ITM Campus, NH-75, Opposite Sithouli Railway Station, Gwalior (M.P.

)- 475001, India
mail: [email protected], web: www.itmgoi.in
ITM Campus, NH-75, Opposite Sithouli Railway Station, Gwalior (M.P.)- 475001, India
mail: [email protected], web: www.itmgoi.in
ITM Campus, NH-75, Opposite Sithouli Railway Station, Gwalior (M.P.)- 475001, India
mail: [email protected], web: www.itmgoi.in
UNIT1: Introduction to Operating Systems:

Introduction to Operating Systems

An Operating System (O/S) is a system software that manages computer hardware and software resources,
providing common services for computer programs. It acts as an intermediary between users and the computer
hardware, ensuring that both interact effectively and efficiently.

1. Functions of an Operating System

 Process Management: The O/S handles the creation, scheduling, and termination of processes. It
ensures that multiple processes can run simultaneously (multitasking) by allocating CPU time.
 Memory Management: It manages primary memory (RAM), ensuring that programs have enough
space to execute while efficiently using available memory.
 File System Management: The O/S controls the creation, deletion, reading, and writing of files,
organizing data into directories and handling permissions.
 Device Management: It manages device communication via device drivers, ensuring that peripheral
devices such as printers, keyboards, and external drives function properly.
 Security and Access Control: Operating systems protect data by controlling access to system
resources and enforcing security protocols like user authentication and encryption.
 User Interface: The O/S provides a user interface, either graphical (GUI) or command-line (CLI),
allowing users to interact with the system.
 Networking: Modern O/Ss enable communication between computers, handling data exchange across
networks through protocols like TCP/IP.

2. Evolution of Operating Systems

Operating systems have evolved significantly since their inception:

 Batch Systems (1950s-60s): Early O/Ss processed jobs in batches without direct user interaction. They
were designed primarily to automate job execution, with minimal user intervention.
 Time-sharing Systems (1960s-70s): These systems introduced the concept of sharing CPU time
among multiple users, enabling interactive computing.
 Multitasking and Real-Time Systems (1970s-80s): As computing needs grew, O/Ss developed the
capability to handle multiple tasks simultaneously and provide real-time responses for critical
applications.
 Personal Computing (1980s-90s): With the rise of personal computers, operating systems like MS-
DOS, Windows, and macOS were developed, bringing user-friendly interfaces to non-technical users.
 Networked and Distributed Systems (1990s-present): Modern operating systems support
networking, virtualization, and cloud computing, allowing multiple systems to work together
seamlessly.
 Mobile and Embedded Systems (2000s-present): Mobile operating systems (e.g., Android, iOS) and
embedded systems have expanded the role of O/S into smartphones, IoT devices, and more.

3. Different Types of Operating Systems

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  Batch Operating Systems: No direct interaction with the computer; jobs are processed in batches.
 Time-Sharing Operating Systems: Multiple users can access a computer system concurrently, with
the CPU switching between jobs to ensure responsiveness.
 Distributed Operating Systems: Manage a group of independent computers and make them appear
to the user as a single system.
 Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS): Provide immediate processing of tasks to ensure real-time
responses for critical applications.
 Multiuser and Multitasking Operating Systems: Allow multiple users to access the system and run
multiple programs at the same time (e.g., Unix, Windows).
 Embedded Operating Systems: Designed for specialized devices like routers, TVs, or cars, where
limited resources are available (e.g., FreeRTOS, VxWorks).
 Mobile Operating Systems: Tailored for smartphones and tablets (e.g., Android, iOS).

4. Desirable Characteristics of an Operating System

 Efficiency: The O/S should manage resources optimally to ensure high performance, even with limited
resources.
 Reliability: It should be stable, free of bugs, and able to recover from errors without system crashes.
 Scalability: The O/S should be able to scale across different hardware platforms, from small embedded
systems to large enterprise servers.
 Security: An O/S must protect against unauthorized access, data breaches, and cyberattacks.
 User-friendly: The interface and functionality should be intuitive and easy to use, especially for non-
technical users.
 Portability: An O/S should be adaptable to various hardware architectures without significant
modification.

5. Features of an Operating System

 Multitasking: Allows multiple processes to run simultaneously.

