact that she would allow no imperfect goods to be
sold; everything has been of the best whether she has gained or
lost on it.”
Mrs. M supports herself by taking orders for fancy cooking.
 Mrs. N, living in a large city, sells to grocers baked beans and
rolls.
Mrs. O, in New York City, has netted $1,000 a year by preparing
mince-meat and making pies of every description.
Mrs. P, in a small village on Lake Superior, has large orders
from cities in Southern Michigan for strawberry and raspberry
jam.
Mrs. Q, in a country village of five hundred inhabitants, sells
thirty loaves of bread daily.
Mrs. R and two daughters last year netted $1,500 (above all
expenses except house rent) in preparing fancy lunch dishes on
shortest notice, and delicacies for invalids.
Mrs. S puts up pure fruit juices and shrubs.
Mrs. T prepares consommé in the form of jelly ready to melt
and serve.
Mrs. U has made a fair income by preparing and selling fresh
sweet herbs.
These illustrations can be multiplied indefinitely. They have
come to notice in nearly every state in the Union, and in places
varying in size from country villages without railroad stations to
such cities as Chicago, Philadelphia, and New York.
[308] Mrs. A has for several years gone from house to house at
stated times sweeping and dusting rooms containing fine bric-à-
brac.
Mr. B cares for all of the lawns of a large number of gentlemen,
each of whom pays him a fixed sum for the season in proportion
to the size of his grounds.
Mr. C cares for all of the furnaces and clears the walks in a city
block.
Mrs. D earns a partial support by arranging tables for lunches
and afternoon teas.
Mrs. E washes windows once in two weeks for a number of
employers.
Mrs. F takes charge of all arrangements for afternoon teas.
Mrs. G earns $3 a day as a cook on special occasions.
Miss H waits on a table in a boarding house three hours a day.
 Miss I distributes the clothes from the laundry in a large city
school.
Mrs. J is kept busy as a cook, serving as a substitute in kitchens
temporarily vacant.
Mrs. K derives a considerable income from the supervision of
party suppers. “Her social position is quite unaffected by it.”
Mrs. L “makes herself generally useful” at the rate of ten cents
an hour if regularly employed and twenty cents when serving
occasionally.
Mrs. M goes out as a waitress at lunches and dinners.
Mrs. N employs a young man working his way through school
to keep wood-boxes and coal-hods filled.
Many college students in cities partially pay their expenses by
table service.
Hotels and restaurants frequently send out waiters on special
occasions.
One employer writes, “I think a central office in this city at
which competent waitresses could be hired by the hour would be
largely patronized.”
The Syracuse, New York, Household Economic Club publishes a
Household Register, giving the names and addresses of all
persons in the city who do by the piece, hour, or day all forms of
household work. Thirty-five different classes of work are
enumerated.
[309] See also article on the “Revival of Hand Spinning and
Weaving in Westmoreland,” by Albert Fleming, Century Magazine,
February, 1889.
[310] One writes, “I find it much better to employ one servant
and to hire work by the piece, and to purchase from the
Exchange, rather than to employ an extra servant.”
Another housekeeper writes: “I began housekeeping twelve
years ago with three servants and had more than enough work
for all. I now have two and have not enough work for them,
although my family is larger than at first. The change has come
from putting work out of the house and hiring much done by the
piece.”
 A business man writes: “Our family is happier than it ever
dared hope to be under the sway of Green Erin. We purchase all
baked articles and all cooked meats as far as possible. A caterer
is employed on special occasions, and work that cannot be done
by the parents, three children, and two aunts, who compose the
family, is hired by the hour. Since we signed our Declaration of
Independence in 1886, peace has reigned.”
Still another says: “I used to employ a laundress in the house
at $4 per week and board. I was also at expense in furnishing
soap, starch, bluing, and paid a large additional water tax. Now
my laundress lives at home, and does my laundry there for $4 per
week, and we are both better satisfied.”
Several small families who do “light housekeeping,” have found
that they have in this way been able to live near the business of
the men of the family, and thus have kept the family united and
intact, as they could not have done had it been necessary to
employ servants.
