LOWER INVERTEBRATES

Omalu ICJ PhD

 STRUCTURE AND LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE
PLATYHELMINTHES
The Phylum Platyhelminthes

Introduction

The platyhelminthes are commonly called flatworms. Some of

the most important features of the higher animals such as
cephalization, bilateral symmetry, possession of a central
nervous system and triploblastic organization, were first
observed in this group. The phylum contains four classes: the
Turbellaria (free-living), and, the Monogenea, Trematoda and
Cestoidea (parasites).
 Objectives

• At the conclusion of this lecture, the student should

be able to:
• understand the characteristics of the different
members of the platyhelminthes.
• classify the platyhelminthes.
 General Characteristics of the Platyhelminthes

• These are flatworms because they are dorso-

ventrally flattened.

• Many of the most important morphological features

found in complex higher animal groups were first
observed in the flatworms. These features include:
Cephalization and bilateral symmetry. Triploblastic
organization. Organ-system level of organization.

• They are acoelomates i.e. the mesoderm is solid with

no space between the ectoderm and the gut.
• They possess a central nervous system.

• They lack blood vascular (circulatory) and respiratory systems.

• •Respiration and excretion are mainly by diffusion through the

body surface.

• They possess a unique excretory and osmoregulatory system

of branched protonephridial tubes that end in flame cells.

• The gut (when present) has only one opening, the mouth; no
anus.

• They are hermaphrodites.

• The phylum is divided into four classes, which are
Turbellaria, Monogenea, Trematoda and Cestoidea.

Turbellaria
• They are a group of flatworms known for their
remarkable ability to regenerate lost body parts.
• Most species are free-living and aquatic, and feed on
small invertebrates or dead organisms.
• The few land-dwelling species are restricted to moist
environments.
• Turbellarians probably gave rise to the parasitic
flatworm classes, the tapeworms and the flukes. The
Monogenans are essentially ectoparasites with hooked
attachment structures
 Structure and characteristics of the
Turbellarians
• Species vary greatly in size from microscopic up to 60 cm (24
in) in length, although most are less than 1 cm (0.4 in).

• They have no need for a circulatory system (to distribute food

or oxygen) or an excretory system (to remove wastes). Rather,
the flattened shape permits direct exchange of oxygen and
wastes between the body cells and the aquatic environment.
•
• The mouth is on the underside of the body and leads to the
pharynx and gut.
• They are classified according to the shape of the gut: simple and
saclike, branched, divided, three-lobed, or entirely absent.

• A primitive brain and sense organs are located in the head. Two or
more eyespots can sense light, and there are cells in the head
specialized for sensing chemicals, touch, and water current.

• The body is covered with moving, hairlike structures, or cilia,

especially on the underside. The cilia are used in movement and
are aided by cells called rhabdoids that secrete a mucous blanket
on which the worm glides. Muscular motions also assist in
movement.

• Generally, the class Turbellaria lack cuticle, and suckers are rarely
present. e.g. Dugesia, etc. (Fig. 2.6).
• Turbellarians are simultaneous hermaphrodites, meaning that
they can produce both eggs and sperm at the same time. A single
individual cannot fertilize itself; instead, mating is reciprocal, with
each of two individuals exchanging both eggs and sperm.
Reproduction may also be asexual, by splitting or fission.
Environmental conditions such as light and temperature influence
whether reproduction will be sexual or asexual.

• Substances are produced in the brain that inhibit head formation

and promote tail formation.and fatigue, and burn-out syndromes,
as well as with elevated risks of cardiovascular diseases.
 General Characteristics of the Monogenea

♦ They are mostly ectoparasites of fish, turtles and amphibians.

♦ A few are endoparasitic.
♦ They have simple life-cycles and have only one host.
♦ Possess hooked attachment structures.
♦ The large posterior attachment structure is called the haptor.
♦ e.g. Polystoma sp., Macrogyrodactylus sp., Dactylogyrus sp.,
Gyrodactylus sp., Diplozoon sp., etc.525354
 The Trematoda
The Trematoda is a class within the phylum platyhelminthes that
contains two groups of parasitic worms, commonly referred to as
flukes.

