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Ceramic
Processing
Ceramic
Processing

Mohamed N. Rahaman
University of Missouri-Rolla, USA

Boca Raton London New York

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Rahaman, M. N. 1950-
Ceramic processing / Mohamed Rahaman.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8493-7285-2 (acid-free paper)
1. Ceramics. 2. Ceramic engineering. 3. Polycrystals. 4. Sintering. I. Title.

TP807.R278 2006
666--dc22 2006043889

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7285_book.fm Page xi Friday, June 9, 2006 10:28 AM

Contents
Chapter 1 Ceramic Fabrication Processes: An Introductory Overview .......................................1
1.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................1
1.2 Ceramic Fabrication Processes.................................................................................................2
1.2.1 Gas-Phase Reactions ....................................................................................................2
1.2.1.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition ..........................................................................4
1.2.1.2 Directed Metal Oxidation .............................................................................7
1.2.1.3 Reaction Bonding..........................................................................................8
1.2.1.4 Silicon Nitride ...............................................................................................9
1.2.1.5 Oxides..........................................................................................................10
1.2.1.6 Silicon Carbide............................................................................................11
1.2.2 Liquid Precursor Methods..........................................................................................12
1.2.2.1 Sol–Gel Processing .....................................................................................12
1.2.2.2 Polymer Pyrolysis .......................................................................................15
1.2.2.3 Silicon Carbide............................................................................................15
1.2.2.4 Silicon Nitride .............................................................................................17
1.2.2.5 Boron Nitride and Boron Carbide ..............................................................18
1.2.3 Fabrication from Powders ..........................................................................................19
1.2.3.1 Melt Casting ................................................................................................19
1.2.3.2 Sintering of Compacted Powders ...............................................................20
1.3 Production of Polycrystalline Ceramics from Powders: An Overview.................................21
1.3.1 Powder Synthesis and Powder Characterization........................................................21
1.3.2 Powder Consolidation ................................................................................................22
1.3.3 The Sintering Process.................................................................................................22
1.3.4 Ceramic Microstructures ............................................................................................25
1.4 Case Study in Processing: Fabrication of TiO2 from Powders .............................................28
1.5 Concluding Remarks ..............................................................................................................30
Problems...........................................................................................................................................30
References ........................................................................................................................................32

Chapter 2 Synthesis of Powders .................................................................................................37

2.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................37
2.2 Powder Characteristics ...........................................................................................................37
2.3 Powder Synthesis Methods ....................................................................................................38
2.4 Powder Preparation by Mechanical Methods ........................................................................39
2.4.1 Comminution ..............................................................................................................39
2.4.1.1 High Compression Roller Mills..................................................................40
2.4.1.2 Jet Mills.......................................................................................................41
2.4.1.3 Ball Mills.....................................................................................................41
2.4.2 Mechanochemical Synthesis ......................................................................................45
2.5 Powder Synthesis by Chemical Methods...............................................................................46
2.5.1 Solid-State Reactions..................................................................................................46
2.5.1.1 Decomposition.............................................................................................47
2.5.1.2 Chemical Reaction between Solids ............................................................53
7285_book.fm Page xii Friday, June 9, 2006 10:28 AM

2.5.1.3 Reduction ....................................................................................................57

2.5.2Liquid Solutions .........................................................................................................58
2.5.2.1 Precipitation from Solution.........................................................................58
2.5.2.2 Evaporation of the Liquid...........................................................................74
2.5.2.3 Gel Route ....................................................................................................79
2.5.2.4 Nonaqueous Liquid Reaction......................................................................81
2.5.3 Vapor-Phase Reactions ...............................................................................................81
2.5.3.1 Gas–Solid Reaction.....................................................................................82
2.5.3.2 Reaction between a Liquid and a Gas........................................................84
2.5.3.3 Reaction between Gases .............................................................................84
2.6 Special Topic: Synthesis of Nanoscale Ceramic Powders.....................................................87
2.6.1 Liquid Solution Techniques .......................................................................................87
2.6.2 Vapor-Phase Techniques.............................................................................................88
2.7 Concluding Remarks ..............................................................................................................89
Problems...........................................................................................................................................89
References ........................................................................................................................................91

Chapter 3 Powder Characterization.............................................................................................97

3.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................97
3.2 Physical Characterization .......................................................................................................97
3.2.1 Types of Particles .......................................................................................................98
3.2.1.1 Primary Particles .........................................................................................98
3.2.1.2 Agglomerates...............................................................................................98
3.2.1.3 Particles .......................................................................................................98
3.2.1.4 Granules.......................................................................................................99
3.2.1.5 Flocs ............................................................................................................99
3.2.1.6 Colloids .......................................................................................................99
3.2.1.7 Aggregates...................................................................................................99
3.2.2 Particle Size and Particle Size Distribution ...............................................................99
3.2.2.1 Definition of Particle Size.........................................................................100
3.2.2.2 Average Particle Size ................................................................................101
3.2.2.3 Representation of Particle Size Data ........................................................102
3.2.3 Particle Shape ...........................................................................................................106
3.2.4 Measurement of Particle Size and Size Distribution...............................................106
3.2.4.1 Microscopy................................................................................................106
3.2.4.2 Sieving.......................................................................................................107
3.2.4.3 Sedimentation............................................................................................109
3.2.4.4 Electrical Sensing Zone Techniques (the Coulter Counter).....................110
3.2.4.5 Light Scattering.........................................................................................111
3.2.4.6 X-Ray Line Broadening............................................................................113
3.2.5 Surface Area .............................................................................................................113
3.2.6 Porosity of Particles .................................................................................................116
3.2.6.1 Gas Adsorption..........................................................................................116
3.2.6.2 Mercury Porosimetry ................................................................................119
3.2.6.3 Pycnometry................................................................................................121
3.3 Chemical Composition .........................................................................................................122
3.3.1 Optical Atomic Spectroscopy: Atomic Absorption and Atomic Emission..............122
3.3.2 X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy...........................................................................124
3.4 Crystal Structure and Phase Composition ...........................................................................125
7285_book.fm Page xiii Friday, June 9, 2006 10:28 AM

3.5 Surface Characterization ......................................................................................................127

3.5.1 Surface Structure ......................................................................................................129
3.5.2 Surface Chemistry ....................................................................................................130
3.5.2.1 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) ........................................................130
3.5.2.2 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)...............................................132
3.5.2.3 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)..............................................133
3.6 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................136
Problems.........................................................................................................................................136
References ......................................................................................................................................138

Chapter 4 Science of Colloidal Processing...............................................................................141

4.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................141
4.2 Types of Colloids .................................................................................................................142
4.3 Attractive Surface Forces .....................................................................................................142
4.3.1 van der Waals Forces between Atoms and Molecules ............................................142
4.3.2 van der Waals Forces between Macroscopic Bodies...............................................144
4.3.3 The Hamaker Constant.............................................................................................146
4.3.4 Effect of the Intervening Medium ...........................................................................148
4.4 Stabilization of Colloidal Suspensions ................................................................................148
4.5 Electrostatic Stabilization.....................................................................................................149
4.5.1 The Development of Charges on Oxide Particles in Water ....................................149
4.5.1.1 Isomorphic Substitution ............................................................................150
4.5.1.2 Adsorption of Ions from Solution ............................................................150
4.5.2 Origins of the Electrical Double Layer ...................................................................153
4.5.3 Isolated Double Layer ..............................................................................................154
4.5.4 Surface Charge .........................................................................................................157
4.5.5 Repulsion between Two Double Layers ..................................................................158
4.5.6 Stability of Electrostatically Stabilized Colloids.....................................................160
4.5.7 Kinetics of Flocculation ...........................................................................................161
4.5.8 Electrokinetic Phenomena ........................................................................................162
4.5.8.1 Microelectrophoretic Technique ...............................................................163
4.5.8.2 Significance of the ζ Potential..................................................................164
4.6 Steric Stabilization................................................................................................................164
4.6.1 Adsorption of Polymers from Solution....................................................................165
4.6.2 Origins of Steric Stabilization..................................................................................167
4.6.3 Effects of Solvent and Temperature.........................................................................168
4.6.4 Stability of Sterically Stabilized Suspensions .........................................................170
4.6.5 Stabilization by Polymers in Free Solution .............................................................171
4.7 Electrosteric Stabilization.....................................................................................................172
4.7.1 Dissociation of Polyelectrolytes in Solution............................................................172
4.7.2 Adsorption of Polyelectrolytes from Solution.........................................................174
4.7.3 Stability of Electrosterically Stabilized Suspensions ..............................................175
4.8 Structure of Consolidated Colloids......................................................................................176
4.9 Rheology of Colloidal Suspensions .....................................................................................178
4.9.1 Rheological Properties..............................................................................................178
4.9.2 Factors Influencing the Rheology of Colloidal Suspensions ..................................180
4.9.2.1 Influence of Interparticle Forces...............................................................180
4.9.2.2 Influence of Particle Interactions on the Viscosity...................................183
4.9.2.3 Influence of Particle Characteristics .........................................................185
4.10 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................187
7285_book.fm Page xiv Friday, June 9, 2006 10:28 AM

Problems.........................................................................................................................................187
References ......................................................................................................................................189

Chapter 5 Sol–Gel Processing...................................................................................................193

5.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................193
5.2 Types of Gels........................................................................................................................194
5.2.1 Particulate Gels.........................................................................................................194
5.2.2 Polymeric Gels .........................................................................................................195
5.3 Sol–Gel Processing of Aqueous Silicates ............................................................................197
5.3.1 Effect of pH ..............................................................................................................198
5.3.1.1 Polymerization in the pH range of 2 to 7 ................................................198
5.3.1.2 Polymerization above pH ≈ 7 ...................................................................200
5.3.1.3 Polymerization below pH ≈ 2...................................................................200
5.4 Metal Alkoxides....................................................................................................................201
5.4.1 Preparation of Metal Alkoxides ...............................................................................201
5.4.1.1 Reactions between Metals and Alcohols ..................................................201
5.4.1.2 Reactions Involving Metal Chlorides .......................................................202
5.4.1.3 Miscellaneous Methods.............................................................................202
5.4.2 Basic Properties ........................................................................................................204
5.4.2.1 Physical Properties ....................................................................................204
5.4.2.2 Chemical Properties ..................................................................................205
5.5 Sol–Gel Processing of Silicon Alkoxides ............................................................................206
5.5.1 Precursors .................................................................................................................206
5.5.2 Hydrolysis and Condensation ..................................................................................207
5.5.2.1 Acid-Catalyzed Conditions .......................................................................208
5.5.2.2 Base-Catalyzed Conditions .......................................................................209
5.5.3 Polymer Growth .......................................................................................................209
5.5.3.1 Polymer Growth Models...........................................................................210
5.5.3.2 Structural Evolution of Sol–Gel Silicates ................................................212
5.5.3.3 Rheological Measurements .......................................................................212
5.5.4 Gelation.....................................................................................................................215
5.5.5 Aging of Gels ...........................................................................................................216
5.5.6 Drying of Gels..........................................................................................................216
5.5.6.1 Conventional Drying .................................................................................217
5.5.6.2 Supercritical Drying ..................................................................................227
5.5.6.3 Structural Changes during Drying............................................................229
5.5.7 Gel Densification during Sintering ..........................................................................230
5.6 Sol–Gel Preparation Techniques ..........................................................................................234
5.6.1 Preparation of Particulate Gels ................................................................................234
5.6.1.1 Single-Component Gels ............................................................................234
5.6.1.2 Multicomponent Gels................................................................................236
5.6.2 Preparation of Polymeric Gels .................................................................................237
5.6.2.1 Use of Double Alkoxides..........................................................................237
5.6.2.2 Partial Hydrolysis of the Slowest Reacting Alkoxide..............................238
5.6.2.3 Use of a Mixture of Alkoxides and Metal Salts ......................................239
5.6.2.4 Slow Addition of Small Amounts of Water..............................................240
5.6.2.5 Matched Hydrolysis Rates ........................................................................241
5.7 Applications of Sol–Gel Processing ....................................................................................241
5.7.1 Thin Films and Coatings..........................................................................................242
5.7.1.1 Dip Coating ...............................................................................................242
7285_book.fm Page xv Friday, June 9, 2006 10:28 AM

5.7.1.2 Spin Coating..............................................................................................244

5.7.1.3 Structural Evolution in Films ...................................................................245
5.7.1.4 Applications of Films................................................................................245
5.7.2 Fibers ........................................................................................................................245
5.7.3 Monoliths..................................................................................................................246
5.7.4 Porous Materials.......................................................................................................247
5.8 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................247
Problems.........................................................................................................................................247
References ......................................................................................................................................249

Chapter 6 Mixing and Packing of Powders ..............................................................................253

