OHS352 PROJECT REPORT WRITING

COURSE OBJECTIVE

 The Course will enable Learners to,

 Understand the essentials of project writing.
 Perceive the difference between general writing and technical writing
 Assimilate the fundamental features of report writing.
 Understand the essential differences that exist between general and technical writing.
 Learn the structure of a technical and project report.

UNIT I

Writing Skills – Essential Grammar and Vocabulary – Passive Voice, Reported Speech,
Concord, Signpost words, Cohesive Devices – Paragraph writing - Technical Writing vs.
General Writing.

UNIT II

Project Report – Definition, Structure, Types of Reports, Purpose – Intended Audience –

Plagiarism – Report Writing in STEM fields – Experiment – Statistical Analysis.

UNIT III

Structure of the Project Report: (Part 1) Framing a Title – Content – Acknowledgement –

Funding Details -Abstract – Introduction – Aim of the Study – Background - Writing the
research question - Need of the Study/Project Significance, Relevance – Determining the
feasibility – Theoretical Framework.

UNIT IV

Structure of the Project Report: (Part 2) – Literature Review, Research Design, Methods of
Data Collection - Tools and Procedures - Data Analysis - Interpretation - Findings –
Limitations - Recommendations – Conclusion – Bibliography.
UNIT V

Proof reading a report – Avoiding Typographical Errors – Bibliography in required Format

– Font – Spacing – Checking Tables and Illustrations – Presenting a Report Orally –
Techniques.

COURSE OUTCOMES

By the end of the course, learners will be able to

CO1: Write effective project reports.

CO2: Use statistical tools with confidence.

CO3: Explain the purpose and intension of the proposed project coherently and with clarity.

CO4: Create writing texts to suit achieve the intended purpose.

CO5: Master the art of writing winning proposals and projects.

REFERENCES

1. Gerson and Gerson - Technical Communication: Process and Product, 7th Edition,
Prentice Hall (2012)

2. Virendra K. Pamecha - Guide to Project Reports, Project Appraisals and Project Finance
(2012)

3. Daniel Riordan - Technical Report Writing Today (1998)

4. Darla-Jean Weatherford - Technical Writing for Engineering Professionals (2016)

Penwell Publishers
 UNIT I

Writing Skills – Essential Grammar and Vocabulary – Passive Voice, Reported Speech,
Concord, Signpost words, Cohesive Devices – Paragraph writing - Technical Writing vs.
General Writing.

WRITING SKILLS

Writing skills refer to the ability to communicate thoughts, ideas, and information

effectively through written language.

How to improve your writing skill?

Read Regularly: Exposure to well-written English through books, articles, and essays

helps internalize grammar, style, and vocabulary.

Expand Vocabulary: Learn new words and phrases actively. Use a dictionary and make

note of synonyms and antonyms to enrich your writing.

Practice Writing: Write daily, even if it's just a journal entry or a short paragraph. Regular

practice is essential for improvement.

Set Clear Goals: Determine what aspect of writing you want to improve (e.g., grammar,

sentence structure, clarity) and focus on that.

Seek Feedback: Share your writing with others, such as friends, teachers, or online

communities, to get constructive criticism.

Revise and Edit: Good writing often comes from multiple drafts. Edit your work for

clarity, coherence, and conciseness.

Learn Grammar and Punctuation: Master basic grammar rules and punctuation marks to

enhance the readability of your writing.

Experiment with Different Styles: Try writing in different genres and styles (e.g., formal,

creative, technical) to broaden your skills.

Read Aloud: This helps identify awkward sentences, unclear phrasing, and punctuation

errors.

Stay Persistent: Improving writing skills takes time and effort. Stay committed to learning

and practicing regularly.

 Review grammar and spelling form the foundation of good writing. Writing with proper

grammar and spelling communicates your professionality and attention to detail to your

reader. It also makes your writing easier to understand.

 Proof read-While it’s tempting to submit work as soon as you’re done with it, build in

some time to revisit what you’ve written to catch errors big and small. Here are a few

proofreading tips to keep in mind:

 Set your work aside before you edit- Try to step away from your writing for a day or

more so you can come back to it with fresh, more objective eyes. Crunched for time?
 Even allotting 20 minutes between writing and proofreading can allow you to approach

your work with renewed energy.