The smaller Aspidogastrea, comprising about 100 species, are

obligates parasites of mollusks and may also infect turtles and fish,
including cartilaginous fish.

The Digena, which constitute the majority of trematode diversity,

are obligate parasites of both mollusks and vertebrates, but rarely
occur in cartilaginous fish. Generally, the trematodes body is
covered by a complex tegument. The adults lack cilia, and have one
or more suckers by which they attach to their hosts. They have
complex life cycles involving intermediate hosts.
 Characteristics of the Trematoda

Almost all trematodes infect mollusks as the first host in the life
cycle, and most have a complex life cycle involving other hosts.
Most trematodes are monoecious and alternately reproduce
sexually and asexually.
The two main exceptions to this are the Aspidogastrea, which have
no asexual reproduction, and the schistosomes, which are
dioecious.
In the definitive host, in which sexual reproduction occurs, eggs
are commonly shed along with host faeces. Eggs shed in water
release free-swimming larval forms that are infective to the
intermediate host, in which asexual reproduction occurs.
A species that exemplifies the remarkable life history of the
trematodes is the bird fluke, Leucochloridium paradoxum.
The definitive hosts, in which the parasite multiplies, are various
woodland birds, while the hosts in which the parasite grows
(intermediate host) are various species of snail.
The adult parasite in the bird's gut produces eggs and these
eventually end up on the ground in the bird's faeces. Some very
fortunate eggs get swallowed by a snail and here they hatch into
tiny, transparent larva (miracidium).
These larvae grow and take on a sac-like appearance. This stage is
known as the sporocyst and it forms a central body in the snail's
digestive gland that extends into a brood sac in the snail's head,
muscular foot and eye-stalks.
It is in the central body of the sporocyst where the parasite
replicates itself, producing lots of tiny embryos (redia). These
embryos move to the brood sac and mature into cercaria.
 Classification of the Trematodes

• The class Trematoda contains two subclasses, one of which,

the Digenea is a large and successful group with much
economic importance to mankind. The second subclass is the
Aspidogastrea which are a small group of absolutely no
economic importance to mankind at all (Fig. 2.7).
 Class Cestoidea (Cestoda)
Introduction
The cestodes, or tapeworms are endoparasitic. Their adult live in
the gut of the vertebrates, and lack cilia and their surface is a
tegument (as in monogeneans and trematodes), but in cestodes
the tegument is covered with tiny projections, microvilli, which
increase its surface area and thereby its ability to absorb
nutrients from a host.
Physical Characteristics of Cestodes
♦ Commonly called tapeworms.
♦ They are endoparasitic and their adults live in the gut of
vertebrates.
♦ Body is typically elongated, tape-like and segmented; each
segment is called a proglottis/proglottid
♦ They have a head region known as the scolex, which mostly
bears hooks and suckers for attachment to the host.
• The anterior proglottides close to the scolex are young
without complement of the reproductive system.
• The middle proglottides are mature and have full complement
of the reproductive system, while the posterior segments are
gravid and contain ripe eggs.
• Each proglottis contains a complete set of male and female
reproductive organs.
♦ They have no mouth and no digestive system.
♦ They absorb digested food from the intestine of their
host through the body surface.
♦ Their bodies are covered by a thick cuticle.
♦ No cilia in adults.
♦ Life-cycle is complex and involves intermediate hosts.
♦ E.g. Taenia solium, Taenia saginata, Echinococcus
granulosus, Hymenolepis nana, Diphyllobothrium latum,
etc.
• ♦ The body of most tapeworms is flat and much longer
than it is wide, so that it looks like a tape or ribbon. The
length varies from 0.02 inch (0.6 millimeter) to 98 feet
(30 meters), the longest worms being found in sperm
whales.
♦ Tapeworms are parasites that have no
head, mouth, or digestive system. Parasites
are animals or plants that live on or in other
animals or plants, or hosts, without helping
them and usually harming them.
♦ Tapeworms have a body covering through
which they absorb nutrients from the host's
intestine. This covering also protects the
worms from the host's immune reactions and
digestive acids. Tapeworms are whitish and as
internal parasites they live in darkness.
• ♦ The body of tapeworms has three regions:
scolex, neck, and strobila. The scolex is the head.
It has spines, hooks, suckers, tentacles, glands
releasing sticky secretions, or a combination of
these structures that the worm uses to attach
itself to the inner wall of the intestine of the final
host, also called the primary host.
• ♦ Suckers are the most common attachment tool.
Suckers are usually cup shaped and have
powerful muscular walls. The neck is the region
of the body just behind the scolex. It is usually
short.
• ♦ The strobila is behind the neck. It consists of a row of
segments called proglottids. The strobila is made up of
anywhere from a few to more than one thousand
proglottids but usually contains several dozen.