6.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................253
6.2 Mixing of Particulate Solids ................................................................................................254
6.2.1 Types of Mixtures.....................................................................................................254
6.2.2 Mixing and Segregation Mechanisms......................................................................254
6.2.3 Mixture Composition and Quality ...........................................................................257
6.2.3.1 Statistical Methods ....................................................................................257
6.2.3.2 Measurement Techniques..........................................................................259
6.2.4 Mixing Technology...................................................................................................260
6.3 Packing of Particles ..............................................................................................................262
6.3.1 Regular Packing of Monosized Spheres ..................................................................263
6.3.2 Random Packing of Particles ...................................................................................264
6.3.2.1 Monosized Particles ..................................................................................265
6.3.2.2 Bimodal Mixtures of Spheres ...................................................................266
6.3.2.3 Binary Mixtures of Nonspherical Particles ..............................................269
6.3.2.4 Ternary and Multiple Mixtures.................................................................270
6.3.2.5 Continuous Particle Size Distributions.....................................................271
6.4 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................274
Problems.........................................................................................................................................274
References ......................................................................................................................................276

Chapter 7 Forming of Ceramics................................................................................................279

7.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................279
7.2 Additives in Ceramic Forming.............................................................................................280
7.2.1 Solvents.....................................................................................................................280
7.2.2 Dispersants................................................................................................................282
7.2.2.1 Inorganic Acid Salts..................................................................................283
7.2.2.2 Surfactants .................................................................................................284
7.2.2.3 Low- to Medium-Molecular-Weight Polymers ........................................286
7.2.3 Binders......................................................................................................................287
7.2.4 Plasticizers ................................................................................................................290
7.2.5 Other Additives.........................................................................................................292
7.3 Forming of Ceramics............................................................................................................292
7.3.1 Dry and Semidry Pressing .......................................................................................292
7.3.1.1 Die Compaction ........................................................................................292
7.3.1.2 Isostatic Compaction.................................................................................301
7.3.2 Casting Methods.......................................................................................................302
7.3.2.1 Slip Casting ...............................................................................................302
7.3.2.2 Pressure Casting ........................................................................................306
7285_book.fm Page xvi Friday, June 9, 2006 10:28 AM

7.3.2.3 Tape Casting..............................................................................................308

7.3.2.4 Gelcasting..................................................................................................311
7.3.2.5 Electrophoretic Deposition .......................................................................313
7.3.3 Plastic-Forming Methods .........................................................................................316
7.3.3.1 Extrusion ...................................................................................................317
7.3.3.2 Coextrusion ...............................................................................................320
7.3.3.3 Injection Molding......................................................................................320
7.4 Solid Freeform Fabrication ..................................................................................................323
7.4.1 Particle-Filled Polymer Methods .............................................................................324
7.4.1.1 Fused Deposition Modeling......................................................................324
7.4.1.2 Laminated Object Manufacturing .............................................................325
7.4.2 Powder Methods .......................................................................................................325
7.4.2.1 Selective Laser Sintering ..........................................................................325
7.4.2.2 Three-Dimensional Printing......................................................................326
7.4.3 Suspension Methods.................................................................................................326
7.4.3.1 Stereolithography ......................................................................................326
7.4.3.2 Direct Ceramic Ink-Jet Printing................................................................327
7.4.3.3 Robocasting ...............................................................................................328
7.4.3.4 Freeze Casting...........................................................................................328
7.5 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................330
Problems.........................................................................................................................................330
References ......................................................................................................................................333

Chapter 8 Drying, Debinding, and Microstructural Characterization of Green Bodies...........337

8.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................337
8.2 Drying of Granular Ceramics...............................................................................................338
8.2.1 Drying of Granular Layers.......................................................................................338
8.2.2 Drying of Granular Solids........................................................................................340
8.2.2.1 Driving Forces for Shrinkage and Moisture Movement ..........................341
8.2.2.2 Stages of Drying .......................................................................................341
8.2.2.3 Moisture Distribution and Movement.......................................................347
8.2.2.4 Drying Stresses .........................................................................................348
8.2.2.5 Warping and Cracking ..............................................................................349
8.2.2.6 Drying Technology....................................................................................351
8.3 Binder Removal (Debinding) ...............................................................................................352
8.3.1 Extraction by Capillary Flow...................................................................................352
8.3.2 Solvent Extraction ....................................................................................................352
8.3.3 Thermal Debinding...................................................................................................353
8.3.3.1 Stages and Mechanisms of Thermal Debinding.......................................353
8.3.3.2 Models for Thermal Debinding ................................................................354
8.3.3.3 Thermal Debinding in Practice.................................................................357
8.4 Green Microstructures and Their Characterizations............................................................358
8.5 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................361
Problems.........................................................................................................................................361
References ......................................................................................................................................362

Chapter 9 Sintering and Microstructure Development .............................................................365

9.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................365
9.2 Solid-State Sintering.............................................................................................................366
7285_book.fm Page xvii Friday, June 9, 2006 10:28 AM

9.2.1 Driving Force for Sintering......................................................................................367

9.2.2 Effects of Surface Curvature ....................................................................................369
9.2.2.1 Stress on the Atoms under a Curved Surface...........................................369
9.2.2.2 Chemical Potential of the Atoms under a Curved Surface ......................370
9.2.2.3 Vacancy Concentration under a Curved Surface......................................371
9.2.2.4 Vapor Pressure over a Curved Surface .....................................................372
9.2.3 Grain Boundary Effects............................................................................................373
9.2.4 Mechanisms of Sintering..........................................................................................375
9.2.5 Stages of Sintering ...................................................................................................377
9.2.6 Sintering Models and Their Predictions ..................................................................379
9.2.6.1 Analytical Models .....................................................................................379
9.2.6.2 Predictions of the Analytical Models .......................................................385
9.2.6.3 Effect of Applied Pressure ........................................................................387
9.2.6.4 Numerical Simulations of Sintering .........................................................387
9.3 Grain Growth and Coarsening .............................................................................................387
9.3.1 Normal Grain Growth ..............................................................................................389
9.3.2 Abnormal Grain Growth ..........................................................................................394
9.3.3 Ostwald Ripening .....................................................................................................395
9.3.4 Control of Grain Growth..........................................................................................398
9.3.4.1 Effect of Dopants: Solute Drag ................................................................398
9.3.4.2 Effect of Fine, Inert Second-Phase Particles............................................401
9.3.5 Grain Growth and Pore Evolution in Porous Compacts .........................................403
9.3.6 Interactions between Pores and Grain Boundaries..................................................406
9.3.6.1 Pore Mobility ............................................................................................406
9.3.6.2 Kinetics of Pore–Boundary Interactions...................................................409
9.3.6.3 Microstructural Maps ................................................................................410
9.4 Liquid-Phase Sintering .........................................................................................................412
9.4.1 Stages of Liquid-Phase Sintering.............................................................................414
9.4.2 Kinetic and Thermodynamic Factors .......................................................................416
9.4.2.1 Contact Angle............................................................................................416
9.4.2.2 Dihedral Angle ..........................................................................................418
9.4.2.3 Effects of Gravity......................................................................................418
9.4.2.4 Grain Boundary Films ..............................................................................419
9.4.2.5 Volume Fraction of Liquid Phase .............................................................420
9.4.3 Phase Diagrams in Liquid-Phase Sintering .............................................................420
9.5 Sintering Practice..................................................................................................................421
9.5.1 Heating Schedules ....................................................................................................422
9.5.1.1 Isothermal Sintering ..................................................................................422
9.5.1.2 Constant Heating–Rate Sintering..............................................................423
9.5.1.3 Multistage Sintering ..................................................................................423
9.5.1.4 Rate-Controlled Sintering .........................................................................424
9.5.1.5 Fast Firing .................................................................................................425
9.5.1.6 Microwave Sintering .................................................................................426
9.5.1.7 Plasma-Assisted Sintering.........................................................................427
9.5.2 Pressure-Assisted Sintering ......................................................................................428
9.5.2.1 Hot Pressing ..............................................................................................428
9.5.2.2 Sinter Forging............................................................................................430
9.5.2.3 Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIPing) ................................................................430
9.5.3 Particle and Green Compact Characteristics ...........................................................430
9.5.3.1 Particle Size...............................................................................................430
9.5.3.2 Particle Size Distribution ..........................................................................431
7285_book.fm Page xviii Friday, June 9, 2006 10:28 AM

9.5.3.3 Particle Shape and Particle Structure .......................................................432

9.5.3.4 Particle Packing.........................................................................................432
9.5.3.5 Effect of Green Density ............................................................................434
9.5.4 Chemistry Considerations ........................................................................................435
9.5.4.1 Gases in Pores...........................................................................................435
9.5.4.2 Vapor Transport.........................................................................................437
9.5.4.3 Volatilization and Decomposition.............................................................437
9.5.4.4 Oxidation State..........................................................................................438
9.5.4.5 Defect Chemistry and Stoichiometry .......................................................439
9.6 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................440
Problems.........................................................................................................................................441
References ......................................................................................................................................446

Appendix A: Physical Constants ..................................................................................................453

Appendix B: SI Units — Names and Symbols ...........................................................................455

Appendix C: Conversion of Units................................................................................................457

Appendix D: Aperture Size of U.S. Standard Wire Mesh Sieves (ASTM E 11:87) ..................459

Appendix E: Densities and Melting Points of Some Elements, Ceramics, and Minerals..........461

Index ..............................................................................................................................................465
7285_book.fm Page v Friday, June 9, 2006 10:28 AM

Dedicated to Vashanti, Lennard, and Ronald

7285_book.fm Page vii Friday, June 9, 2006 10:28 AM

Preface
The production and application of ceramics are among the oldest technological skills. The field of
ceramic materials has its roots in the more traditional aspects of the subject such as clay-based
ceramics and glasses. During the past few decades, new developments in the use of ceramics in
more advanced technological applications have attracted considerable attention. The discovery of
ceramic superconductors, as well as the use of ceramics for heat-resistant tiles in the space shuttle,
optical fibers, components in high temperature engines, and the electrolyte in solid oxide fuel cells,
has generated considerable interest in the field.
The increasing use of ceramics in more advanced technological applications has resulted in a
heightened demand for improvements in properties and reliability. In recent years, there has been
the realization that such improvements can be achieved only through careful attention to the
fabrication process. The engineering properties of polycrystalline ceramics are controlled by the
microstructure, which, in turn, depends on the processing method used to fabricate the body.
Therefore, the fabrication process governs the production of microstructures with the desired
properties. It is often stated that materials science is a field at the interface between the physical
sciences (physics, chemistry, and mathematics) and engineering (such as electrical, mechanical,
and civil). In this view, the approach to ceramic processing is concerned with the understanding
of fundamentals and the application of the knowledge to the production of microstructures with
useful properties.
This book is concerned primarily with the processing of polycrystalline ceramics. Because of
its importance and widespread use, the fabrication of ceramics by the consolidation and sintering
of powders forms the focus of this book. A brief treatment of the production of ceramics (and
glasses) by the less conventional sol–gel route is also included. The approach is to outline the
fundamental issues of each process and to show how they are applied to the practical fabrication
of ceramics. Each fabrication route involves a number of processing steps, and each step has the
potential for producing microstructural flaws that degrade the properties of the fabricated material.
An important feature of this treatment is the attempt to show the importance of each step as well
as the interconnection between the various steps in the overall fabrication route. Chapter 1 provides
an introductory overview of the various methods that can be used for the production of ceramic
materials. The overview also forms a basis for the more detailed treatment of powder processing
and sol–gel processing, which is discussed later in the book. Chapter 2 to Chapter 9 form a logical
development from the start of the fabrication process to the final fabricated microstructure.
My intention has been to prepare a textbook that is suitable for a one-semester (or two-quarter)
course in ceramic processing at the upper undergraduate level or the introductory graduate level.
A background in the concepts and processing of traditional ceramics, typically obtained in lower-
level undergraduate courses, is assumed. It is hoped that the book will also be useful to researchers
in industry who are involved in the production of ceramics or who would wish to develop a
background in the processing of ceramics.
I wish to thank the many authors and publishers who have allowed me permission to reproduce
their figures in this book. Last but not least, I wish to thank my wife, Vashanti, for her encouragement
and support when I was preoccupied with the completion of this book.
7285_book.fm Page ix Friday, June 9, 2006 10:28 AM

The Author
Mohamed N. Rahaman is professor of ceramics in the department of materials science and
engineering, University of Missouri-Rolla. He earned a B.A. (Hons.) and an M.A. from the
University of Cambridge, England, and a Ph.D. from the University of Sheffield, England. Prior
to joining the University of Missouri in 1986, Dr. Rahaman held positions at the University of
Leeds, England; the University of the West Indies, Trinidad; and the Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, Berkeley, California. Dr. Rahaman is the author of two books, and the author or coauthor
of over 125 publications, most of them in the area of processing and sintering of ceramics.
7285_C001.fm Page 1 Thursday, June 22, 2006 12:34 PM