 Start with easy fixes, then progress to bigger changes- Starting with easier changes can

get you in the rhythm for proofreading, allow you to read through your work once more,

and clear distractions so you can focus on bigger edits. Read through your work to catch

misspellings, inconsistencies, and grammar errors. Then address the larger problems

with structure or awkward transitions.

 If you could say something in fewer words, do so- Being unnecessarily wordy can cloud

your message and confuse the reader. Pare down phrases that are redundant, repetitive,

or obvious.

 Read out loud- Reading out loud can help you find awkward phrases and areas where

your writing doesn’t flow well.

 Get feedback-Whether you’re writing emails or essays, asking for feedback is a great

way to see how somebody besides yourself will interpret your text. Have an idea of

what you’d like your proofreader to focus on—the structure, conclusion, the

persuasiveness of an argument, or otherwise.

 Think about structure-Grammar and spelling keep your writing consistent and legible,

but structure ensures the big ideas get across to the reader.

 Write-Like many skills, one of the best ways to improve your writing is to practice.

Here are a few ways you can get started:

 Start a journal or a blog.

  Join a class or writing workshop.

 Practice free writing.

 Write letters to friends or family.

 Put together an opinion piece for your local newspaper or publication you like.

ESSENTIAL GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY

Writing a project report involves using specific vocabulary and grammar to convey

your ideas effectively.

1. Nouns:
o Identify nouns as naming words for people, places, things, or ideas.

o Examples: book, dog, happiness.

2. Verbs:
o Verbs denote actions (run, eat) or states of being (is, seem).

o Examples: run, eat, is, seem.

3. Adjectives:
o Adjectives describe or modify nouns.

o Examples: red, tall, beautiful.

4. Adverbs:
o Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

o Examples: quickly, very, beautifully.

5. Pronouns:
o Pronouns substitute for nouns.

o Examples: he, she, they, it.

6. Prepositions:
o Prepositions indicate relationships in time, space, or direction.

o Examples: in, on, at, to, from.

 7. Conjunctions:
o Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.

o Examples: and, but, or, because.

8. Articles:
o Articles introduce nouns and specify their definiteness.

o Examples: a, an, the.

9. Tenses:
o Tenses indicate the time of an action (past, present, future).

o Examples: I write (present), I wrote (past), I will write (future).

10.Sentence Structure:
o Basic structure: Subject-Verb-Object (SVO).

o Examples: She (subject) reads (verb) a book (object).

Vocabulary:

o Common Words :
Everyday vocabulary for basic communication. Examples: hello, good, day,
house, car, happy.
o Contextual Vocabulary:
Words specific to certain topics or situations. Examples: medical terms,
legal jargon, technical terms.
o Idioms and Phrases: Expressions with meanings different from their literal
interpretations. Examples: "kick the bucket" (to die), "hit the nail on the
head" (to be exactly right).
 PASSIVE VOICE

Passive voice in project report writing can serve various purposes, though it's
generally recommended to use active voice for clarity and directness. Here are some points
to consider about the use of passive voice in project reports:

When to Use Passive Voice:

1. Emphasize the Action or Result:

o When the action or the result is more important than who performed it.
Example: "The experiment was conducted over three months."
2. Maintain Objectivity:
o To keep the report formal and objective by focusing on the process and
outcomes rather than on the person who performed the task.
o Example: "The data was analyzed using statistical software."
3. Unknown or Irrelevant Subject:
o When the doer of the action is unknown or not relevant to the discussion.
Example: "The cause of the error was not identified."
4. Formal Tone:
o Sometimes passive voice can contribute to a more formal tone, which is
suitable for certain sections of a report.Example: "The hypothesis was tested
using various methods."