 Multithreading: Supports multiple threads within a single process to perform tasks concurrently.
 Virtual Memory: Extends the physical memory by using disk space to simulate more RAM,
improving system efficiency.
 Security Features: Includes user authentication, access control, encryption, and firewalls.
 Networking Capabilities: Provides support for network communication and resource sharing.
 Device Management: Manages hardware devices and ensures proper data transmission between
devices and applications.

1. Functions of an Operating System

 Process Management:
o Example: When you're running multiple applications on your computer, like a browser, a media
player, and Word, the operating system (e.g., Windows) allocates CPU time to each application so
they can run simultaneously without crashing.
 Memory Management:

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 o Example: When you open multiple tabs in Google Chrome, the operating system ensures each tab
gets enough memory to function properly, reallocating resources as you open and close tabs.
 File System Management:
o Example: On your Android phone, when you save a document or download a file, the OS manages
where the file is stored and keeps track of its location and permissions.
 Device Management:
o Example: When you plug a USB drive into your computer, the OS, such as macOS, loads the necessary
drivers so you can access and manage files on the USB.
 Security and Access Control:
o Example: In Linux, user accounts are protected by password authentication, and sensitive system files
are only accessible to admin or root users, preventing unauthorized access.
 User Interface:
o Example: The Windows 11 desktop provides a graphical user interface (GUI) where you can click icons
and interact with windows, rather than typing commands in a terminal.
 Networking:
o Example: Windows Server operating system enables an organization’s computers to communicate
over a network, share files, and manage security across multiple devices in a corporate environment.

2. Evolution of Operating Systems

 Batch Systems (1950s-60s):

o Example: In early IBM mainframes, jobs were submitted on punch cards, and the OS would process
them in batches with no real-time interaction from the user.
 Time-sharing Systems (1960s-70s):
o Example: Multics was one of the first time-sharing systems that allowed multiple users to access a
mainframe computer simultaneously via terminals.
 Multitasking and Real-Time Systems (1970s-80s):
o Example: Unix, developed in the 1970s, was a multitasking operating system that allowed multiple
programs to run simultaneously, revolutionizing computing in universities and research centers.
 Personal Computing (1980s-90s):
o Example: The rise of MS-DOS in the 1980s followed by Windows 95 brought computing to personal
desktops, offering graphical interfaces and user-friendly systems for the everyday consumer.
 Networked and Distributed Systems (1990s-present):
o Example: Windows Server and Linux-based systems now allow distributed computing, where users
can work across multiple servers and resources are shared across networks.
 Mobile and Embedded Systems (2000s-present):
o Example: Android and iOS are modern mobile operating systems that run on billions of smartphones,
tablets, and other devices, managing apps and resources efficiently.

3. Different Types of Operating Systems

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  Batch Operating Systems:
o Example: Early versions of IBM mainframes used batch systems where jobs were processed in groups,
like payroll processing where hundreds of employee records were updated in one batch.
 Time-Sharing Operating Systems:
o Example: Unix is a classic example where multiple users can log in and run programs at the same time
on the same system, allowing multiple users to interact with the system simultaneously.
 Distributed Operating Systems:
o Example: In a cloud computing environment like Google Cloud or Amazon Web Services (AWS),
multiple systems work together in a distributed manner to provide seamless service to users across
the globe.
 Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS):
o Example: VxWorks is a real-time OS used in critical applications like automotive systems, medical
devices, and spacecraft, where immediate processing is vital.
 Multiuser and Multitasking Operating Systems:
o Example: Linux allows multiple users to log in, run their own processes, and perform multiple tasks
(e.g., web hosting, data processing) at the same time.
 Embedded Operating Systems:
o Example: FreeRTOS is used in embedded devices such as home automation systems (e.g., smart
thermostats) where the O/S manages tasks with limited resources.
 Mobile Operating Systems:
o Example: Android powers smartphones and tablets, allowing users to run apps, communicate, and
manage files with a mobile-specific interface.