1 Ceramic Fabrication
Processes: An Introductory
Overview

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The subject of ceramics covers a wide range of materials. Recent attempts have been made to
divide it into two parts: traditional ceramics and advanced ceramics. The usage of the term advanced
has, however, not received general acceptance and other forms, including technical, special, fine
and engineering will also be encountered. Traditional ceramics bear a close relationship to those
materials that have been developed since the time of the earliest civilizations. They are pottery,
structural clay products, and clay-based refractories, with which we may also group cements,
concretes, and glasses. Whereas traditional ceramics still represent a major part of the ceramics
industry, the interest in recent years has focused on advanced ceramics, ceramics that, with minor
exceptions, have been developed within the last 50 years or so. Advanced ceramics include ceramics
for electrical, magnetic, electronic, and optical applications (sometimes referred to as functional
ceramics) and ceramics for structural applications at ambient as well as at elevated temperatures
(structural ceramics). Although the distinction between traditional and advanced ceramics may be
referred to in this book occasionally for convenience, we do not wish to overemphasize it. There
is much to be gained through continued interaction between the traditional and the advanced sectors.
Chemically, with the exception of carbon, ceramics are nonmetallic, inorganic compounds.
Examples are the silicates such as kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4) and mullite (Al6Si2O13); simple oxides
such as alumina (Al2O3) and zirconia (ZrO2); complex oxides other than the silicates such as barium
titanate (BaTiO3) and the superconducting material YBa2Cu3O6+δ (0 ≤ δ ≤ 1). In addition, there are
nonoxides, including carbides, such as silicon carbide (SiC) and boron carbide (B4C); nitrides such
as silicon nitride (Si3N4), and boron nitride (BN); borides such titanium diboride (TiB2); silicides
such as molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2); and halides such as lithium fluoride (LiF). There are also
compounds based on nitride-oxide or oxynitride systems (e.g., β′-sialons with the general formula
Si6–zAlzN8–zOz where 0 < z < ∼4).
Structurally, all materials are either crystalline or amorphous (also referred to as glassy). The
difficulty and expense of growing single crystals means that, normally, crystalline ceramics (and
metals) are actually polycrystalline; they are made up of a large number of small crystals, or grains,
separated from one another by grain boundaries. In ceramics as well as in metals, we are concerned
with two types of structure, both of which have a profound effect on properties. The first type of
structure is at the atomic scale: the type of bonding and the crystal structure (for a crystalline
ceramic) or the amorphous structure (if it is glassy). The second type of structure is at a larger
scale: the microstructure, which refers to the nature, quantity, and distribution of the structural
elements or phases in the ceramic (e.g., crystals, glass, and porosity).
It is sometimes useful to distinguish between the intrinsic properties of a material and the
properties that depend on the microstructure. The intrinsic properties are determined by the structure
at the atomic scale and are properties that are not susceptible to significant change by modification

1
7285_C001.fm Page 2 Thursday, June 22, 2006 12:34 PM

2 Ceramic Processing

of the microstructure. These properties include the melting point, elastic modulus, and coefficient
of thermal expansion, and factors such as whether or not the material is brittle, magnetic, ferro-
electric, or semiconducting. In contrast, many of the properties critical to the engineering applica-
tions of materials are strongly dependent on the microstructure (e.g., mechanical strength, dielectric
constant, and electrical conductivity).
Intrinsically, ceramics usually have high melting points and are therefore generally described
as refractory. They are also usually hard, brittle, and chemically inert. This chemical inertness is
usually taken for granted, for example, in ceramic and glass tableware and in the bricks, mortar,
and glass of our houses. However, when used at high temperatures, as in the chemical and
metallurgical industries, this chemical inertness is severely tried. The electrical, magnetic, and
dielectric behaviors cover a wide range, for example, in the case of electrical behavior, from
insulators to conductors. The applications of ceramics are many. Usually, for a given application
one property may be of particular importance but, in fact, all relevant properties need to be
considered. We are, therefore, usually interested in combinations of properties. For traditional
ceramics and glasses, familiar applications include structural building materials (e.g., bricks and
roofing tile); refractories for furnace linings, tableware, and sanitaryware; electrical insulation (e.g.,
electrical porcelain and steatite); glass containers; and glasses for building and transportation
vehicles. The applications for which advanced ceramics have been developed or proposed are
already very diverse, and this area is expected to continue to grow at a reasonable rate. Table 1.1
illustrates some of the applications for advanced ceramics [1].
The important relationships between chemical composition, atomic structure, fabrication,
microstructure, and properties of polycrystalline ceramics are illustrated in Figure 1.1. The intrinsic
properties must be considered at the time of materials selection. For example, the phenomenon of
ferroelectricity originates in the perovskite crystal structure of which BaTiO3 is a good example.
For the production of a ferroelectric material, we may therefore wish to select BaTiO3. The role
of the fabrication process, then, is to produce microstructures with the desired engineering prop-
erties. For example, the measured dielectric constant of the fabricated BaTiO3 will depend signif-
icantly on the microstructure (grain size, porosity, and the presence of any secondary phases).
Normally, the overall fabrication method can be divided into a few or several discrete steps,
depending on the complexity of the method. Although there is no generally accepted terminology,
we will refer to these discrete steps as processing steps. The fabrication of a ceramic body, therefore,
involves a number of processing steps. In the next section, we examine, in general terms, some of
the commonly used methods for the fabrication of ceramics.

1.2 CERAMIC FABRICATION PROCESSES

Ceramics can be fabricated by a variety of methods, some of which have their origins in early
civilization. Our normal objective is the production, from suitable starting materials, of a solid
product with the desired shape such as a film, fiber, or monolith, and with the desired microstructure.
As a first attempt, we divide the main fabrication methods into three groups, depending on whether
the starting materials involve a gaseous phase, a liquid phase, or a solid phase (Table 1.2). In the
following sections, we examine briefly the main features of the processing steps involved in the
ceramic fabrication methods and their main advantages and disadvantages from the point of view
of ease of processing.

1.2.1 GAS-PHASE REACTIONS

By far the most important reactions are obtained by vapor deposition methods, in which the desired
material is formed by chemical reaction between gaseous species. Creating a reaction between a
liquid and a gas is generally impractical but has been developed recently into an elegant technique,
referred to as directed metal oxidation. Reaction between a gas and a solid, commonly referred to
7285_C001.fm Page 3 Thursday, June 22, 2006 12:34 PM

Ceramic Fabrication Processes: An Introductory Overview 3

TABLE 1.1
Application of Advanced Ceramics Classified by Function
Function Ceramic Application

Electric Insulation materials (Al2O3, BeO, MgO) Integrated circuit substrate, package, wiring substrate, resistor
substrate, electronics interconnection substrate
Ferroelectric materials (BaTiO3, Ceramic capacitor
SrTiO3)
Piezoelectric materials (PZT) Vibrator, oscillator, filter, etc.
Transducer, ultrasonic humidifier, piezoelectric spark generator,
etc.
Semiconductor materials (BaTiO3, SiC, NTC thermistor: temperature sensor, temperature compensation,
ZnO–Bi2O3, V2O5 and other transition etc.
metal oxides) PTC thermistor: heater element, switch, temperature
compensation, etc.
CTR thermistor: heat sensor element
Thick film sensor: infrared sensor
Varistor: noise elimination, surge current absorber, lightning
arrestor, etc.
Sintered CdS material: solar cell
SiC heater: electric furnace heater, miniature heater, etc.
Ion-conducting materials (β-Al2O3, Solid electrolyte for sodium battery
ZrO2) ZrO2 ceramics: oxygen sensor, pH meter, fuel cells
Magnetic Soft ferrite Magnetic recording head, temperature sensor, etc.
Hard ferrite Ferrite magnet, fractional horse power motors, etc.
Optical Translucent alumina High-pressure sodium vapor lamp
Translucent Mg–Al spinel, mullite, etc. Lighting tube, special-purpose lamp, infrared transmission
window materials
Translucent Y2O3–ThO2 ceramics Laser materials
PLZT ceramics Light memory element, video display and storage system, light
modulation element, light shutter, light valve
Chemical Gas sensor (ZnO, Fe2O3, SnO2) Gas leakage alarm, automatic ventilation alarm, hydrocarbon,
fluorocarbon detectors, etc.
Humidity sensor (MgCr2O4–TiO2) Cooking control element in microwave oven, etc.
Catalyst carrier (cordierite) Catalyst carrier for emission control
Organic catalysts Enzyme carrier, zeolites
Electrodes (titanates, sulfides, borides) Electrowinning aluminum, photochemical processes, chlorine
production
Thermal ZrO2, TiO2 Infrared radiator
Mechanical Cutting tools (Al2O3, TiC, TiN, others) Ceramic tool, sintered CBN; cermet tool, artificial diamond;
nitride tool
Wear-resistant materials (Al2O3, ZrO2) Mechanical seal, ceramic liner, bearings, thread guide, pressure
sensors
Heat-resistant materials (SiC, Al2O3, Ceramic engine, turbine blade, heat exchangers, welding burner
Si3N4, others) nozzle, high-frequency combustion crucibles)
Biological Al2O3, MgO-stabilized ZrO2, Artificial tooth root, bone, and joint implantation.
hydroxyapatite, bioactive glass
Nuclear UO2, UO2–PuO2 Nuclear fuels
C, SiC, B4C Cladding materials
SiC, Al2O3, C, B4C Shielding materials

Source: Kenney, G.B. and Bowen, H.K., High tech ceramics in Japan: current and future markets, Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull.,
62, 590, 1983. With permission.
7285_C001.fm Page 4 Thursday, June 22, 2006 12:34 PM

4 Ceramic Processing

Chemical
composition

Ceramic
(Intrinsic)
fabrication

Microstructure Properties

FIGURE 1.1 The important relationships in ceramic fabrication.

TABLE 1.2
Common Ceramic Fabrication Methods
Starting Materials Method Product

Gases Chemical vapor deposition Films, monoliths

Gas–liquid Directed metal oxidation Monoliths
Gas–solid Reaction bonding Monoliths
Liquid–solid Reaction bonding Monoliths
Liquids Sol–gel process Films, fibers
Polymer pyrolysis Fibers, films
Solids (powders) Melt casting Monoliths
Sintering of powders Monoliths, films

as reaction bonding (or reaction forming) has been used mainly for the production of Si3N4 but is
now also being applied to the production of oxide ceramics. Reaction bonding (by a solid–liquid
reaction) is also an important fabrication route for SiC.

1.2.1.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a process by which reactive molecules in the gas phase are
transported to a surface at which they chemically react and form a solid film [2–9]. It is a well-
established technique that can be used to deposit all classes of materials, including metals, ceramics,
and semiconductors, for a variety of applications. Large areas can be coated, and the process is
amenable to mass production. Thick films or even monolithic bodies can also be produced by
basically prolonging the deposition process so that the desired thickness is achieved. Table 1.3
shows some of the important reactions used for the fabrication of ceramics, together with the
temperature range of the reactions and the applications of the fabricated articles.
The apparatus used for CVD depends on the reaction being used, the reaction temperature, and
the configuration of the substrate. Figure 1.2 shows examples of reactors for the deposition of films
on substrates such as Si wafers. The general objective for any design is to provide uniform exposure
of the substrate to the reactant gases. CVD has a number of process variables that must be
manipulated to produce a deposit with the desired properties. These variables include the flow rate
of the reactant gases, the nature and flow rate of any carrier gases, the pressure in the reaction
vessel, and the temperature of the substrate. Substrate heating is required in CVD reactors because
the films are produced preferably by endothermic reactions. The temperature of the substrate
influences the deposition rate and is the main factor controlling the structure of the deposit. In
general, high temperatures will yield crystalline deposits whereas low temperatures result in amor-
phous materials. Between these two extremes a polycrystalline deposit will be formed.
7285_C001.fm Page 5 Thursday, June 22, 2006 12:34 PM

Ceramic Fabrication Processes: An Introductory Overview 5

TABLE 1.3
Some Important CVD Reactions for the Fabrication of Ceramics
Temperature
Reaction (°°C) Application

2CxHy → 2xC + yH2 900–2400 Pyrolytic carbon and graphite

CH3Cl3Si → SiC + 3HCl 1000–1300 Composites
W(CO)6 → WC + CO2 +4CO 400–800 Coatings
TiCl4 + O2 → TiO 2 + 2Cl2 900–1200 Films for electronic devices
SiCl4 + 2CO2 + 2H2 → SiO2 + 4HCl + 2CO 800–1000 Films for electronic devices, optical fibers
SiCl4 + 2H2O → SiO2 + 4HCl 500–1000 Films for electronic devices, optical fibers
SiCl4 + 2H2 → Si + 4HCl 500–800 Films for electronic devices
TiCl4 + 2BH3 → TiB 2 + 4HCl + H2 1000–1300 Monoliths, composites
SiH4 + CH4 → SiC + 4H2 1000–1400 Coatings
3SiH4 + 4NH3 → Si3N4 + 12H2 800–1500 Films for semiconductor devices
3HSiCl3 + 4NH3 → Si3N4 + 9HCl +3H2 800–1100 Composites
BCl3 + NH3 → BN + 3HCl 700–1000 Monoliths

Inlet Gas inlet

nozzle

Silicon
Quartz wafers
bell jar

Induction
coil or
heaters
Exhaust Exhaust
Radiant Quartz bell jar
Gas inlet heaters
Exhaust
(a) (b)

Three-zone
Gas temperature
control control

Induction coil or Silicon wafers Pressure

radiant heaters sensor Mechanical
Quartz tube pump
Gas
Exhaust
inlet Exhaust
Three-zone resistance heater
Tilt angle Vent

(c) (d)

FIGURE 1.2 Typical reactors used in chemical vapor deposition: (a) pancake reactor; (b) barrel reactor; (c)
horizontal reactor; (d) low-pressure (LPCVD) reactor. (From Jensen, K.F., Modeling of chemical vapor dep-
osition reactors for the fabrication of microelectronic devices, Am. Chem. Soc. Symp. Series, 237, 197, 1984.)
7285_C001.fm Page 6 Thursday, June 22, 2006 12:34 PM

6 Ceramic Processing

CH4 Optical window

H2
Ar
Silica tube
Flow control
system
Microwave
applicator

Microwaves
(2.45 GHz)

Substrate

Pressure gage

To pumps

FIGURE 1.3 Schematic diagram of microwave-plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition (MPACVD) dia-
mond growth system. (From Spear, K.E., Diamond — ceramic coating of the future, J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 72,
171, 1989. With permission.)