When to Avoid Passive Voice

1. Clarity and Readability:

o Active voice is usually clearer and easier to read.
o Example (active): "We conducted the experiment over three months."
 o Example (passive): "The experiment was conducted over three months."
2. Conciseness:
o Active voice often leads to more concise sentences.
o Example (active): "The team developed a new algorithm."
o Example (passive): "A new algorithm was developed by the team."
3. Engagement:
o Active voice can make the text more engaging and dynamic.
o Example (active): "The researcher analyzed the data."
o Example (passive): "The data was analyzed by the researcher."

Tips for Writing Project Reports using passive Voice

o Balance: Use a mix of active and passive voice where appropriate to balance
clarity and formality.
o Consistency: Maintain consistency in your choice of voice within sections to
avoid confusing the reader.
o Revision: Revise sentences written in passive voice to see if they can be more
effectively expressed in active voice.

Examples:

Passive Voice:
o The system was tested under various conditions
o Improvements were made to the design
Active Voice:
o We tested the system under various conditions
o The team made improvements to the design
 REPORTED SPEECH

Reported speech is the form in which one can convey a message said by oneself or

someone else, mostly in the past. It can also be said to be the third person view of what

someone has said. In this form of speech, you need not use quotation marks as you are not

quoting the exact words spoken by the speaker, but just conveying the message thus it is

suitable for report writing.

Reported speech is used to communicate what someone else has said without quoting them

directly. In a project report, this can be particularly useful when summarizing findings,

interviews, or discussions. Here are some tips and examples for using reported speech in

our project report:

Tips for Using Reported Speech:

1. Tense Changes: When converting direct speech to reported speech, the tense usually
changes. For example, present tense becomes past tense.
o Direct: "I am working on the project."
o Reported: She said that she was working on the project.
2. Pronoun Changes: Pronouns change to match the perspective of the reporter.
o Direct: "We will finish the task by Monday."
o Reported: They stated that they would finish the task by Monday.
3. Time and Place Words: Words that indicate time and place often need to be
adjusted.
o Direct: "I will meet you here tomorrow."
o Reported: He said that he would meet me there the next day.
 4. Use of 'That': In reported speech, 'that' is often used to introduce the statement.
o Direct: "I need help with this section."
o Reported: She mentioned that she needed help with that section.
5. Questions and Commands: When reporting questions or commands, the sentence

structure changes.

o Direct Question: "Do you know the deadline?"

o Reported: He asked if I knew the deadline.

o Direct Command: "Submit the report by Friday."

o Reported: She instructed them to submit the report by Friday.

Rules for reported speech include:

 Choose whether to use "that" or "if".

 Change the reporting verb into its past form if the statement is irrelevant now.

 Change the place and time adverb when using indirect speech.

 Use modals.

CONCORD

Concord in English language means agreement and according to the English grammar the word

concord means grammatical agreement between the subject and the verb, it says that both the

subject and verb shall satisfy or agree in number and person.

Basic rules of subject-verb agreement.

  The verb and subject must agree in number (singular or plural)

This means that if the subject is singular, the verb should be singular and if the subject is

plural, the verb should also be plural.

Examples:

1. He plays football. (SINGULAR)

2. They play football. (PLURAL)

 The number of the subject (singular or plural) will not change due to words/phrases

in between the subject and the verb.

Examples:

1. One of the glasses is empty. (Here, since the subject is ‘one’, the verb should be ‘is’).

2. The bouquet of red roses smells so sweet. (Here, since ‘bouquet’ is the subject and not

‘roses’, the verb should be ‘smells’ and not ‘smell’)

 Subjects that are joined by ‘and’ in a sentence, use a plural verb. Subjects that are

joined by ‘either/or’, neither/nor’ use a singular verb.

Examples:

1. Radha and Meera are coming home.

2. Neither Akshay nor Rohit is coming home.

3. My dad or my mom is arriving today.

 The verb in a sentence containing ‘or’, ‘either/or’, ‘neither/nor’ agrees with

the noun or pronoun closest to it.

Examples:

1. Neither the shoes nor the bag matches the dress. (Here, ‘bag’ is closest to the verb, hence

‘matches’)

2. Neither the bag nor the shoes match the dress. (Here, ‘shoes’ is closest to the verb, hence

‘match’)

 When the subject is followed by words such as ‘as well as’, ‘along with’, ‘besides’,

‘not’ etc. ignore them and use a singular verb if the subject is singular.