4. Desirable Characteristics of an Operating System

 Efficiency:
o Example: Unix-based systems, such as Linux, are known for their efficient use of resources, making
them popular in servers and supercomputing environments.
 Reliability:
o Example: Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) is known for its high reliability and stability, often used in
enterprise environments where system uptime is critical.
 Scalability:
o Example: Windows Server can scale from running on a single small server to handling complex, large-
scale enterprise networks with thousands of users and devices.
 Security:
o Example: macOS uses FileVault to encrypt users' data, preventing unauthorized access and enhancing
data security in case the system is compromised.
 User-friendly:
o Example: Windows 11 offers an intuitive and customizable user interface, making it accessible for
non-technical users to perform everyday tasks like browsing, word processing, and gaming.
 Portability:
o Example: Linux is highly portable, running on a wide variety of platforms, from personal computers
and servers to smartphones and embedded systems.

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5. Features of an Operating System

 Multitasking:
o Example: On a Windows 10 computer, you can run multiple programs, like Microsoft Word and
Spotify, simultaneously without one interrupting the other.
 Multithreading:
o Example: In Google Chrome, each tab is a separate thread, allowing for smooth browsing and
preventing one tab crash from affecting the entire browser.
 Virtual Memory:
o Example: When you're using intensive applications on Windows, like a game or video editing
software, the OS may use part of your hard disk as "virtual memory" to extend available RAM.
 Security Features:
o Example: Android employs encryption, app sandboxing, and biometric authentication (like fingerprint
or facial recognition) to enhance security for users' data and applications.
 Networking Capabilities:
o Example: Linux servers are commonly used in web hosting because of their robust networking
features, allowing them to handle large volumes of internet traffic.
 Device Management:
o Example: Windows automatically installs drivers for new hardware (e.g., printers or scanners) so you
can use devices seamlessly without having to install software manually.

Operating Systems Services

Operating systems provide a wide range of services to support application execution, manage resources, and
ensure system security. These services can be accessed by users, applications, or other parts of the system
through various interfaces.

1. Types of Services

 Program Execution:
o The OS provides the ability to load and execute programs. It ensures that programs have the necessary
resources (CPU, memory, etc.) to run properly.
 I/O Operations:
o The OS facilitates input and output operations by interacting with hardware devices such as
keyboards, printers, and disks. It handles reading from and writing to these devices without requiring
programs to know the specifics of the hardware.
 File System Manipulation:
o Operating systems provide services to manage files, such as creating, deleting, reading, and writing
files. They ensure the integrity and security of the file system.
 Communication:

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 o In a networked environment, the OS enables inter-process communication (IPC) between processes
either on the same machine or across different machines. This can be done through shared memory,
message passing, or sockets.
 Error Detection:
o The OS constantly monitors the system for potential errors, such as disk failures or memory
corruption, and takes appropriate actions to ensure system stability.
 Resource Allocation:
o The OS manages resources such as CPU time, memory, and I/O devices and allocates them efficiently
among multiple users or processes.
 Security and Protection:
o Operating systems enforce security policies to prevent unauthorized access to system resources,
ensuring that users and processes only access what they are allowed to.

2. Different Ways of Providing Services

Operating systems provide services in two main ways: through commands and system calls.

Commands

Commands are instructions given by users, typically in a command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user
interface (GUI), to interact with the system.

 Example: In Linux, commands like ls (to list files) or cp (to copy files) provide a direct way for users to interact
with the file system.
 Use: Commands are mainly used for high-level user interactions, such as file management or process control.

System Calls

System calls are low-level, privileged operations that provide an interface between a running program and the
operating system.

 Example: In Unix/Linux, system calls like fork() (to create a new process), read() (to read from a file), and
write() (to write to a file) allow programs to request services from the kernel.
 Use: System calls are used by programs when they need to perform actions that require OS privileges, such as
accessing hardware or managing processes.

3. Need for System Calls

System calls are essential because:

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  Access to Privileged Operations: Direct hardware access by user programs is unsafe and could lead to system
instability. System calls provide a controlled environment where the OS ensures safe access to hardware
resources.
 Abstraction: System calls abstract the complexity of interacting with hardware. Programmers don’t need to
know hardware-specific details; they simply make a system call.
 Security and Protection: Through system calls, the OS enforces access control policies, ensuring that programs
can only perform authorized actions.
 Multiprogramming: System calls allow multiple programs to share system resources efficiently. For instance,
they manage process creation, termination, and communication.

