CHAPTER 4:

DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

MACHINES

Prepared by : Ida Rahayu Mohamed Noordin

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

1) Understand the concept and construction of DC machines, DC motor/generator

types and EMF equations.

2) Solve DC Machines equivalent circuit (self-excitation, separately excited,

shunt, series and compound techniques armature reaction, commutation
interpoles and compensating windings, back emf, generated emf).

3) Understand and determine the power flow diagram, efficiency and torque.
 4.1 Simple DC machines and its fundamental principles

▪ A DC Machines can be used as either a DC generator or a DC motor.

The difference between dc motor and dc generator is in terms of the current

direction as follows:

• DC generator: armature current, Ia is supplied by the armature.

3

• DC motor: armature current, Ia is received by the armature.

4.2 Construction and materials used in the magnetic and electric
circuits of electrical machines.

Basic Parts of DC machine

Stator Rotor
Stationary part of the machine The rotating part of the
with poles that carries field machines that carries the
winding armature winding
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 Basic Parts of DC Machine (cont)

Stator Rotor

• Stationary outside part of the machine. • Inner rotating part of the machine.

• The stator carries a field winding that is used to • The rotor carries a distributed winding,
produce the required magnetic field by DC and is the winding where the e.m.f is
excitation. In this case, a DC coil (field winding) induced.
is wound around a magnetic material that • Also known as the armature
forms part of the stator.
• Often known as the field.

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 4.3 Types of DC motors and generators.

Machine winding can be divided into:

Armature winding Field winding

(rotor side) (stator side)
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 4.3 Connection of the field winding with the armature (cont)

Two types of DC Machines:

1. Separately Excited DC Machines
2. Self-excited DC Machines.

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Comparison between field and armature winding
Armature Winding Field Winding

Carry DC current to create magnetic field

Voltage is induced on it.
Mounted on the poles (stator) –
always in Y-connection
Placed on the
Subdivided into 2 windings:
rotor.
Separately excited winding
- No direct connection between field &
armature windings
Winding arrangement Self-excited winding
depends on how the coils are
connected to form a closed - Has a direct connection between field
& armature windings
winding.
It can further be subdivided into: shunt,
series, compound excitation 8
4.4 Generation of DC voltage with single armature winding and use of commutator

How does the Generation of DC Motor?

DC motor: Converts electrical energy → mechanical energy

Its operation can be described as follows;

▪ The armature winding is connected to a DC power supply.
▪ Current flows through the armature winding.
▪ Since armature is within a magnetic field,
a force is exerted on the windings.
▪ The force causes the shaft to rotate.

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4.4 Generation of DC voltage with single armature winding and use of commutator
(cont)

▪ As the rotor/armature rotates, its winding will cut the flux causing e.m.f to
be generated on the armature winding, i.e. Counter e.m.f with its polarity
acting against the source voltage.

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What is commutator
Commutator: is composed of copper bars, insulated from each other. The armature winding is
connected to the commutator.

• Power is applied to armature windings

• From V+ Through the +brush
• Through the commutator contacts
• Through the armature (rotor) winding
• Through the – brush
• To V-
• Rotation of the armature moves the
commutator, switching the armature
winding connections
• Stator may be permanent or
winding
electromagnet 11
 4.4.1 General e.m.f equation of DC generator

Faraday’s Law states that: - when a current pass through a coil, flux will be induced
around the coil. As the rotor/armature rotates, its winding will cut the flux causing
e.m.f to be generated on the DC motor (i.e. induced voltage@ sometimes; its called as
back or counter e.m.f ) given by:

Z = Total number of conductors in the armature circuit

= Number of slots x number of conductor/slot
p = Number of poles
c = Number of parallel path @ Number of current path (c =2 for wave-winding,
c = P for lap-winding)
N = Speed of armature rotation (rpm)
ɸ = Flux per pole (Wb)

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4.4.1 General e.m.f equation of DC generator (cont)

The total e.m.f induced, EA in the motor by several such coils

wound on the rotor can be obtained by:

Ka = Machine (or armature) constant,

ꞷ = Angular speed of rotation, radians per second (rad/s)
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4.4.2 Conditions for self-excitation, critical resistance and characteristics of shunt,
series and compound generator and motor