The pressure in the reaction vessel influences the concentration of the reactant gases, the
diffusion of reactants toward the substrate, and the diffusion of the products away from the surface.
The higher diffusivity at lower pressure leads to the formation of films with better uniformity, so
most CVD reactors are operated in the pressure range of 1 to 15 kPa. The reactant gases, also
referred to as precursor molecules, are chosen to react and produce a specific film. Properties
necessary for a good precursor include thermal stability at its vaporization temperature and sufficient
vapor pressure (at least ∼125 Pa) at a reasonable temperature (∼300°C) for effective gas-phase
delivery to the growth surface. In addition, the molecules must be obtainable at high purity and
must not undergo parasitic or side reactions which would lead to contamination or degradation of
the film [10]. Examples of the classes of precursor molecules (e.g., hydrides, halides, carbonyls,
hydrocarbons, and organometallics) and the types of chemical reaction (pyrolysis, oxidation/hydrol-
ysis, reduction, carbidization/nitridation, and disproportionation) are summarized in Table 1.3.
CVD technology has been attracting much interest recently for the production of diamond films
or coatings [11]. The diamond has several attractive properties but, in the past, high pressures and
high temperatures were required to produce synthetic diamond. In contrast, a plasma-assisted CVD
process allows the production of diamond films at relatively low temperatures and low pressures
(Figure 1.3). The deposition process is complex and is not understood clearly at present. The basic
reaction involves the pyrolysis of a carbon-containing precursor such as methane:

CH 4 (g ) → C(diamond ) + 2 H 2 (g ) (1.1)

The typical process consists of the reactant gas at less than atmospheric pressure and containing
> 95% H2. The gas is activated by passing it through a plasma or past a heated filament (at ∼2000°C)
before deposition on a substrate at 800 to 1000°C.
CVD technology has also been attracting significant interest as a fabrication route for ceramic
composites [12]. For fiber-reinforced ceramics, one approach that has shown considerable promise
is chemical vapor infiltration (CVI). The fibers, preformed into the shape and dimensions of the
finished body, are placed into the reactant gases and held at the desired temperature so that the
deposited material is formed in the interstices between the fibers. Significant effort has been devoted
to SiC matrix composites reinforced with SiC or C fibers. The SiC matrix is typically deposited
7285_C001.fm Page 7 Thursday, June 22, 2006 12:34 PM

Ceramic Fabrication Processes: An Introductory Overview 7

Heating Hot zone

element
Exhaust gas
Perforated
LID

Hot surface

Fibrous
Graphite Cold surface preform
holder

Infiltrated Water cooled

composite surface

Reactant
gases

FIGURE 1.4 Schematic diagram of chemical vapor infiltration process exploiting forced flow of the infiltrating
gas. (From Stinton, D.P., Besmann, T.M., and Lowder, R.A., Advanced ceramics by chemical vapor deposition
techniques, Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull., 67, 350, 1988. With permission.)

from methyltrichlorosilane, CH3Cl3Si, at temperatures of ∼1200°C and pressures of ∼3 kPa. The

process is slow, and a serious problem is the tendency for most of the reaction to occur near the
surface of the fiber preform, leading to density gradients and the sealing off of the interior. A
promising route involves the exploitation of forced flow of the reacting gas into the preform using
pressure and temperature gradients (Figure 1.4). Matrices with reasonably high density (typically
∼10% porosity) have been produced. The CVI route has an inherent advantage over conventional
ceramic powder processing routes that commonly require higher temperatures and high pressures
for fabrication: mechanical and chemical degradation of the composite during fabrication is not
severe. Composites containing as high as 45 volume percent (vol%) of fibers have been fabricated
with an open porosity of ∼10%. The measured fracture toughness remained unchanged at ∼30
MPa.m1/2 up to 1400°C which is considerably better than unreinforced SiC with a fracture toughness
of ∼3 MPa.m1/2 [13].
Table 1.3 indicates that the reaction temperatures for the CVD fabrication of most of the highly
refractory ceramics listed are rather low. CVD methods therefore provide a distinct advantage of
fairly low fabrication temperatures for ceramics and composites with high melting points that are
difficult to fabricate by other methods or which require very high fabrication temperatures. The
low reaction temperatures also increase the range of materials that can be coated by CVD, especially
for the highly refractory coatings. However, a major disadvantage is that the material deposition
rate by CVD is very slow, typically in the range of 1 to 100 μm/h. The production of monolithic
bodies can therefore be very time consuming and expensive. Another problem that is normally
encountered in the fabrication of monolithic bodies by CVD is the development of a microstructure
consisting of fairly large columnar grains, which leads to fairly low intergranular strength. These
difficulties limit CVD methods primarily to the formation of thin films and coatings.

1.2.1.2 Directed Metal Oxidation

Fabrication routes involving reactions between a gas and a liquid are generally impractical for the
production of ceramic bodies because the reaction product usually forms a solid protective coating,
7285_C001.fm Page 8 Thursday, June 22, 2006 12:34 PM

8 Ceramic Processing

Vapor-phase Vapor-phase
oxidant oxidant Filter

Reaction
Filter with
product
reaction product
Molten Molten matrix
metal metal

Refractory Refractory
container container
(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.5 Schematic diagram of (a) the formation of a matrix of oxide and unreacted metal by directed
oxidation of molten metal and (b) oxidation in the presence of a filler (From Newkirk, M.S. et al., Preparation
of Lanxide™ ceramic matrix composites: matrix formation by directed metal oxidation, Ceram. Eng. Sci.,
Proc., 8, 879, 1987. With permission.)

thereby separating the reactants and effectively stopping the reaction. However, a novel method
employing directed oxidation of a molten metal by a gas has been developed by the Lanxide
Corporation for the production of porous and dense materials, as well as composites [14–19]. Figure
1.5 shows a schematic of the reaction process. In Figure 1.5a, a molten metal (e.g., an Al alloy) is
being oxidized by a gas (e.g., air). If the temperature is in the range of 900 to 1350°C, and the Al
alloy contains a few percent of Mg and a group IVA element (e.g., Si, Ge, Sn, or Pb), the oxide
coating is no longer protective. Instead, it contains small pores through which molten metal is
drawn up to the top surface of the film, thereby continuing the oxidation process. As long as the
molten metal and the oxidizing gas are available to sustain the process, and the temperature is
maintained, the reaction product continues to grow at a rate of a few centimeters per day until the
desired thickness is obtained. The material produced in this way consists of two phases: the
oxidation product (e.g., Al2O3) that is continuous and interconnected, and unreacted metal (Al
alloy). The amount of unreacted metal (typically 5 to 30 vol%) depends on the starting materials
and processing parameters (e.g., the temperature).
For the production of composites, a filler material (e.g., particles, platelets, or fibers) is shaped
into a preform of the size and shape desired of the product. The filler and the metal alloy are then
heated to the growth temperature in which the oxidation process occurs outward from the metal
surface and into the preform (Figure 1.5b), so that the oxidation product becomes the matrix of
the composite. A micrograph of a SiC fiber preform that has been filled with an Al2O3/Al matrix
by directed oxidation of molten aluminum is shown in Figure 1.6.
The term directed metal oxidation is taken to include all reactions in which the metal gives up
or shares its electrons. The method has been used to produce composites with not only matrices
of oxides but also nitrides, borides, carbides, and titanates. Composite systems produced by the
method include matrices of Al2O3/Al, AlN/Al, ZrN/Zr, TiN/Ti, and ZrC/Zr, and fillers of Al2O3,
SiC, BaTiO3, AlN, B4C, TiB2, ZrN, ZrB2, and TiN. A distinct advantage of the method is that
growth of the matrix into the preform involves little or no change in dimensions. The problems
associated with shrinkage during densification in other fabrication routes (e.g., powder processing)
are therefore avoided. Furthermore, large components can be produced readily with good control
of the component dimensions.

1.2.1.3 Reaction Bonding

The term reaction bonding (or reaction forming) is commonly used to describe fabrication routes
in which a porous solid preform reacts with a gas (or a liquid) to produce the desired chemical
7285_C001.fm Page 9 Thursday, June 22, 2006 12:34 PM

Ceramic Fabrication Processes: An Introductory Overview 9

FIGURE 1.6 Optical micrograph of an Al2O3/Al matrix reinforced with SiC fibers produced by directed metal
oxidation (From Newkirk, M.S. et al., Preparation of Lanxide™ ceramic matrix composites: matrix formation
by directed metal oxidation, Ceram. Eng. Sci., Proc., 8, 879, 1987. With permission.)

compound and bonding between the grains. Commonly, the process is accompanied by little or no
shrinkage of the perform, thereby providing the benefit of near-net-shape fabrication. Reaction
bonding is used on a large scale as one of the fabrication routes for Si3N4 and SiC [20,21].

1.2.1.4 Silicon Nitride

Si3N4 is the most widely known reaction-bonded system involving the reaction between a solid and
a gas phase. In the formation of reaction-bonded Si3N4 (RBSN), Si powder is consolidated by one
of the common ceramic forming methods (e.g., die pressing, isostatic pressing, slip casting, or
injection molding) to form a billet or a shaped article. This is then preheated in argon at ∼1200°C
to develop some strength, after which it can be machined to the required component shape and
dimensions. Finally, the component is heated, usually in N2 gas at atmospheric pressure and at
temperatures in the region of 1250 to 1400°C, when reaction bonding occurs to produce RBSN.
Although the mechanism is fairly complex [22], the overall reaction can be written:

3Si(s) + 2 N 2 (g ) → Si3N 4 (s) (1.2)

The densities of Si and Si3N4 are 2.33 g/cm3 and 3.18 g/cm3, respectively, so the reaction of
a silicon particle to form Si3N4 involves a volume expansion of 22%. However, very little change
in the external dimensions of the component occurs during the nitridation. This means that the
nitridation occurs by a mechanism in which new mass that has been added to the body expands
into the surrounding pore space. As the pore sizes and the number of pores decrease, the pore
channels close off and the reaction effectively stops. In preforms with relatively high density, pore
channel closure commonly occurs prior to complete reaction. The RBSN has a porosity of 15 to
20% and some residual, unreacted Si. The Si3N4 consists of 60 to 90 wt% of the α-phase, the
remainder being β-Si3N4. Several factors influence the reaction kinetics and the resulting micro-
structure, including the Si particle size, the composition and pressure of the nitriding gas, the
reaction temperature, and impurities in the Si starting powder [22]. Because of the high porosity,
the strength of RBSN is inferior to that of dense Si3N4 produced by other methods (e.g., hot
7285_C001.fm Page 10 Thursday, June 22, 2006 12:34 PM

10 Ceramic Processing

pressing). On the other hand, RBSN bodies with a high degree of dimensional accuracy and with
complex shapes can be prepared fairly readily without the need for expensive machining after
firing.

1.2.1.5 Oxides

A reaction bonding route involving both gas–solid and gas–liquid reactions is the reaction-bonded
aluminum oxide (RBAO) process developed by Claussen and coworkers [23–27]. The RBAO
process utilizes the oxidation of powder mixtures containing a substantial amount of Al (30 to 65
vol%). A mixture of Al (particle size ∼20 μm), α-Al2O3 (0.5 to 1.0 μm), and ZrO2 (∼0.5 μm) is
milled vigorously in an attrition mill, dried and compacted to produce a green article (porosity ≈
30 to 40%). During heat treatment in an oxidizing atmosphere (commonly air), the Al oxidizes to
nanometer-sized γ-Al2O3 crystals below ∼900°C that undergo a phase transformation to α-Al2O3
at temperatures up to ∼11~00°C. The volume expansion (28 vol%) associated with the oxidation
of Al to α-Al2O3 is used to partially compensate for the shrinkage due to sintering, so that dense
RBAO ceramics can be achieved with lower shrinkage than conventionally sintered Al2O3 ceramics.
Figure 1.7 shows a micrograph of a reaction-bonded Al2O3/ZrO2 ceramic produced from a starting
mixture of 45 vol% Al, 35 vol% Al2O3, and 20 vol% ZrO2. Successful application of the RBAO
process depends on several variables, such as the characteristics of the starting powders (e.g.,
particle size and volume fraction of the Al), the milling parameters, the green density of the
compacted mixture, and the heating (oxidation) schedule. ZrO2 is known to aid the microstructure
development during sintering, but its role is not clear. In addition to Al2O3, the RBAO process has
been applied to the fabrication of mullite ceramics [28] and composites [29].
A gas–solid reaction involving the oxidation of a combination of an alkaline earth metal and
another metal has been used recently to produce ceramics containing an alkaline earth element
[30–35]. An unusual feature of most alkaline earth metals is the reduction in solid volume
accompanying oxidation. For example, the molar volume of MgO is 19% smaller than that of
Mg. In contrast, most other metals tend to expand during oxidation. The reduction in volume due
to the oxidation of an alkaline earth metal can be used to offset the volume expansion of
accompanying the oxidation of another metal. In this way, dense ceramics containing an alkaline
earth element can be produced with little change in external dimensions from dense preforms of
metal-bearing precursors.