4. Low-level Implementation of System Calls

At the low level, system calls are implemented through a process that involves switching from user mode to
kernel mode:

 User Mode vs. Kernel Mode:

o User Mode: The CPU runs user applications with limited access to system resources. User-mode
programs can't directly access hardware or execute privileged instructions.
o Kernel Mode: The OS runs in kernel mode, where it has unrestricted access to all system resources
and hardware.
 How a System Call Works:
1. Request: The program in user mode makes a request by executing a special instruction (like an interrupt or a
software trap) that triggers a system call.
2. Mode Switch: The system switches from user mode to kernel mode, transferring control to the OS.
3. Service Execution: The OS determines the appropriate service to handle the request and executes it
(e.g., reading from a file).
4. Return: Once the service is completed, the OS switches back to user mode and control is returned to
the program.
 Example:
o A read() system call in Linux works by transferring data from a file into a program’s buffer. The OS
handles locating the file, checking permissions, reading the data from the disk, and copying it into the
process's memory.

5. Portability Issues

Portability refers to the ability of an operating system or a program to run on different hardware platforms
with minimal modification.

 Challenges:
o Hardware-Specific System Calls: System calls may vary between different OSs or architectures (e.g.,
x86, ARM). A system call written for Windows might not work on Linux without modification.

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 o Low-Level Hardware Interactions: Direct hardware access (e.g., I/O operations) differs across
platforms, which makes it hard to port system calls written for one type of hardware to another.
o Binary Compatibility: Compiled binaries are usually platform-dependent, so a program compiled for
one OS might not run on another without recompiling.
 Solution:
o Operating systems and programs use abstraction layers and cross-platform development tools to
manage portability issues. For example, using APIs like POSIX can help standardize system calls across
Unix-like systems (Linux, macOS, etc.).

6. Operating System Structures

An operating system’s structure defines how it organizes its components and services. Some common
structures include:

1. Monolithic Systems

 Description: The OS is a single, large program where all services (file management, memory management,
etc.) run in kernel mode.
 Example: Unix and early versions of Linux.
 Advantage: High performance because there’s no need to switch between different modules.
 Disadvantage: Difficult to maintain and extend because all components are tightly integrated.

2. Layered Systems

 Description: The OS is divided into layers, with each layer providing services to the layer above it. Each layer
only interacts with its neighboring layers.
 Example: THE operating system, developed by Edsger Dijkstra.
 Advantage: Easier to manage and extend since each layer has specific functions.
 Disadvantage: Can suffer from performance overhead due to multiple layers of abstraction.

3. Microkernel Systems

 Description: Only the most essential services (like inter-process communication, memory management, and
basic I/O) run in the kernel. Other services (like device drivers, file systems, etc.) run in user mode.
 Example: Minix, QNX.
 Advantage: Greater security and stability, as most services are isolated in user space. Easy to add or remove
services without affecting the whole system.
 Disadvantage: Communication between the kernel and user-space services can result in performance
overhead.

4. Modular Systems

 Description: The OS is made up of separate modules that can be dynamically loaded or unloaded.

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  Example: Modern Linux kernels use a modular structure, where you can load or unload device drivers as
needed.
 Advantage: Flexibility, since the OS can be tailored to specific hardware or applications.
 Disadvantage: Complexity in managing the dependencies between different modules.

5. Hybrid Systems

 Description: A combination of different structures, where some parts of the OS are monolithic (for
performance) while others are modular or layered (for flexibility and maintainability).
 Example: Windows NT, macOS.
 Advantage: Offers a balance between performance and flexibility.
 Disadvantage: Can be difficult to design and manage due to the mix of different architectural models.

Unit 1: Important Question for RGPV Engineering Exam

 Introduction to Operating Systems:

o Function of an Operating System
o Evolution of Operating Systems
o Different types of Operating Systems
o Desirable Characteristics and features of an O/S
 Operating Systems Services:
o Types of Services provided by an Operating System
o Different ways of providing these services (Commands, System Calls)
o Need for System Calls
o Low-level implementation of System Calls
o Portability issues in Operating Systems
o Operating System Structures (Monolithic, Layered, Microkernel, Modular, Hybrid)

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Unit 1: Important Questions with Solutions for RGPV

1. Introduction to Operating Systems

Q1. What is the function of an Operating System?