DC machine has 2 components

Armature circuit Field circuit

Represented by a voltage source and a Represented by a winding that generates

resistance connected in series (the the magnetic field and a resistance
armature resistance). connected in series.
The armature winding has a resistance, RA. The field winding has resistance RF.
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4.4.2 Conditions for self-excitation, critical resistance and characteristics of shunt, series and compound generator
and motor (cont)

Important terms in DC motor equivalent circuit:

Steady-state analysis, the voltage equation of a DC motor (separately excited
and self-excited shunt) can be given as;

VT = EA + IARA( + VBR )

VBR = Brush
voltage drop
(generally
neglected)

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4.4.2 Conditions for self-excitation, critical resistance and characteristics of shunt, series and compound generator
and motor (cont)

Types of DC Machines
A DC Machines can be used as either a DC generator or a DC motor.
Types of DC Machines is referred to field winding i.e. Self-Excited Winding and
Separately Excited Winding.

Self-Excited Winding Separately Excited Winding

▪ Direct connection between ▪ No direct connection between armature

armature circuit and the field circuit and the field circuit.
circuit.
▪ It can be connected in series, shunt
and compound excitation method

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4.4.2 Conditions for self-excitation, critical resistance and characteristics of shunt, series and compound generator and
motor (cont)

▪ Separately Excited Winding

There is no direct connection between field & armature circuits. When the dc field current is
supplied by an external source such as batteries, the machine is said to be separately excited.

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4.4.2 Conditions for self-excitation, critical resistance and characteristics of shunt, series
and compound generator and motor (cont)

➢ In self-excited DC machine, there are three types of excitation method namely:

Series Excitation: the field winding is connected in series with the armature circuit.
Shunt Excitation: the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature circuit.
Compound Excitation: the field winding are connected in series and parallel with the armature
circuit

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 Series Excitation: the field winding is connected in series with the armature circuit.

Schematic diagram DC Series Generator. Power Flow Diagram.

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 / 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ / 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎

𝑅𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑅𝑓 = 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐸𝑔 = 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)

𝑃𝜇 = iron loss/mechanical loss / stray/ friction/windage

𝑃𝑐𝑎 = Armature copper loss

𝑃𝑐𝑓 = Field copper loss

−𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑓 +𝑉𝑇 = 0
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝐸𝑔 ; 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑇 + 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑓 )
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝜇 + 𝑃𝑐𝑓 + 𝑃𝑐𝑎
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒; 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝐿
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑃𝜇
𝑉
𝐼𝑓 =𝑅𝑇
𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿
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 Series Excitation: the field winding is connected in series with the armature circuit.

DC Series Motor.
Schematic diagram Power Flow Diagram.
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 / 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ / 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝐸𝑎 𝐼𝑎
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑅𝑓 = 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐸𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑓(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿
−𝑉𝑇 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑓 + 𝐸𝑎 = 0
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝐸𝑔 ;
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝜇 + 𝑃𝑐𝑓 + 𝑃𝑐𝑎
𝐸𝑎 = 𝑉𝑇 − 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑓 )
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 - 𝑃𝜇
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝐿
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒;
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𝑉𝑇
𝐼𝑓 =
𝑅𝑓
 Shunt Excitation: the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature circuit.
DC Shunt Generator.
Schematic diagram Power Flow Diagram.
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 / 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ / 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝜇 + 𝑃𝑐𝑓 + 𝑃𝑐𝑎

−𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉𝑇 = 0
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑃𝜇
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝐸𝑔 ;
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑇 +𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒; 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼𝐿
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𝑉
𝐼𝑓 =𝑅𝑇 and 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 -𝐼𝑓
𝑓
 Shunt Excitation: the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature circuit.
DC Shunt Motor.
Schematic diagram Power Flow Diagram.
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 / 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ / 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝐸𝑎 𝐼𝑎

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
−𝑉𝑇 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 + 𝐸𝑎 = 0
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝐸𝑔 ; 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝜇 + 𝑃𝑐𝑓 + 𝑃𝑐𝑎
𝐸𝑎 = 𝑉𝑇 − 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 - 𝑃𝜇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒; 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 - 𝐼𝐿
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𝑉
𝐼𝑓 =𝑅𝑇 and 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑓 − 𝐼𝑎
𝑓
Compound Excitation: the field winding are connected in series and parallel with the armature circui
DC Compound Generator.
Schematic diagram Power Flow Diagram.