• ♦ Each proglottid starts development at the neck, and

proglottids form one by one throughout the life of the
tapeworm in the final host. Just behind the neck, the
proglottids are short and narrow. When a new proglottid
forms at the neck, already formed proglottids are
pushed toward the rear, grow, and eventually contain
the reproductive organs.
• ♦ Behind the new proglottids, each strobila contains the
following types of proglottids, from front to back:
premature proglottids, with the beginnings of
reproductive organs; mature proglottids, which contain
functioning male and female reproductive organs;
postmature proglottids, which contain developing eggs;
and gravid proglottids, which contain ripe eggs.

• ♦ The gravid proglottids at the end of the worm break

off and pass into the environment with the host's feces.
A few species of tapeworms have no proglottids.
 The Phylum Nematoda
Introduction

• The nematodes, also called roundworms, are elongated,

cylindrical, unsegmented worms. They are cosmopolitan
and are made up of parasitic and free-living species. The
phylum contains two classes, Adenophorea (Aphasmidia)
and Secernentea (Phasmidia). The two classes are
separated on the basis of the presence or absence of
phasmids.
 General Characteristics of the Nematodes

• ♦ The name Nematode means, "thread form". The

nematodes are also known as round worms. These
animals have a cylindrical tapered bodies and range is
length from few millimeter to a meter and live in diverse
habitats.

• ♦ Free-living nematodes eat microorganisms; other

nematodes may feed on decaying organic material.
Vinegar eel is a common free-living nematode. All
roundworms have a bilateral symmetry and a mouth and
an anus.
• ♦ The parasitic species are: pinworms, hookworms, heartworms
(in dogs), and Ascaris (intestinal roundworm). Humans can
contract parasitic worms by eating under cooked beef or pork.
• ♦ Nematodes are bilaterally symmetrical, and are surrounded by a
strong, flexible noncellular layer called a cuticle. Their body plan is
simple. The cuticle is secreted by and covers a layer of epidermal
cells. Near the body wall but under the epidermal cells are muscle
cells; they run in the longitudinal direction only
• ♦ A true coelom is lacking, instead, nematodes have a
"pseudocoel" formed directly from the cavity of the blastula
(rather than as a result of the division or folding of mesoderm).
The cavity of the pseudocoel is small, being mostly filled with an
intestine and oviducts or testes.
• ♦ A simple nervous system consists of a ring of nervous tissue
around the pharynx that gives rise to dorsal and ventral nerve
cords running the length of the body.
• ♦ Nematodes move by contraction of the longitudinal
muscles. Because their internal pressure is high, this
causes the body to flex rather than flatten, and the
animal moves by thrashing back and forth. No cilia or
flagellae are present.
• ♦ Some nematodes have specialized cells that excrete
nitrogenous wastes; in others, canals or canals plus
these specialized cells are present. Nematodes do not
have flame cells.
• ♦ Most nematodes are dioecious. Fertilization takes
place when males use special copulatory spines to open
the females' reproductive tracts and inject sperm into
them. The sperm are unique in that they lack flagellae
and move by pseudopodia, like amoebas. Development
of fertilized eggs is usually direct.
• ♦ Nematodes are almost unbelievably abundant. One
study reported around 90,000 individual nematodes in a
single rotting apple. Another reported 236 species living
in a few cubic centimeters of mud.
• ♦ The number of described species is around 12,000,
but too little attention has been paid to these animals
and the true number may be closer to 500,000. Some
species are generalists, occuring across wide areas and
in many habitats; others are much more specialized.
Classification and features of members of the Phylum
Nematoda.
• The Phylum Nematoda is divided into two classes:
• Class Adenophorea (Aphasmidia)
• Class Secernentea (Phasmidia)