1 μm

FIGURE 1.7 Scanning electron micrograph showing the microstructure of a reaction-bonded aluminum oxide
(RBAO) sample. The white phase is ZrO2 (∼20 vol%) and the dark phase is Al2O3. (Courtesy of M.P. Harmer.)
Exploring the Variety of Random
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to be united; and is there not in all kinds of life, something similar
and common? Hence, when the affections of the soul verge to a
baser nature, while connected with a human body, these
affections, on the dissolution of such a body, become enveloped
as it were, in a brutal nature, and the rational eye, in this case,
clouded with perturbations, is oppressed by the irrational energies
of the brute, and surveys nothing but the dark phantasms of a
degraded imagination. But this doctrine is vindicated by Proclus
with his usual subtilty, in his admirable commentary on the
Timæus, lib. v. p. 329, as follows, “It is usual, says he, to enquire
how souls can descend into brute animals. And some, indeed,
think that there are certain similitudes of men to brutes, which
they call savage lives: for they by no means think it possible that
the rational essence can become the soul of a savage animal. On
the contrary, others allow it may be sent into brutes, because all
souls are of one and the same kind; so that they may become
wolves and panthers, and ichneumons. But true reason, indeed,
asserts that the human soul way be lodged in brutes, yet in such
a manner, as that it may obtain its own proper life, and that the
degraded soul may, as it were, be carried above it, and be bound
to the baser nature, by a propensity and similitude of affection.
And that this is the only mode of insinuation, we have proved by
a multitude of reasons, in our commentaries on the Phædrus. But
if it is requisite to take notice, that this is the opinion of Plato, we
add, that in his politics, he says, that the soul of Thersites
assumed an ape, but not the body of an ape: and in the
Phædrus, that the soul descends into a savage life, but not into a
savage body; for life is conjoined with its proper soul. And in this
place he says it is changed into a brutal nature: for a brutal
nature is not a brutal body, but a brutal life.”
[65] Pericles Lydus, a Stoic philosopher.
[66] Vide Pausan. lib. i. Atticorum, cap. 21. et 20.
[67] He means the Christians.
[68] Proclus was born in the year of Christ 412, on the 6th of
the Ides of February. But, for the sake of the astrologers, I have
subjoined the following figure from the Prolegomena of Fabricius
to this life: and though I am not skilled in the art myself, I am
persuaded, from the arguments of Plotinus, that it contains many
general truths; but when made subservient to particulars, is liable
to great inaccuracy and error. In short, its evidence is wholly of a
physiognomic nature; for such is the admirable order and
connection of things, that throughout the universe, one thing is
signified by another, and wholes are after a manner contained in
their parts. So that the language of the obscure and profound
Heraclitus is perfectly just, when he says, “You must connect the
perfect and the imperfect, the agreeing and the disagreeing, the
consonant and the dissonant, and out of one all things, and out
of all things one.”

A Scheme of the situation of the Stars, such as it was at

Byzantium, when the philosopher Proclus was born.
[69] It was formerly the custom of almost all nations, to have
their burial places in the suburbs, and not in the city itself.
[70] This eclipse happened, according to Fabricius, in A. C.
484. 19 Cal. Feb. at sun-rise.
[71] All the ancient theologists, among whom Plato holds a
distinguished rank, affirmed that the soul was of a certain middle
nature and condition between intelligibles and sensibles:
agreeable to which doctrine, Plotinus divinely asserts that she is
placed in the horizon, or in the boundary and isthmus, as it were,
of eternal and mortal natures; and hence, according to the Magi,
she is similar to the moon, one of whose parts is lucid, but the
other dark. Now the soul, in consequence of this middle
condition, must necessarily be the receptacle of all middle
energies, both vital and gnostic; so that her knowledge is inferior
to the indivisible simplicity of intellectual comprehension, but
superior to the impulsive perceptions of sense. Hence the
mathematical genera and species reside in her essence, as in
their proper and natural region; for they are entirely of a middle
nature, as Proclus proves in this and the sixth following chapter.
But this doctrine of Plato’s, originally derived from Brontinus and
Archytas, is thus elegantly explained by that philosopher, in the
concluding part of the sixth book of his Republic. “Socrates, know
then, they are, as we say, two (the Good itself, and the Sun,) and
that the one reigns over the intelligible world, but the other over
the visible, not to say the heavens, lest I should deceive you by
the name. You comprehend then, these two orders of things, I
mean the visible and the intelligible?—Glauco. I do.—Socrates.
Continue this division then, as if it were a line divided into two
unequal segments; and each part again, i. e. the sensible and
intelligible, divided after a similar manner, and you will have
evidence and obscurity placed by each other. In the visible
segment, indeed, one part will contain images. But I call images,
in the first place, shadows; afterwards, the resemblances of
things appearing in water, and in dense, smooth, and lucid
bodies, and every thing of this kind, if you apprehend me?—
Glauco. I apprehend you.—Socrates. Now conceive that the other
section comprehends the things, of which these images are
nothing more than similitudes, such as the animals around us,
together with plants, and whatever is the work of nature and art.
—Glauco. I conceive it.—Socrates. Do you consider this section
then, as divided into true and false? And that the hypothesis of
opinion is to the knowledge of science, as a resemblance to its
original?—Glauco. I do, very readily.—Socrates. Now then,
consider how the section of the intelligible is to be divided.—
Glauco. How?—Socrates. Thus: one segment is that which the
soul enquires after, using the former divisions as images, and
compelled to proceed from hypotheses, not to the principle, but
to the conclusion. The other is that which employs the cogitative
power of the soul, as she proceeds from an hypothesis to a
principle no longer supposed, and, neglecting images, advances
through their obscurity into the light of ideas themselves.—
Glauco. I do not, in this, sufficiently understand you.—Socrates.
But again, for you will more easily understand me from what has
been already premised. I think you are not ignorant, that those
who are conversant in geometry, arithmetic, and the like, suppose
even and odd, together with various figures, and the three
species of angles, and other things similar to these, according to
each method of proceeding. Now, having established these, as
hypotheses sufficiently known, they conceive that no reason is to
be required for their position: but beginning from these, they
descend through the rest, and arrive at last, at the object of their
investigation.—Glauco. This I know perfectly well.—Socrates. This
also you know, that they use visible forms, and make them the
subject of their discourse, at the same time not directing their
intellect to the perception of these, but to the originals they
resemble; I mean the square itself, and the diameter itself; and
not to the figures they delineate. And thus, other forms, which
are represented by shadows and images in water, are employed
by them, merely as resemblances, while they strive to behold that
which can be seen by cogitation alone.—Glauco. You speak the
truth.—Socrates. This is what I called above a species of the
intelligible, in the investigation of which, the soul was compelled
to use hypotheses; not ascending to the principle, as incapable of
rising above hypotheses, but using the images formed from
inferior objects, to a similitude of such as are superior, and which
are so conceived and distinguished by opinion, as if they
perspicuously contributed to the knowledge of things themselves.
—Glauco. I understand indeed, that you are speaking of the
circumstances which take place in geometry, and her kindred
arts.—Socrates. Understand now, that by the other section of the
intelligible, I mean that which reason herself reaches, by her
power of demonstrating, when no longer esteeming hypotheses
for principles, but receiving them in reality for hypotheses, she
uses them as so many steps and handles in her ascent, until she
arrives at that which is no longer hypothetical, the principle of the
universe; and afterwards descending, holding by ideas which
adhere to the principle, she arrives at the conclusion, employing
nothing sensible in her progress, but proceeding through ideas,
and in these at last terminating her descent.—Glauco. I
understand you, but not so well as I desire: for you seem to me
to propose a great undertaking. You endeavour, indeed, to
determine that the portion of true being and intelligible, which we
speculate by the science of demonstration, is more evident than
the discoveries made by the sciences called arts; because in the
first hypotheses are principles, and their masters are compelled to
employ the eye of cogitation, and not the perceptions of the
senses. Yet, because they do not ascend to the principle, but
investigate from hypotheses, they seem to you not to have
intelligence concerning these, though they are intelligible,
through the light of the principle. But you seem to me to call the
habit of reasoning on geometrical and the like concerns,
cogitation, rather than intelligence, as if cogitation held the
middle situation between opinion and intellect.—Socrates. You
understand me sufficiently well. And again: with these four
proportions take these four corresponding affections of the soul:
with the highest intelligence; with the second cogitation; against
the third set opinion; and against the fourth assimilation, or
imagination. Besides this, establish them in the order of alternate
proportion, so that they may partake of evidence, in the same
manner as their corresponding objects participate of reality.” I
have taken the liberty of translating this fine passage differently
from both Petvin and Spens; because they have neglected to give
the proper meaning of the word διάνοια, or cogitation, the former
translating it mind, and the eye of the mind, and by this means
confounding it with intellect; and the latter calling it
understanding. But it is certain that Plato, in this place, ranks
intellect as the first, on account of the superior evidence of its
perceptions; in the next place, cogitation; in the third, opinion;
and in the fourth, imagination. However, the reader will please to
remember, that by διάνοια, or cogitation, in the present work, is
understood that power of the soul which reasons from premises
to conclusions, and whose syllogistic energy, on active subjects, is
called prudence; and on such as are speculative, science. But for
farther information concerning its nature, see the dissertation
prefixed to this work, and the following fifth chapter.
[72] These two principles, bound and infinite, will doubtless
be considered by the unthinking part of mankind, as nothing
more than general terms, and not as the most real of beings.
However, an accurate contemplation of the universe, will convince
every truly philosophic mind of their reality. For the heavens
themselves, by the coherence and order of their parts, evince
their participation of bound. But by their prolific powers, and the
unceasing revolutions of the orbs they contain, they demonstrate
their participation of infinity. And the finite and perpetually
abiding forms with which the world is replete, bear a similitude to
bound: while, on the contrary, the variety of particulars, their
never-ceasing mutation, and the connection of more and less in
the communion of forms, represents an image of infinity. Add
too, that every natural species, by its form is similar to bound;
but by its matter, to infinity. For these two, form and matter,
depend on bound and infinity, and are their ultimate
progressions. And each of these, indeed, participates of unity; but
form is the measure and bound of matter, and is more one. But
matter is in capacity all things, because it subsists by an
emanation from the first capacity, or the infinite itself.
[73] Of human disciplines, those alone deserve to be called
sciences which use no hypotheses, which resolve things into their
principles, which are conversant with true being, and elevate us
to ideas themselves. Dialectic is wholly of this kind (I mean the
dialectic of Plato); for this alone uses no suppositions, but,
neglecting shadows and images, raises us, by a sublime
investigation, to the principle of the universe; and on this
account, deserves to be called the very apex of disciplines. But
we must not imagine, that by the word dialectic here, is meant
logic, or any part of logic, or that method of disputation, by which
we fabricate probable reasons; but we must conceive it as
signifying a discipline, endued with the greatest acuteness;
neglecting all hypotheses, truly soaring to primary causes, and
ultimately reposing in their contemplation. Plotinus has given us
most happy specimens of this method, in his books on the genera
of being.
[74] See note to the first chapter.
[75] I would particularly recommend this chapter to modern
mathematicians, most of whom, I am afraid, have never
considered whether or not the subjects of their speculation have
any real subsistence: though it is surely an enquiry worthy the
earnest attention of every liberal mind. For if the objects of
mathematical investigation are merely imaginary, I mean the
point without parts, the line without breadth, &c. the science,
founded on these false principles, must of course be entirely
delusive. Indeed, an absolutely true conclusion, can never flow
from an erroneous principle, as from its cause: as the stream
must always participate of its source. I mean such a conclusion as
is demonstrated by the proper cause, πλὴν οὐ διότι, ἀλλ’ ὅτι, says
Aristotle, in his first Analytics; that is, a syllogism from false
principles will not prove the why, but only simply that it is: indeed
it can only simply prove that it is, to him who admits the false
propositions; because he who allows the premises, cannot deny
the conclusion, when the syllogism is properly constructed. Thus
we way syllogize in the first figure,

Every thing white, is an animal:

Every bird is white:
Therefore, Every bird is an animal.