𝑅𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑛

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 / 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ / 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿
𝑅𝑓1 = 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

−𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑓2 ) + 𝑉𝑇 = 0
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝜇 + 𝑃𝑐𝑓2 + 𝑃𝑐𝑓1 + 𝑃𝑐𝑎
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝐸𝑔 ;
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑉𝑇 +𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑓2 ) 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑃𝜇

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒;
𝑉
𝐼𝑓 =𝑅 𝑇 and 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎 - 𝐼𝑓 23
𝑓1
Compound Excitation: the field winding are connected in series and parallel with the armature circuit
DC Compound Motor.
Schematic diagram Power Flow Diagram.

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 / 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ / 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝐸𝑎 𝐼𝑎

𝑅𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑅𝑓1 = 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

−𝑉𝑇 + 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑓2 ) + 𝐸𝑎 = 0 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐿

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝐸𝑔 ;
𝐸𝑎 = 𝑉𝑇 −𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑓2 ) 𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝜇 + 𝑃𝑐𝑓2 + 𝑃𝑐𝑓1 + 𝑃𝑐𝑎
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒; 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 - 𝐼𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 − 𝑃𝜇
24
𝑉
𝐼𝑓 =𝑅𝑇 and 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼𝑎
𝑓
4.5 DC motor: Torque speed equations and load characteristic for shunt, series and
compound DC generators and motors

When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor conductors

carry current. These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap.

Thus, each conductor experiences a force. The conductors lie near the surface of the
rotor at a common radius from its center. Hence, a torque is produced around the
circumference of the rotor, and the rotor starts rotating.

When the machine operates as a generator at a constant speed, this torque is equal
and opposite to that provided by the prime mover. While, when the machine is
operating as a motor, the torque is transferred to the shaft of the rotor and drives the
mechanical load. The expression is the same for the generator and motor.

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4.5 DC motor: Torque speed equations and load characteristic for shunt, series and compound DC generators
and motors (cont)
The general equation for Torque is

The equation for Torque load is;

Tload @Tout = Load torque @ shaft torque @ net torque @ output torque, Nm:

TL = Loss torque, Nm:

Note that Pin = VLIL which will be higher
than Pout because of loss in the field
and armature windings as well as
rotational (friction) losses.
Tm= Mechanical torque (or induced torque), Nm:

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4.5 DC motor: Torque speed equations and load characteristic for shunt, series and compound DC generators and motors
(cont)
Speed regulation of
various motors

DC shunt motor
The speed regulation of DC shunt motor is
DC Series motor between 10 -15 %.
DC compound motor
The speed regulation of DC
series motor is most inferior The speed regulation of DC
(lower) among all the dc motor. compound motor is superior
to that of DC series motor and
The percentage of speed
inferior to DC shunt motor.
regulation is more than 35%.
The percentage of speed
regulation of DC compound
motor is between 25% – 30%.

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 4.6 Power losses in DC machine and its efficiency

DC generators take in mechanical power and produce electric power while DC motors
take in electric power and produce mechanical power.
Losses in DC Machines can be divided into 2:-
a) Copper losses (Armature copper loss , Pca) and (Field copper loss, Pcf)
b) Iron losses, Pµ (friction, stray, windage, mechanical losses)

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Example of DC Motor Losses
4.6 Power losses in DC machine and its efficiency
(cont)
Power flow diagram is normally represented as a fish bone as follows:

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4.6 Power losses in DC machine and its efficiency (cont)

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4.6 Power losses in DC machine and its efficiency
(cont)
➢ Power Equation

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4.6 Power losses in DC machine and its efficiency (cont)
Efficiency of DC Machines

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4.7 EXAMPLES AND TUTORIALS
Example 1
a) Draw the circuit and power flow diagram of a DC shunt generator.
b) A DC shunt generator delivers a 30 A at 250 V to a resistive load. The armature and field
resistance are 0.18 Ω and 210 Ω respectively. Calculate the:

i) Armature current
ii) Generated EMF of the generator
iii) Output power of the generator