 Solution: An OS manages hardware resources like the CPU, memory, and I/O devices, providing services to
software applications. Its main functions are:
o Process management: Scheduling and controlling the execution of processes.
o Memory management: Allocating memory and handling swapping between main memory and disk
storage.
o File system management: Organizing, storing, and accessing files.
o I/O management: Managing input and output devices, ensuring data transfer between system
components.

Q2. Explain the evolution of Operating Systems.

 Solution:
o Batch Processing Systems: Early OSs managed the execution of jobs in batches, requiring manual
input.
o Multiprogramming Systems: Allowed multiple jobs to be in memory simultaneously, improving CPU
utilization.
o Time-Sharing Systems: Multiple users could interact with the system at the same time via terminals.
o Distributed Systems: OSs that manage multiple machines, making them act like a single cohesive
system.
o Real-Time Systems: Designed to process data with strict timing constraints.

Q3. What are the different types of Operating Systems?

 Solution:
o Batch Operating Systems: Process jobs in batches with no interaction between users.
o Time-Sharing Operating Systems: Multiple users interact with the computer simultaneously.
o Distributed Operating Systems: Manages a group of distinct computers to act as a single system.
o Network Operating Systems: Provides services to computers connected over a network.
o Real-Time Operating Systems: Designed for time-bound tasks with strict performance criteria.

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Q4. What are the desirable characteristics and features of an Operating System?

 Solution: Key characteristics of a good OS include:

o Efficiency: Makes effective use of hardware resources.
o Security: Protects against unauthorized access.
o Stability: Runs processes without crashing or data corruption.
o User-friendly: Provides an intuitive interface for users.
o Portability: Ability to run on different hardware platforms.
o Scalability: Adapts to increased load or additional resources.

2. Operating Systems Services

Q5. What are the types of services provided by an Operating System?

 Solution:
o Program execution: Runs programs and handles errors.
o I/O operations: Manages input and output devices.
o File system manipulation: Allows creation, deletion, reading, and writing of files.
o Communication: Enables processes to communicate with each other via shared memory or message
passing.
o Error detection: Detects and manages system errors.
o Security and protection: Enforces access control to resources.

Q6. What are the different ways of providing Operating System services (Commands, System Calls)?

 Solution:
o Commands: High-level user instructions given via command-line interfaces or GUI (e.g., ls in Linux).
o System Calls: Low-level calls used by programs to request OS services (e.g., fork() for process
creation).

Q7. Why are system calls necessary?

 Solution:
o System calls are necessary because they provide a controlled interface for programs to interact with
the OS kernel, ensuring safe access to system resources, hardware, and data. They allow applications
to perform low-level tasks (e.g., file I/O, process control) in a secure and standardized way.

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Q8. Explain the low-level implementation of system calls.

 Solution:
o Low-level implementation: When a system call is made, a context switch occurs from user mode to
kernel mode, where the OS executes the system call in a privileged environment. After the
execution, the control is transferred back to user mode.
o Steps:
1. The process requests a service via a system call.
2. The system transitions from user mode to kernel mode.
3. The OS executes the requested operation in kernel mode.
4. Control is returned to the user mode.

Q9. What are portability issues in Operating Systems?

 Solution: Portability refers to the ability of software to run on different hardware platforms with minimal
modification. Key issues include:
o System call differences: System calls are often OS or architecture-specific.
o Hardware abstraction: Different hardware may require different device drivers.
o Binary compatibility: Programs compiled for one OS or architecture may not run on others without
recompilation or adaptation.

Q10. Explain different Operating System structures.

 Solution:
1. Monolithic Systems: All OS functions are contained in one large kernel. Example: Early Linux
versions.
2. Layered Systems: The OS is divided into layers, where each layer only interacts with the one directly
above or below it. Example: THE operating system.
3. Microkernel Systems: Only essential services (memory management, IPC) run in kernel mode, with
other services running in user space. Example: Minix.
4. Modular Systems: The OS is divided into modules, which can be dynamically loaded/unloaded.
Example: Modern Linux kernels.
5. Hybrid Systems: Combines multiple structures, offering a mix of performance and modularity.
Example: Windows NT, macOS.

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