And the conclusion will be true, though the major and minor
terms are false; but then these terms are not the causes of the
conclusion, and we have an inference without a proof. In like
manner, if mathematical species are delusive and fictitious, the
conclusions deduced from them as principles, are merely
hypothetical, and not demonstrative.
[76] Aristotle, in his last Analytics. The reader will please to
observe, that the whole force of this nervous, accurate, and
elegant reasoning, is directed against Aristotle; who seems
unfortunately to have considered, with the moderns, that
mathematical species subsist in the soul, by an abstraction from
sensibles. See the preceding Dissertation.
[77] Viz. 1, 2, 4, 8, 3, 9, 27. Concerning which, see lib. iii. of
Proclus’s excellent Commentary on the Timæus.
[78] Plato frequently, both in the Meno and elsewhere, shews
that science is Reminiscence; and I think not without the
strongest reason. For since the soul is immaterial, as we have
demonstrated in the dissertation to this work, she must be truly
immortal, i. e. both a parte ante, & a parte post. That she must
be eternal, indeed, with respect to futurity, if immaterial, is
admitted by all; and we may prove, with Aristotle, in his first book
de Cœlo, that she is immortal, likewise a parte ante, as follows.
Every thing without generation, is incorruptible, and every thing
incorruptible, is without generation: for that which is without
generation, has a necessity of existing infinitely a parte ante
(from the hypothesis); and therefore, if it possesses a capacity of
being destroyed, since there is no greater reason why it should be
corrupted now, rather than in some former period, it is endued
with a capacity of being destroyed and ceasing to be, in every
instant of infinite time, in which it necessarily is. In like manner,
that which is incorruptible, has a necessity of existing infinitely a
parte post; therefore, if it possesses a capacity of being
generated, since there is no greater reason why it should be
generated now rather than afterwards, it possesses a capacity of
being generated, in every instant of time, in which it necessarily
is. If then the soul is essentially immortal, with respect to the
past and future circulations of time; and if she is replete with
forms or ideas of every kind, as we have proved in the
dissertation, she must, from her circulating nature, have been for
ever conversant in alternately possessing and losing the
knowledge of these. Now, the recovery of this knowledge by
science, is called by Plato, reminiscence; and is nothing more
than a renewed contemplation of those divine forms, so familiar
to the soul, before she became involved in the dark vestment of
an earthly body. So that we may say, with the elegant Maximus
Tyrus, (Disser. 28.) “Reminiscence is similar to that which happens
to the corporeal eye, which, though always endued with a power
of vision, yet darkness sometimes obstructs its passage, and
averts it from the perception of things. Art therefore, approaches,
which though it does not give to the eye the power of vision, yet
removes its impediments, and affords a free egress to its rays.
Conceive now, that our rational soul is such a power of
perceiving, which sees and knows the nature of beings. To this
the common calamity of bodies happens, that darkness spreading
round it, hurries away its aspect, blunts its sharpness, and
extinguishes its proper light. Afterwards, the art of reason
approaches, which, like a physician, does not bring or afford it a
new science, but rouses that which it possesses, though very
slender, confused, and unsteady.” Hence, since the soul, by her
immersion in body, is in a dormant state, until she is roused by
science to an exertion of her latent energies; and yet even
previous to this awakening, since she contains the vivid sparks, as
it were, of all knowledge, which only require to be ventilated by
the wings of learning, in order to rekindle the light of ideas, she
may be said in this case to know all things as in a dream, and to
be ignorant of them with respect to vigilant perceptions. Hence
too, we may infer that time does not antecede our essential
knowledge of forms, because we possess it from eternity: but it
precedes our knowledge with respect to a production of these
reasons into perfect energy. I only add, that I would recommend
the liberal English reader, to Mr. Sydenham’s excellent translation
of Plato’s Meno, where he will find a familiar and elegant
demonstration of the doctrine of Reminiscence.
[79] Concerning this valuable work, entitled ΙΕΡΟ‘Σ ΛΟΓΟ’Σ,
see the Bibliotheca Græca of Fabricius, vol. i. p. 118 and 462, and
in the commentary of Syrianus on Aristotle’s metaphysics, p. 7,
71, 83, and 108, the reader will find some curious extracts from
this celebrated discourse; particularly in p. 83. Syrianus informs
us, “that he who consults this work will find all the orders both of
Monads and Numbers, without neglecting one, fully celebrated
(ὐμνουμένας.)” There is no doubt, but that Pythagoras and his
disciples concealed the sublimest truths, under the symbols of
numbers; of which he who reads and understands the writings of
the Platonists will be fully convinced. Hence Proclus, in the third
book of his excellent commentary on the Timæus, observes, “that
Plato employed mathematical terms for the sake of mystery and
concealment, as certain veils, by which the penetralia of truth
might be secluded from vulgar inspection, just as the theologists
made fables, but the Pythagoreans symbols, subservient to the
same purpose: for in images we may speculate their exemplars,
and the former afford us the means of access to the latter.”
[80] Concerning this Geometric Number, in the 8th book of
Plato’s Republic, than which Cicero affirms there is nothing more
obscure, see the notes of Bullialdus to Theo. p. 292.
[81] I am sorry to say, that this part of the enemies to pure
geometry and arithmetic, are at the present time very numerous;
conceptions of utility in these sciences, extending no farther than
the sordid purposes of a mere animal life. But surely, if intellect is
a part of our composition, and the noblest part too, there must
be an object of its contemplation; and this, which is no other than
truth in the most exalted sense, must be the most noble and
useful subject of speculation to every rational being.
[82] In the 13th book of his Metaphysics, cap. iii.
[83] In. I. De Partib. Animalium, et in primo Ethic. cap. iii.
[84] See more concerning this in the Dissertation.
[85] Since number is prior to magnitude, the demonstrations
of arithmetic must be more intellectual, but those of geometry
more accommodated to the rational power. And when either
arithmetic or geometry is applied to sensible concerns, the
demonstrations, from the nature of the subjects, must participate
of the obscurity of opinion. If this is the case, a true
mathematician will value those parts of his science most, which
participate most of evidence; and will consider them as degraded,
when applied to the common purposes of life.
[86] This division of the mathematical science, according to
the Pythagoreans, which is nearly coincident with that of Plato, is
blamed by Dr. Barrow in his Mathematical Lectures, p. 15. as
being confined within too narrow limits: and the reason he
assigns for so partial a division, is, “because, in Plato’s time,
others were either not yet invented, or not sufficiently cultivated,
or at least were not yet received into the number of the
mathematical sciences.” But I must beg leave to differ from this
most illustrious mathematician in this affair; and to assert that the
reason of so confined a distribution (as it is conceived by the
moderns) arose from the exalted conceptions these wise men
entertained of the mathematical sciences, which they considered
as so many preludes to the knowledge of divinity, when properly
pursued; but they reckoned them degraded and perverted, when
they became mixed with sensible objects, and were applied to the
common purposes of life.
[87] That is, a right and circular line.
[88] I am afraid there are few in the present day, who do not
consider tactics as one of the most principal parts of
mathematics; and who would not fail to cite, in defence of their
opinions, that great reformer of philosophy, as he is called, Lord
Bacon, commending pursuits which come home to men’s
businesses and bosoms. Indeed, if what is lowest in the true
order of things, and best administers to the vilest part of human
nature, is to have the preference, their opinion is right, and Lord
Bacon is a philosopher!
[89] By this is to be understood the art new called
Perspective: from whence it is evident that this art was not
unknown to the ancients, though it is questioned by the moderns.
[90] From hence it appears, that it is doubtful whether Plato is
the author of the dialogue called Epinomis; and I think it may
with great propriety be questioned. For though it bears evident
marks of high antiquity, and is replete with genuine wisdom, it
does not seem to be perfectly after Plato’s manner; nor to contain
that great depth of thought with which the writings of this
philosopher abound. Fabricius (in his Bibliotheca Græca, lib. i. p.
27.) wonders that Suidas should ascribe this work to a
philosopher who distributed Plato’s laws into twelve books,
because it was an usual opinion; from whence it seems, that
accurate critic had not attended to the present passage.
[91] This proximate conjunction of the mathematical sciences,
which Proclus considers as subordinate to dialectic, seems to
differ from that vertex of science in this, that the former merely
embraces the principles of all science, but the latter comprehends
the universal genera of being, and speculates the principle of all.
[92] In the Meno.
[93] This is certainly the true or philosophical employment of
the mathematical science; for by this means we shall be enabled
to ascend from sense to intellect, and rekindle in the soul that
divine light of truth, which, previous to such an energy, was
buried in the obscurity of a corporeal nature. But by a contrary
process, I mean, by applying mathematical speculations, to
experimental purposes, we shall blind the liberal eye of the soul,
and leave nothing in its stead but the darkness of corporeal
vision, and the phantoms of a degraded imagination.
[94] The design of the present chapter is to prove that the
figures which are the subjects of geometric speculation, do not
subsist in external and sensible matter, but in the receptacle of
imagination, or the matter of the phantasy. And this our
philosopher proves with his usual elegance, subtilty, and depth.
Indeed, it must be evident to every attentive observer, that
sensible figures fall far short of that accuracy and perfection
which are required in geometrical definitions: for there is no
sensible circle perfectly round, since the point from which it is
described is not without parts; and, as Vossius well observes, (de
Mathem. p. 4.) there is not any sphere in the nature of things,
that only touches in a point, for with some part of its superficies it
always touches the subjected plane in a line, as Aristotle shews
Protagoras to have objected against the geometricians. Nor must
we say, with that great mathematician Dr. Barrow, in his
Mathematical Lectures, page 76, “that all imaginable geometrical
figures, are really inherent in every particle of matter, in the
utmost perfection, though not apparent to sense; just as the
effigies of Cæsar lies hid in the unhewn marble, and is no new
thing made by the statuary, but only is discovered and brought to
sight by his workmanship, i. e. by removing the parts of matter
by which it is overshadowed and involved. Which made Michael
Angelus, the most famous carver, say, that sculpture was nothing
but a purgation from things superfluous. For take all that is
superfluous, (says he) from the wood or stone, and the rest will
be the figure you intend. So, if the hand of an angel (at least the
power of God) should think fit to polish any particle of matter,
without vacuity, a spherical superficies would appear to the eyes,
of a figure exactly round; not as created anew, but as unveiled
and laid open from the disguises and covers of its circumjacent
matter.” For this would be giving a perfection to sensible matter,
which it is naturally incapable of receiving: since external body is
essentially full of pores and irregularities, which must eternally
prevent its receiving the accuracy of geometrical body, though
polished by the hand of an angel. Besides, what polishing would
ever produce a point without parts, and a line without breadth?
For though body may be reduced to the greatest exility, it will not
by this means ever pass into an incorporeal nature, and desert its
triple dimension. Since external matter, therefore, is by no means
the receptacle of geometrical figures, they must necessarily reside
in the catoptric matter of the phantasy, where they subsist with
an accuracy sufficient for the energies of this science. It is true,
indeed, that even in the purer matter of imagination, the point
does not appear perfectly impartible, nor the line without latitude:
but then the magnitude of the point, and the breadth of the line
is indefinite, and they are, at the same time, unattended with the
qualities of body, and exhibit to the eye of thought, magnitude
alone. Hence, the figures in the phantasy, are the proper
recipients of that universal, which is the object of geometrical
speculation, and represent, as in a mirror, the participated
subsistence of those vital and immaterial forms which essentially
reside in the soul.
[95] This division is elegantly explained by Ammonius, (in
Porphyr. p. 12.) as follows, “Conceive a seal-ring, which has the
image of some particular person, for instance, of Achilles,
engraved in its seal, and let there be many portions of wax, which
are impressed by the ring. Afterwards conceive that some one
approaches, and perceives all the portions of wax, stamped with
the impression of this one ring, and keeps the impression of the
ring in his mind: the seal engraved in the ring, represents the
universal, prior to the many: the impression in the portions of
wax, the universal in the many: but that which remains in the
intelligence of the beholder, may be called the universal, after and
posterior to the many. The same must we conceive in genera and
species. For that best and most excellent artificer of the world,
possesses within himself the forms and exemplars of all things: so
that in the fabrication of man, he looks back upon the form of
man resident in his essence, and fashions all the rest according to
its exemplar. But if any one should oppose this doctrine, and
assert that the forms of things do not reside with their artificer,
let him attend to the following arguments. The artificer either
knows, or is ignorant of that which he produces: but he who is
ignorant will never produce any thing. For who will attempt to do
that, which he is ignorant how to perform? since he cannot act
from an irrational power like nature, whose operations are not
attended with animadversion. But if he produces any thing by a
certain reason, he must possess a knowledge of every thing
which he produces. If, therefore, it is not impious to assert, that
the operations of the Deity, like those of men, are attended with
knowledge, it is evident that the forms of things must reside in
his essence: but forms are in the demiurgus, like the seal in the
ring; and these forms are said to be prior to the many, and
separated from matter. But the species man, is contained in each
particular man, like the impression of the seal in the wax, and is
said to subsist in the many, without a separation from matter. And
when we behold particular men, and perceive the same form and
effigy in each, that form seared in our soul, is said to be after the
many, and to have a posterior generation: just as we observed in
him, who beheld many seals impressed in the wax from one and
the same ring. And this one, posterior to the many, may be
separated from body, when it is conceived as not inherent in
body, but in the soul: but is incapable of a real separation from its
subject.” We must here, however, observe, that when Ammonius
speaks of the knowledge of the Deity, it must be conceived as far
superior to ours. For he possesses a nature more true than all
essence, and a perception clearer than all knowledge. And as he
produced all things by his unity, so by an ineffable unity of
apprehension, he knows the universality of things.
[96] In lib. vii. Metaphys. 35 & 39.
[97] In lib. iii. de Anima, tex. 20.
[98] That is, geometry first speculates the circle delineated on
paper, or in the dust: but by the medium of the circular figure in
the phantasy, contemplates the circle resident in cogitation; and
by that universal, or circular reason, participated in the circle of
the phantasy, frames its demonstrations.
[99] In his first Analytics, t. 42. See the Dissertation to this
work.
[100] Such as the proportion of the diagonal of a square to its
side; and that of the diameter of a circle, to the periphery.
[101] The gnomons, from which square numbers are
produced, are odd numbers in a natural series from unity, i. e. 1,
3, 5, 7, 9, 11, &c. for these, added to each other continually,
produce square numbers ad infinitum. But these gnomons
continually decrease from the highest, and are at length
terminated by indivisible unity.
[102] This doctrine of ineffable quantities, or such whose
proportion cannot be expressed, is largely and accurately
discussed by Euclid, in the tenth book of his Elements: but its
study is neglected by modern mathematicians, because it is of no
use, that is, because it contributes to nothing mechanical.
[103] This proposition is the 11th of the second book: at least,
the method of dividing a line into extreme and mean proportion,
is immediately deduced from it; which is done by Euclid, in the
30th, of the sixth book. Thus, Euclid shews (11. 2.) how to divide