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4.7 EXAMPLES AND TUTORIALS (cont)
Solution Power Flow Diagram of DC shunt generator
a) Circuit DC shunt generator

IL
Ra
If DC
Ia load VT
Rf
Eg 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼𝐿 where 𝐼𝐿 = 30A
𝑉
𝐼𝑓 =𝑅𝑇
𝑓

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4.7 EXAMPLES AND TUTORIALS (cont)

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4.7 EXAMPLES AND TUTORIALS
Example 2 (Mar 2016)
a) A DC Compound excitation generator delivers 20 A of current at terminats voltage of 240 V. The armature
resistance, field resistance and series resistance are 0.35 Ω, 150 Ω and 0.8 Ω respectively. The iron and friction
loss are 620 W.
i) Calculate the generated emf, Eg.
ii) Analyze the total copper loss.
iii) Estimate the overall efficiency.

b) A DC Shunt excitation motor is running at speed of 1200 rpm. The terminal voltage is 240V and the load current is
35 A. Given the armature and shunt resistance are 0.5 Ω and 240 Ω respectively. Draw the schematic diagram and
power flow diagram of the motor.
i) Calculate the armature voltage, Ea.
ii) Determine the developed power and developed torque.
iii) Estimate the overall efficiency if the windage and friction loss are 500W.

c) At terminal voltage of 240 V, A DC shunt generator delivers 25 A current to a load. The armature and field
resistance of the generator are 0.15 Ω and 150 Ω respectively. Determine: 36
i) armature current, Ia,
ii) output and input power of the generator.
 4.7 EXAMPLES AND TUTORIALS
Example 3 (Jun 2019)
a) A 240 V, DC Compound motor has the armature, series field and shunt field resistance of 0.4 Ω, 0.2Ω and 120 Ω
respectively. At full load, the motor runs at 1400 rpm with the load current 19 A and has rotational losses of 250 W .
Illustrate the schematic circuit and power flow diagram of the machine. Find the:
i) armature current, Ia,
ii) mechanical power developed and
iii) efficiency of the motor.

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 4.7 EXAMPLES AND TUTORIALS
Example 4 (Dec 2018)
A 250 V, Shunt Generator has the armature and field resistance of 0.3Ω and 250 Ω respectively. The
generator runs at 1200 rpm and produced load current of 124 A.

i) Illustrate the schematic circuit and the power flow diagram of the generator.
ii) Find the generated emf of the generator.
iii) Find the output power and efficiency if the friction losses are 250 W.

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 4.7 EXAMPLES AND TUTORIALS
Example 5 (Jun 2018)
A 240 V, Shunt DC motor has the armature resistance of 0.15 Ω and a shunt field resistance of 0.40 Ω.
The rotational losses is given as 200 W. At full load, the load current is 60 A with the rated speed at
1450 rpm. Draw and label the schematic circuit of the motor. Find:
i) mechanical power,
ii) the output power and draw the power flow diagram of the motor,
iii) the load torque and mechanical torque.

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4.7 EXAMPLES AND TUTORIALS (cont)
Example 2

a) Identify and label the power flow diagram of DC series motor and
DC shunt motor.

b) A 240 V, DC compound motor has the armature, series field and

shunt field resistance of 0.4 Ω, 0.2 Ω and 120 Ω respectively. At full
load, the motor runs at 1400 rpm with line current 19 A and has the
rotational losses of 250 W. Illustrate the circuit and power flow
diagram of the machine.
i) Find the armature current of the circuit.
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ii) Find the mechanical power developed and the efficiency of the
motor.
4.7 EXAMPLES AND TUTORIALS (cont)
Equivalent circuit DC Compound motor
i) Power flow DC series motor

DC Shunt Motor
Power flow DC Compound
motor P =(I ) R P =(I ) R
ca a
P
2
a cf2 a
2
f2
µ

Pin =VTIL Pm
Pout

Pcf1=(If)2 Rf1
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Pµ IS given (normally)
4.7 EXAMPLES AND TUTORIALS (cont)

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TUTORIALS

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TUTORIAL (cont)

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TUTORIAL (cont)

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TUTORIAL (cont)

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THANK YOU

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