One employee writes, “If more housework were done by the
day so that more women could be with their families in the
evening, I think it would help matters.”
[311] Seventeenth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Bureau
of Statistics of Labor, p. 157.
[312] Profit Sharing between Employer and Employee, p. 8.
[313] Methods of Industrial Remuneration, p. 158.
[314] Schloss, Methods of Industrial Remuneration, p. 173.
[315] Gilman, Profit Sharing, p. 189.
[316] Seventeenth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Bureau
of Labor, p. 178.
[317] Schloss, Report on Profit Sharing, p. 157.
[318] Ibid., p. 160.
[319] Schloss, Report on Profit Sharing, pp. 158-159.
[320] Schloss, Methods of Industrial Remuneration, pp. 173-
174.
[321] Schloss, Report, p. 158.
[322] Wright, Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor,
1886, p. 231.
 [323] Ibid., p. 172.
[324] This included the purchase of two new labor-saving
appliances for the kitchen, costing $5.70. The maid was given the
choice of having the new utensils or dividing a surplus; she chose
the former.
[325] This included the presence in the family of two guests for
two weeks.
[326] One housekeeper reports that she gives her cook five
cents for every new soup, salad, made-over dish, or dessert that
proves acceptable to the majority of the family. She thus secures
variety and economy in the use of materials.
One reports that she has a German cook who understands
thoroughly the purchase and use of all household materials. The
cook is given a fixed sum each week with which to make
purchases, and she keeps whatever sum remains after these have
been made. The family report that they have never lived so well,
or with so much comfort and so much economy as since the plan
has been tried.
Another states that she adds at the end of the month twenty
per cent to the wages of her waitress if no article of glass or
china has been nicked, cracked, or broken during the time.
These are all variations of the same principle.
[327] An admirable work on Household Sanitation has been
published by Miss Marion Talbot and Mrs. Ellen S. Richards.
[328] The work in this direction carried on by Professor W. O.
Atwater of Wesleyan University has been of the greatest value,
and indicates the lines along which future investigation must be
made.
[329] Letter to the Clergy of the Diocese of New York, May 15,
1886.
[330] The Century, June, 1894.
[331] An excellent classification of standards of work and
wages has been drawn up by the committee on Household
Economics of the Civic Club of Philadelphia. See Appendix III.
[332] Maria Mitchell, p. 26.
[333] “However grievous the ‘servant problem’ may be in some
English households, it sinks into insignificance when compared
with the conditions on the other side of the Atlantic.” Alice
Zimmern, in The Leisure Hour, May, 1899.
[334] Ante, chaps. VI., VIII., IX.
[335] This is apparently the case universally in France and in
Italy. In Italy, while the washing is always done out of the house,
the ironing is often done at home. In Lombardy “a woman of
color” washes the colored clothes and flannels, which are kept
distinct from the ordinary laundry. On the continent bed linen is
often changed only once in two, three, or even four weeks—a
custom that has at least the advantage of reducing to a minimum
this part of the household work.
“In England it is becoming the rule, except in large households
with laundries of their own, and in households managed on
narrow means, to send this work out.”—Miss Collet, Report, p. 9.
“Washing is put out, as it is now almost impossible to get a girl
who will do it.”—Employer, cited by Miss Collet, Report, p. 30.
[336] In some parts of Switzerland women come in from
outside every six weeks and do all the laundry work of a
household for that period.
[337] The legal relations between employer and employee are
everywhere prescribed with more or less fulness, but in Germany
the laws are very minute in character, while the contract in
particular is much more rigid, and it is carried out in much greater
detail than elsewhere. The laws for Prussia are given in Posseldt,
while a summary for the Empire is given in Braun. Each state has
its own laws on the subject, but as far as I have been able to
examine them, they are practically the same in principle.
I am indebted to Mrs. John H. Converse for permission to use
an exhaustive statement of the legal relations between mistress
and maid in England prepared by Mrs. Henry C. Lea of
Philadelphia.
Weber, in Les Usages locaux, sums up many of the points in
French law.