the line (A G B) A B, so that the rectangle

under the whole A B, and the segment G B, may be equal to the
square made from A G: for when this is done, it follows, that as A
B is to A G, so is A G to G B; as is well known. But this
proposition, as Dr. Barrow observes, cannot be explained by
numbers; because there is not any number which can be so
divided, that the product from the whole into one part, may be
equal to the square from the other part.
[104] All polygonous figures, may, it is well known, be
resolved into triangles; and this is no less true of polygonous
numbers, as the following observations evince. All number
originates from indivisible unity, which corresponds to a point:
and it is either linear, corresponding to a line; or superficial, which
corresponds to a superficies; or solid, which imitates a
geometrical solid. After unity, therefore, the first of linear
numbers is the duad; just as every finite line is allotted two
extremities. The triad is the first of superficial numbers; as the
triangle of geometrical figures. And the tetrad, is the first of
solids; because a triangular pyramid, is the first among solid
numbers, as well as among solid figures. As, therefore, the
monad is assimilated to the point, so the duad to the line, the
triad to the superficies, and the tetrad to the solid. Now, of
superficial numbers, some are triangles, others squares, others
pentagons, hexagons, heptagons, &c. Triangular numbers are
generated from the continual addition of numbers in a natural
series, beginning from unity. Thus, if the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
&c. be added to each other continually, they will produce the
triangular numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, &c. and if every triangular
number be added to its preceding number, it will produce a
square number. Thus 3 added to 1 makes 4; 6 added to 3 is
equals 9; 10 added to 6 is equal to 16; and so of the rest.
Pentagons, are produced from the junction of triangular and
square numbers, as follows. Let there be a series of triangular
numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, &c.
And of squares 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, &c.
Then the second square number, added to the first triangle,
will produce the first pentagon from unity, i.e. 5. The third square
added to the second triangle, will produce the second pentagon,
i.e. 12; and so of the rest, by a similar addition. In like manner,
the second pentagon, added to the first triangle, will form the
first hexagon from unity; the third pentagon and the second
triangle, will form the second hexagon, &c. And, by a similar
proceeding, all the other polygons may be obtained.
[105] Intellections are universally correspondent to their
objects, and participate of evidence or the contrary, in proportion
as their subjects are lucid or obscure. Hence, Porphyry, in his
sentences, justly observes, that “we do not understand in a
similar manner with all the powers of the soul, but according to
the particular essence of each. For with the intellect we
understand intellectually; and with the soul, rationally: our
knowledge of plants is according to a seminal conception; our
understanding of bodies is imaginative; and our intellection of the
divinely solitary principle of the universe, who is above all things,
is in a manner superior to intellectual perception, and by a super-
essential energy.” Ἀφορμαὶ πρὸς τὰ Νοητὰ, (10.) So that, in
consequence of this reasoning, the speculations of geometry are
then most true, when most abstracted from sensible and material
natures.
[106] See Plutarch, in the life of Marcellus.
[107] In lib. i. de Cælo, tex. 22. et lib. i. Meteo. cap. 3.
Aristotle was called demoniacal by the Platonic philosophers, in
consequence of the encomium bestowed on him by his master,
Plato, “That he was the dæmon of nature.” Indeed, his great
knowledge in things subject to the dominion of nature, well
deserved this encomium; and the epithet divine, has been
universally ascribed to Plato, from his profound knowledge of the
intelligible world.
 [108] Εἰς νοῦν, is wanting in the original, but is supplied by
the excellent translation of Barocius.
[109] Ἀλόγων, in the printed Greek, which Fabricius, in his
Bibliotheca Græca, vol. i. page 385, is of opinion, should be read
ἀναλόγων; but I have rendered the word according to the
translation of Barocius, who is likely to have obtained the true
reading, from the variety of manuscripts which he consulted.
[110] The quadrature of the Lunula is as follows.

Let A B C be a right-angled triangle, and B A C a semi-circle

on the diameter B C: B N A a semi-circle described on the
diameter A B; A M C a semi-circle described on the diameter A C.
Then the semi-circle B A C is equal to the semi-circle B N A, and A
M C together: (because circles are to each other as the squares
of their diameters, 31, 6.) If, therefore, you take away the two
spaces B A, A C common on both sides, there will remain the two
lunulas B N A, A M C, bounded on both sides with circular lines,
equal to the right-angled triangle B A C. And if the line B A, be
equal to the line A C, and you let fall a perpendicular to the
hypotenuse B C, the triangle B A O will be equal to the lunular
space B N A, and the triangle C O A will be equal to the lunula C
M A. Those who are curious, may see a long account of an
attempt of Hippocrates to square the circle, by the invention of
the lunulas, in Simplicius on Aristotle’s Physics, lib. i.
[111] So Barocius reads, but Fabricius Μεδμᾶιος.
[112] i. e. The five regular bodies, the pyramid, cube,
octaedron, dodecaedron and icosaedron; concerning which, and
their application to the theory of the universe, see Kepler’s
admirable work, De Harmonia Mundi.
[113] It may be doubted whether the optics and catoptrics,
ascribed to Euclid in the editions of his works are genuine: for
Savil, and Dr. Gregory, think them scarcely worthy so great a
man.
[114] There are two excellent editions of this work, one by
Meibomius, in his collection of ancient authors on harmony; and
the other by Dr. Gregory, in his collection of Euclid’s works.
[115] This work is most probably lost. See Dr. Gregory’s
Euclid.
[116] All this is shewn by Proclus in the following
Commentaries; and is surely most admirable and worthy the
investigation of every liberal mind; but I am afraid modern
mathematicians very little regard such knowledge, because it
cannot be applied to practical and mechanical purposes.
[117] This work is unfortunately lost.
[118] Because this is true only in isosceles and equilateral
triangles.
[119] This follows from the 32d proposition of the first book of
Euclid; and is demonstrated by Dr. Barrow, in his scholium to that
proposition.
[120] The method of constructing these is shewn by our
philosopher, in his comment on the first proposition, as will
appear in the second volume of this work.
[121] The reader will please to observe, that the definitions
are, indeed, hypotheses, according to the doctrine of Plato, as
may be seen in the note to chap, i. book I. of this work.
[122] In his last Analytics. See the preceding Dissertation.
[123] That part of this work enclosed within the brackets, is
wanting in the original; which I have restored from the excellent
version of Barocius. The philosophical reader, therefore, of the
original, who may not have Barocius in his possession, will, I
hope, be pleased, to see so great a vacancy supplied; especially,
as it contains the beginning of the commentary on the definition
of a point.
[124] I do not find this ænigma among the Pythagoric
symbols which are extant; so that it is probably no where
mentioned but in the present work. And I am sorry to add, that a
figure and three oboli, in too much the general cry of the present
times.
[125] The present Comment, and indeed most of the
following, eminently evinces the truth of Kepler’s observation, in
his excellent work, De Harmonia Mundi, p. 118. For, speaking of
our author’s composition in the present work, which he every
where admires and defends, he remarks as follows, “oratio fluit
ipsi torrentis instar, ripas inundans, et cæca dubitationum vada
gurgitesque occultans, dum mens plena majestatis tantarum
rerum, luctatur in angustiis linguæ, et conclusio nunquam sibi ipsi
verborum copiâ satisfaciens, propositionum simplicitatem excedit.”
But Kepler was skilled in the Platonic philosophy, and appears to
have been no less acquainted with the great depth of our author’s
mind than with the magnificence and sublimity of his language.
Perhaps Kepler is the only instance among the moderns, of the
philosophical and mathematical genius being united in the same
person.
[126] That is, the reason of a triangular figure (for instance)
in the phantasy, or triangle itself, is superior to the triangular
nature participated in that figure.
[127] In the tenth book of his Republic.
[128] See the Hymn to the Mother of the Gods, in my
translation of the Orphic Initiations.
[129] The philosopher here seems to contradict what he
asserts in the end of his comment on the 13th Definition: for
there he asserts, that the circle is a certain plane space. Perhaps
he may be reconciled, by considering, that as the circle subsists
most according to bound, when we speculate its essence in this
respect we may define it according to the circumference, which is
the cause of its bound. But when we consider it as participating
of infinity also, though not in so eminent a degree, and view it
from its emanations from the centre as well as in its regressions,
we may define it a plane space.
[130] That is, the essential one of the soul is the mother of
number; but that which subsists in opinion is nothing more than
the receptacle of the former; just as matter is the seat of all
forms. For a farther account of the subsistence of numbers, see
the first section of the preceding Dissertation.
[131] That is, number composed from units.
 [132] This sentence within the brackets, is wholly omitted in
the printed Greek.
[133] In i. De Cælo.
[134] This sentence within the brackets, which is very
imperfect in the Greek, I have supplied from the excellent
translation of Barocius. In the Greek there is nothing more than
λὲγω δὲ ἑνὸν τῂν γραμμὴν δυαδός πρὸς τὸ στερεόν.
[135] In the Greek, γὰρ ἡ μονὰς ἐκεῖ πρῶτον, ὅπου πατρικὴ
μονάς ἐστι φησὶ τὸ λόγιον. The latter part only of this oracle, is to
be found in all the printed editions of the Zoroastrian oracles;
though it is wonderful how this omission could escape the notice
of so may able critics, and learned men. It seems probable, from
hence, that it is only to be found perfect in the present work.
[136] The word τανάη, is omitted in the Greek.
[137] This and the following problems, are the 1st, 22d, and
12th propositions of the first book. But in the two last, instead of
the word ἄπειρος or infinite, which is the term employed by
Euclid, Mr. Simson, in his edition of the Elements, uses the word
unlimited. But it is no unusual thing with this great geometrician,
to alter the words of Euclid, when they convey a philosophical
meaning; as we shall plainly evince in the course of these
Commentaries. He certainly deserves the greatest praise for his
zealous attachment to the ancient geometry: but he would (in my
opinion) have deserved still more, had he been acquainted with
the Greek philosophy; and fathomed the depth of Proclus; for
then he would never have attempted to restore Euclid’s Elements,
by depriving them of some very considerable beauties.
[138] This is doubtless the reason why the proportion
between a right and circular line, cannot be exactly obtained in
numbers; for on this hypothesis, they must be incommensurable
quantities; because the one contains property essentially different
from the other.
[139]
 The cornicular angle is that which is made from the periphery
of a circle and its tangent; that is, the angle comprehended by
the arch L A, and the right line F A, which Euclid in (16. 3.)
proves to be less than any right-lined angle. And from this
admirable proposition it follows, by a legitimate consequence,
that any quantity may be continually and infinitely increased, but
another infinitely diminished; and yet the augment of the first,
how great soever it may be, shall always be less than the
decrement of the second: which Cardan demonstrates as follows.
Let there be proposed an angle of contact B A E, and an acute
angle H G I. Now if there be other lesser circles described A C, A
D, the angle of contact will be evidently increased. And if
between the right lines G H, G I, there fall other right lines G K, G
L, the acute angle shall be continually diminished: yet the angle
of contact, however increased, is always less than the acute
angle, however diminished. Sir Isaac Newton likewise observes, in
his Treatise on Fluxions, that there are angles of contact made by
other curve lines, and their tangents infinitely less than those
made by a circle and right line; all which is demonstrably certain:
yet, such is the force of prejudice, that Mr. Simson is of opinion,
with Vieta, that this part of the 16th proposition is adulterated;
and that the space made by a circular line and its tangent, is no
angle. At least his words, in the note upon this proposition, will
bear such a construction. Peletarius was likewise of the same
opinion; but is elaborately confuted by the excellent Clavius, as
may be seen in his comment on this proposition. But all the
difficulties and paradoxes in this affair, may be easily solved and
admitted, if we consider, with our philosopher, that the essence of
an angle does not subsist in ether quantity, quality, or inclination,
taken singly, but in the aggregate of them all. For if we regard
the inclination of a circular line to its tangent, we shall find it
possess the property, by which Euclid defines an angle: if we
respect its participation of quantity, we shall find it capable of
being augmented and diminished; and if we regard it as
possessing a peculiar quality, we shall account for its being
incommensurable with every right-lined angle. See the Comment
on the 8th Definition.
[140] In i. De Cælo.
[141] It is from this cylindric spiral that the screw is formed.
[142]