[338] Braun, chaps. VII., XI.
“In England situations are usually subject to a month’s notice
on either side.”—Booth, VIII., 221.
No special contract is made in France, with the result that “one
changes domestics these days almost as often as political
convictions.”—Weber, p. 45.
In Italy, also, no special contract is required, though a servant
cannot be turned off without giving him ten days’ notice or a
week’s wages.
[339] Posseldt, p. 75. Braun, chap. XIV.
But under many circumstances, specified with great exactness,
a servant may be legally dismissed without notice. Posseldt, pp.
64-70, gives a list of nineteen cases where this may be done in
Prussia; the laws for Saxony are very similar (pp. 28-30); Braun,
chap. XII., gives twenty-one.
[340] Braun, p. 64. In Saxony he is at liberty to choose
between returning to his place, paying a fine of 30M., or being
imprisoned for eight days. Gesindeordnung für das Königreich
Sachsen, p. 8.
The employee is also privileged under certain conditions to
break the contract without notice. Braun, chap. XII., enumerates
seven. These are the same in Prussia, Posseldt, pp. 70-74;
Schork, p. 38, gives only five for Baden.
[341] The fine in Saxony is a maximum one of 150M., and the
imprisonment the maximum one of six weeks. Gesindeordnung,
p. 10.
[342] Weber says, “If you have serious complaints to make,
either seek legal redress or say nothing.” Pp. 53-54.
[343] In Italy the servant is protected by very stringent laws
punishing slander and defamation.
[344] In England “the majority of adult male indoor domestic
servants are in large households employing over six servants.”—
Miss Collet, Report, p. 23.
“Every English man-servant is apt to consider himself a
specialist.... This want of elasticity has led to his gradual
disappearance from all except the most wealthy households.”—
Booth, VIII., 227.
In Italy cooks are very generally men. In France nearly all
domestic work in the provincial hotels is performed by men. In
Germany waiters are, as a rule, men.
[345] This competition is not wholly unknown. In a pension in
Athens the second waiter, a Greek, left because unwilling to take
orders from an Armenian head waiter. French servants sometimes
go to the French cantons of Switzerland, and the reverse. The
same is true of German and Italian servants who are found in the
German and the Italian cantons. But the permanent migration of
servants from one country to another, especially on the continent,
is very slight. The reason usually given is, “They do not
understand the ways of another country and are unhappy in it.”
[346] “Not only will the foreigner work for less wages, but he is
better educated and more thoroughly trained. Whilst in this
country a waiter’s duties are ‘picked up’ in an irregular way, in
Germany or Switzerland the work is properly taught by a regular
system of apprenticeship. The knowledge of continental language
which the foreigner possesses is found useful, and he has,
moreover, a higher reputation than our own countrymen for
neatness and civility.”—Booth, VIII., 235.
[347] English, French, and German are universally spoken by
waiters in all the large hotels and pensions on the continent. Two
or three other languages in addition are often found. One waiter
in a very primitive hotel in Olympia, Greece, spoke eight. This can
scarcely be considered exceptional. “The waiting staff of the great
modern hotels consists mainly of foreigners.”—Booth, VIII., 231-
232.
[348] In certain quarters of London the boarding-houses are
full of waiters who have come over from the continent to learn
English. Many waiters not French by birth took advantage of the
Exposition in 1900 to improve their French by going to Paris at
that time. It is not unusual for travellers to be asked concerning
possible openings in hotels and pensions where waiters would
have an opportunity of learning a new language.
[349] For wages in England, see Miss Collet, Report on the
Money Wages of Indoor Domestic Servants, and Booth, VIII., 217,
221-224, 227-228, 231-235; for wages in France, M. Bienaymé in
Journal de la Société de Statistique de Paris, November, 1899,
and M. Salomon in La Nouvelle Revue, February 1, 1886. I have
been unable to find satisfactory statistics concerning the wages
paid in Germany and in Italy. Numerous inquiries lead me to
believe that they are somewhat lower in Italy and in Spain than
elsewhere (an English housekeeper residing in Spain for twenty-
five years reports that general servants in Spain receive from
$1.25 to $2.00 a month, cooks, who are considered “artists,”
receiving somewhat more), and that in Germany the variations
are not so great as in England in the wages paid in different
classes of society. This, however, is but an impression, and the
judgment cannot be considered authoritative.