The present very obscure passage, may be explained by the

following figure. Let A B C, be a right angle, and D E the line to
be moved, which is bisected in G. Now, conceive it to be moved
along the lines A B, B C, in such a manner, that the point D may
always remain in A B, and the point E in B C. Then, when the line
D E, is in the situations d e, δ ε, the point G, shall be in g, γ, and
these points G, g, γ, shall be in a circle. And any other point F in
the line D E, will, at the same time, describe an ellipsis; the
greater axis being in the line A B, when the point F is between D
and G; and in the line B C, when the point F is between G and E.
 [143] That is, the soul of the world.
[144] In Timæo.
[145] The ellipsis.
[146] The cissoid. For the properties of this curve, see Dr.
Wallis’s treatise on the cycloid, p. 81.
[147] The conchoid.
[148] Thus, a right line, when considered as the side of a
parallelogram, moving circularly, generates a cylindrical
superficies: when moving circularly, as the side of a triangle, a
conical surface; and so in other lines, the produced superficies
varying according to the different positions of their generative
lines.
[149] Inv ii. De Rep.
[150] In multis locis.
[151] This definition is the same with that which Mr. Simson
has adopted instead of Euclid’s, expressed in different words: for
he says, “a plane superficies is that in which any two points being
taken, the straight line between them lies wholly in that
superficies.” But he does not mention to whom he was indebted
for the definition; and this, doubtless, because he considered it
was not worth while to relate the trifles of Proclus at full length:
for these are his own words, in his note to proposition 7, book i.
Nor has he informed us in what respect Euclid’s definition is
indistinct.
[152] In the Greek ἐννοιὰς, but it should doubtless be read
εἰκόνας, images, as in the translation of Barocius.
[153] Mr. Simson, in his note on this definition, supposes it to
be the addition of some less skilful editor; on which account, and
because it is quite useless (in his opinion) he distinguishes it from
the rest by inverted double commas. But it is surely strange that
the definition of angle in general should be accounted useless,
and the work of an unskilful geometrician. Such an assertion may,
indeed, be very suitable to a professor of experimental
philosophy, who considers the useful as inseparable from
practice; but is by no means becoming a restorer of the liberal
geometry of the ancients. Besides, Mr. Simson seems continually
to forget that Euclid was of the Platonic sect; and consequently
was a philosopher as well as a mathematician. I only add, that
the commentary on the present definition is, in my opinion,
remarkably subtle and accurate, and well deserves the profound
attention of the greatest geometricians.
[154] For a philosophical discussion of the nature of quality
and quantity, consult the Commentaries of Ammonius, and
Simplicius on Aristotle’s Categories, Plotinus on the genera of
beings, and Mr. Harris’s Philosophical Arrangements.
[155] That is, the ellipsis.
[156] That is, they are either right, acute, or obtuse.
[157] This oracle is not mentioned by any of the collectors of
the Zoroastrian oracles.
[158] This, indeed, must always be the case with those
geometricians, who are not at the same time, philosophers; a
conjunction no less valuable than rare. Hence, from their
ignorance of principles and intellectual concerns, when any
contemplative enquiry is proposed, they immediately ask, in what
its utility consists; considering every thing as superfluous, which
does not contribute to the solution of some practical problem.
[159] Concerning the soul’s descent into body, see lib. ix.,
Ennead iv. of Plotinus; and for the method by which she may
again return to her pristine felicity, study the first book of
Porphyry’s Treatise on Abstinence.
[160] This Definition too, is marked by Mr. Simson with
inverted commas, as a symbol of its being interpolated. But for
what reason I know not, unless because it is useless, that is,
because it is philosophical!
[161] That is, the various species of forms, with which the
four elements are replete.
[162] That is, the circle.
[163] An admirer of the moderns, and their pursuits, will
doubtless consider all this as the relics of heathen superstition
and ignorance; and will think, perhaps, he makes a great
concession in admitting the existence of one supreme god,
without acknowledging a multitude of deities subordinate to the
first. For what the ancients can urge in defence of this obsolete
opinion, I must beg leave to refer the reader to the dissertation
prefixed to my translation of Orpheus; in addition to which let him
attend to the following considerations. Is it possible that the
machinery of the gods in Homer could be so beautiful, if such
beings had no existence? Or can any thing be beautiful which is
destitute of all reality? Do not things universally please in
proportion as they resemble reality? Perhaps it will be answered,
that the reverse of this is true, and that fiction more generally
pleases than truth, as is evident from the great avidity with which
romances are perused. To this I reply, that fiction itself ceases to
be pleasing, when it supposes absolute impossibilities: for the
existence of genii and fairies cannot be proved impossible; and
these compose all the marvellous of romance. This observation is
verified in Spencer’s Fairy Queen: for his allegories, in which the
passions are personified, are tedious and unpleasant, because
they are not disguised under the appearance of reality: while the
magic of Circe, the bower of Calypso, the rocks of Scylla and
Charybdis, and the melody of the Syrens, in the Odyssey of
Homer, though nothing but allegories, universally enchant and
delight, because they are covered with the semblance of truth. It
is on this account that Mikon’s battles in heaven are barbarous
and ridiculous in the extreme; for every one sees the impossibility
of supposing gun-powder and cannons in the celestial regions:
the machinery is forced and unnatural, contains no elegance of
fancy, and is not replete with any mystical information. On the
contrary, Homer’s machinery is natural and possible, is full of
dignity and elegance, and is pregnant with the sublimest truths; it
delights and enobles the mind of the reader, astonishes him with
its magnificence and propriety, and animates him with the fury of
poetic inspiration. And this, because it is possible and true.
[164] The sentence within the brackets is omitted in the
Greek.
[165] That is, the circular form proceeds from bound, but
right-lined figures from infinity.
[166] That is, the number three.
[167] In Timæo.
[168] πρὸς ὃ, or, to which, is wanting in the original, and in all
the published collections of the Zoroastrian oracles.
[169] That is Jupiter, who is called triadic, because he
proceeds from Saturn and Rhea; and because his government is
participated by Neptune and Pluto, for each of these is called
Jupiter by Orpheus.
 [170] This sentence, within the brackets, is omitted in the
printed Greek.
[171]

Fig. I. Fig. II.

Thus let a part A E B cut off by the diameter A B (fig. I.) of
the circle A E B D be placed on the other part A D B, as in fig. II.
Then, if it is not equal to the other part, either A E B will fall
within A D B, or A D B within A E B: but in either case, C E will be
equal to C D, which is absurd.
[172] This objection is urged by Philoponus, in his book
against Proclus on the eternity of the world; but not, in my
opinion, with any success. See also Simplicius, in his third
digression against Philoponus, in his commentary on the 8th book
of Aristotle’s Physics.
[173] This definition is no where extant but in the
commentaries of Proclus. Instead of it, in almost all the printed
editions of Euclid, the following is substituted. A segment of a
circle is the figure contained by a diameter, and the part of the
circumference cut off by the diameter. This Mr. Simson has
marked with commas, as a symbol of its being interpolated: but
he has taken no notice of the different reading in the
commentaries of Proclus. And what is still more remarkable, this
variation is not noticed by any editor of Euclid’s Elements, either
ancient or modern.
[174] As in every hyperbola.
 [175] The Platonic reader must doubtless be pleased to find
that Euclid was deeply skilled in the philosophy of Plato, as
Proclus every where evinces. Indeed, the great accuracy, and
elegant distribution of these Elements, sufficiently prove the truth
of this assertion. And it is no inconsiderable testimony in favour of
the Platonic philosophy, that its assistance enabled Euclid to
produce such an admirable work.
[176] Concerning these crowns, or annular spaces, consult the
great work of that very subtle and elegant mathematician
Tacquet, entitled Cylindrica et Annularia.
[177] In the preceding tenth commentary.
[178] This in consequence of every triangle possessing angles
alone equal to two right.
[179] This too, follows from the same cause as above.
[180] Thus the following figure A B D C has four sides, and
but three angles.

[181] The Greek in this place is very erroneous, which I have

restored from the version of Barocius.
[182] For the Greek word ῥόμβος is derived from the verb
ῥέμβω, which signifies to have a circumvolute motion.
[183] See the Orphic Hymns of Onomacritus to these deities;
my translation of which I must recommend to the English reader,
because there is no other.
[184] These twelve divinities, of which Jupiter is the head,
are, Jupiter, Neptune, Vulcan, Vesta, Minerva, Mars, Ceres, Juno,
Diana, Mercury, Venus, and Apollo. The first triad of these is
demiurgic, the second comprehends guardian deities, the third is
vivific, or zoogonic, and the fourth contains elevating gods. But,
for a particular theological account of these divinities, study
Proclus on Plato’s Theology, and you will find their nature
unfolded, in page 403, of that admirable work.
[185] For it is easy to conceive a cylindric spiral described
about a right-line, so as to preserve an equal distance from it in
every part; and in this case the spiral and right-line will never
coincide though infinitely produced.
[186]

As the conchoid is a curve but little known, I have subjoined

the following account of its generation and principal property. In
any given right line A P, call P the pole, A the vertex, and any
intermediate point C the centre of the conchoid: likewise,
conceive an infinite right line C H, which is called a rule,
perpendicular to A P. Then, if the right line A p continued at p as
much as is necessary, is conceived to be so turned about the
abiding pole p, that the point C may perpetually remain in the
right line C H, the point A will describe the curve A o, which the
ancients called a conchoid.
In this curve it is manifest (on account of the right line P O,
cutting the rule in H that the point o will never arrive at rule C H;
but because h O is perpetually equal to C A, and the angle of
section is continually more acute, the distance of the point O from
C H will at length be less than any given distance, and
consequently the right line C H will be an asymptote to the curve
A O.
When the pole is at P, so that P C is equal to C A, the conchoid
A O described by the revolution of P A, is called a primary
conchoid, and those described from the poles p, and π, or the
curves A o, A ω, secondary conchoids; and these are either
contracted or protracted, as the eccentricity P C, is greater or less
than the generative radius C A, which is called the altitude of the
curve.
Now, from the nature of the conchoid, it may be easily
inferred, that not only the exterior conchoid A ω will never
coincide with the right line C H, but this is likewise true of the
conchoids A O, A o; and by infinitely extending the right-line A π,
an infinite number of conchoids may be described between the
exterior conchoid A ω, and the line C H, no one of which shall
ever coincide with the asymptote C H. And this paradoxical
property of the conchoid which has not been observed by any
mathematician, is a legitimate consequence of the infinite
divisibility of quantity. Not, indeed, that quantity admits of an
actual division in infinitum, for this is absurd and impossible; but
it is endued with an unwearied capacity of division, and a power
of being diffused into multitude, which can never be exhausted.
And this infinite capacity which it possesses arises from its
participation of the indefinite duad; the source of boundless
diffusion, and innumerable multitude.

But this singular property is not confined to the conchoid, but

is found in the following curve. Conceive that the right line A C
which is perpendicular to the indefinite line X Y, is equal to the
quadrantal arch H D, described from the centre C, with the radius
C D: then from the same centre C, with the several distances C E,
C F, C G, describe the arches E l, F n, G p, each of which must be
conceived equal to the first arch H D, and so on infinitely. Now, if
 the points H, k, l, n, p, be joined, they will form a curve line,
approaching continually nearer to the right-line A B (parallel to C
Y) but never effecting a perfect coincidence. This will be evident
from considering that each of the sines of the arches H D, l E, n F,
&c. being less than its respective arch, must also be less than the
right-line A C, and consequently can never coincide with the right-
line A B.
But if other arches D i, E m, F o, &c. each of them equal to
the right-line A C, and described from one centre, tangents to the
former arches H D, l E, n F, &c. be supposed; it is evident that the
points H, i, m, o, &c. being joined, will form a curve line, which
shall pass beyond the former curve, and converge still nearer to
the line A B, without a possibility of ever becoming coincident: for
since the arches D i, E m, F o, &c. have less curvature than the
former arches, but are equal to them in length, it is evident that
they will be subtended by longer lines, and yet can never touch
the right-line A B. In like manner, if other tangent arches be
drawn to the former, and so on infinitely, with the same
conditions, an infinite number of curve-lines will be formed, each
of them passing between H p and A B, and continually diverging
from the latter, without a possibility of ever coinciding with the
former. This curve, which I invented some years since, I suspect
to be a parabola; but I have not yet had opportunity to determine
it with certainty.

Transcriber’s Notes:

1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been corrected

silently.

2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the original.

3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have

been retained as in the original.

4. The errata have been soilently corrected.

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