[350] “We understand that the plan of paying board-wages
throughout the year instead of providing food is increasing, and is
usually at the rate of 16s. per week for upper men-servants, 14s.
for footmen, and 12s. to 14s. for women-servants.”—Booth, VIII.,
230.
“Another disturbing feature in many Irish households is the
practice of paying ‘breakfast wages’ in some cases, and ‘full
board’ wages in others.”—Miss Collet, Report, p. 10.
[351] M. Babeau says that in France as far back as 1692 a
good cook expected presents at Easter and on Saint Martin’s day
as well as at New Year’s. P. 283.
“To the 600 francs (given a domestic in the fashionable
quarters of Paris) must be added gifts and New Year’s
presents.”—M. Jules Simon, cited by M. Salomon, p. 549.
“A usually substantial Christmas box is given the waiters in
West-End London clubs.”—Booth, VIII., 231.
In Germany, while a servant cannot legally claim presents at
Christmas, New Year’s, and similar times (Welche Rechte und
Pflichten haben Herrschaft und Gesinde? p. 30), the custom of
giving them is universal. “I would not dare to give less than thirty
marks at Christmas to the cook and twenty marks to the
chambermaid.”—German housekeeper, Dresden.
It is not uncommon in Germany for housekeepers to give
presents on the anniversaries of the days their servants come to
them, and medals on special anniversaries, as the tenth or
twenty-fifth. This explains the custom of the German Housewives’
Society in New York of presenting $10 gold pieces to employees
who have served faithfully for two years in the home of a
member of the society. The Evening Post (New York), December
12, 1900.
“I always give my cook twenty lire at Christmas and ten lire at
the fête of the Madonna.”—Italian housekeeper, Milan.
[352] “I often give a present of two marks between times, pay
often for extra service, and give my servants a great deal of cast-
off clothing. The head of a factory is not obliged to propitiate the
bad temper and sullen moods of his employees with gifts and
fees as we housekeepers have to do.”—German housekeeper,
Berlin.
“I give my cook a great deal of my husband’s cast-off clothing
and the housemaid much of my own.”—Italian housekeeper,
Rome.
[353] “I would not think of leaving less than two shillings with
the housemaid when I have spent a night in a friend’s house.”—
Englishwoman, Cambridge.
“I always leave five shillings with the servant when I spend
Sunday with friends, and as she always seems glad to see me
when I return I imagine it is enough.”—Englishwoman, London.
The traditional reply ascribed to Hanway (Bouniceau-Gesmon,
p. 134) in declining an invitation from an English lord, “I am not
rich enough to dine with you,” is typical of what one often hears
in England.
“Vails to servants in households where a considerable number
of visitors are entertained must be an important item in the real
earnings of servants.”—Miss Collet, Report, p. 29.
An admirable discussion of the whole subject of fees paid by
guests is given by W. J. Stillman in The Nation, October 11, 1900.
See also The Nation, November 8, 1900. Mr. Albert Matthews in
The Nation, December 13, 1900, cites an extract from the London
Chronicle that shows that the custom dates back certainly as far
as 1765.
Babeau, pp. 301-302, discusses the abuses of the custom in
France, though they are less there than in Italy, and especially in
England “where one cannot go out to dine without encountering,
on leaving, all the servants drawn up in line and holding out their
hands.”
[354] “It is very stupid, but it is generally done.”—German
housekeeper, Dresden.
“The cook makes about three marks a month in this way.”—
German housekeeper, Berlin.
“The ‘sou in the franc’ that certain tradesmen agree to give
servants is not only tolerated, but it is recognized as a right.”—M.
G. Salomon, p. 549.
“In the expression ‘theft’ we do not hesitate to include the
‘dancing of the basket’; the ‘sou in the franc’ given by some
dealers does not constitute an act of disloyalty on the part of the
domestic. It is for the master, if he would escape this tax, to levy
it on the tradesmen less clever in advertising, unless he is very
sure that the merchant makes the servant this allowance out of
his profits alone.”—Weber, p. 47.
“In fact, the part taken by our servants in the purchase and use
of almost all articles of consumption makes a necessary increase
in the wages paid. Thus even before coming to the kitchen,
provisions undergo an increase in cost from the fact that they are
bought by the mercenary person who attends to the marketing;
this does not include customary augmentations, the sou per
pound or the sou in the franc, said to be met by the merchant,
and certain others which, on account of their constant increase,
deserve special mention.”—Bienaymé, pp. 366-367.
“What is done by these servants hired for a limited time? They
go to the merchant and impose upon him the law of division of
profits. The merchant raises the price, and the stranger buys the
article for more than it should cost. These servants even levy a
tax upon the eating-house keeper; the livery-stable keeper is
obliged to pay them as much as twenty sous a day; these profits
have become customary.”—Mercier, V., 156.
Bouniceau-Gesmon, pp. 107-113, cites from an unnamed
English author a long account of similar practices in England.
“My cook always gets three lire from the butcher and three
from the grocer at Christmas.”—Italian housekeeper.
[355] M. Colletet narrates the story of a young girl from the
country who was told of a situation where in addition to her
regular wages she could get various profits, such as ashes, old
shoes, remnants of bread and meat, and various tidbits.—Le
Tracas de Paris, p. 229.
M. Babeau, p. 283, cites from Fournier, Vanités historiques et
littéraires, V., 243-257, the advice of an old servant to a new one
as to ways of cheating his master, such as burning much wood in
order to have many ashes, saving from articles for the table, etc.
It is thus that a cook has been able to lay up enough to buy five
large farms, while her husband, the coachman, has on his part
saved out of the hay and straw bought for the stables.
“A large number of cooks increase these profits by illicit gains,
and the tradesmen themselves, with no other reason than the
fear of losing their customers, obligingly wink at, or rather
become parties in, this trickery.”—M. Jules Simon, cited by M.
Salomon, p. 549.
“The cook either brings short weight or reports paying a higher
price than he has paid—he has many dodges. The housekeeper
must weigh over again the articles purchased, or go to market to
ascertain, if possible, the real price of articles bought, or submit
to imposition.”—Housekeeper in Spain.
[356] Under this head come cast-off clothing, skins of animals,
bones, tallow, drippings, etc. A. Weber, Les Usages locaux, p. 48.
[357] “Beer (or beer money) is allowed at the rate of about one
pint a day for women-servants.”—Booth, VIII., 220 (1896).
Miss Collet considers it established that in England the custom
of paying beer money is dying out, many employers not only give
no beer money but also give no beer. Report, p. 29 (1899).
In Italy women-servants are allowed one-half pint of wine per
day, and men-servants one pint. The wine is given out each day,
or the money equivalent at the end of the month.
[358] Les Usages locaux, p. 52.
[359] The laws of insurance against accident, sickness,
invalidism, and old age compel the employer to pay one-half the
insurance,—about three dollars per year. It is said, however, that
as a rule the employer pays the entire amount. It is true this
amount is small in families employing but one servant and paying
low wages, but where several servants are kept and high wages
given the total amount is considerable. On the other hand, the
burden is often relatively, though not absolutely, heavier in the
family with one servant on low wages, since this means a small
income. The amount of insurance varies with the wages, but the
wages received by most domestics place them in Class II. The
government rates board and lodging received by servants at
350M. per annum, and this with the cash wages received puts the
insurance at about three dollars annually, an amount slightly in
excess of that paid by the employees in Class I. See
Unfallversicherungsgesetz, Krankenversicherungsgesetz, and Das
Reichsgesetz über die Invaliditäts- und Altersversicherung. Each
of the states of the Empire has its own Gesindeordnung and the
conditions of insurance are often stated in these.
[360] In France scarcely forty years ago it was considered
impossible to ascertain the wages paid domestic servants.
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