Examples:

1. Matt, as well as his dog, is expected shortly.

2. Pratik, along with his brother, is going to school.

 In sentences that begin with ‘here’, ‘there’, the true subject usually follows the verb.

Examples:

1. Here are the chocolates.

2. There is a big puddle on the road.

 In sentences that include sums of money, periods of time or distances etc. (as a unit),

use singular verbs.

Examples:

1. 500 rupees is a high price to pay.

2. 62 years is the minimum age of retirement.

3. 10 kilometres is too far to walk.

 In the case of words such as ‘a lot of’, all’, ‘some’ etc. in a sentence, pay attention to

the noun after ‘of’. If the noun after ‘of’ is singular then use a singular verb, if plural,

use a plural verb.

Examples:

1. All of the cake is gone.

2. All of the cakes are gone.

3. A lot of the cake is gone.

 In the case of collective nouns such as ‘group, ‘population’, ‘family’, in a sentence, the

verb can be singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence.

Examples:

1. Most of my family is here OR are here.

2. Half of the population was against the bill OR were against the bill.

 Nouns such as ‘mathematics’, ‘civics’, ‘news’ etc. while plural in form, are singular in

meaning and use singular verbs.

Examples:

1. Mathematics is very difficult for some people.

2. The news is very saddening.

 In sentences that express a wish, request or contrary to fact, the word ‘were’ is used

instead of ‘was.

Examples:
1. I wish my sister were here.

2. Aditya requested that she raise her glass.

PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of speech are the basic categories of words based on their function in a
sentence. Here are the main parts of speech in English.
o Nouns: Words that name people, places, things, or ideas.
Examples: cat, city, book, happiness
o Pronouns: Words that take the place of nouns. Examples: he, she, it, they,
who
o Verbs: Words that express actions, occurrences, or states of being.
o Examples: run, jump, is, seem
o Adjectives: Words that describe or modify nouns and pronouns.
o Examples: happy, blue, quick, tall
o Adverbs: Words that describe or modify verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbs. Examples: quickly, very, well, often
o Prepositions: Words that show the relationship between a noun and other
words in a sentence. Examples: in, on, at, by, with
o Conjunctions: Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses.
Examples: and, but, or, because, although
o Interjections: Words that express strong emotions or sudden bursts of
feeling.Examples: oh, wow, ouch, hey
o Determiners: Words that introduce nouns and can include articles,
demonstratives, quantifiers, and possessives.Examples: the, a, this, some, my
 Noun: Names a person, place, thing, or idea (e.g., dog, city, happiness).

 Pronoun: Replaces a noun (e.g., he, she, they).

 Verb: Describes an action or state of being (e.g., run, is).

  Adjective: Describes a noun or pronoun (e.g., happy, blue).

 Adverb: Describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb (e.g., quickly, very).

 Preposition: Shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a

sentence (e.g., in, on, at).

 Conjunction: Connects words, phrases, or clauses (e.g., and, but, or).

 Interjection: Expresses emotion or reaction (e.g., wow, ouch).

SIGNPOST WORDS

Signposts are words or phrases that help articulate the structure of a piece of writing and

ensure that readers don’t get lost. Signposting will flag the most important parts of an

argument, signal transitions, and clarify the stakes of an argument. Here are some examples

of signposting words and phrases:

 Introducing new idea: Firstly, secondly, thirdly, First, second, third

 Adding similar points: In addition, Equally

 Specifying a particular idea: Given, Considering

 Giving examples or illustrating: For instance, For example

 Summarizing ideas: To conclude, as evident from the discussion.

COHESIVE DEVICES

Cohesive devices are tools used in writing to link sentences and paragraphs together
smoothly, ensuring that the text flows logically and clearly. They help readers understand
the relationships between ideas. Here are some key types of cohesive devices:
Key types of cohesive devices:

1. Pronouns and Determiners:

o Pronouns (he, she, it, they) replace nouns to avoid repetition.

o Determiners (this, that, these, those) point to specific items mentioned

previously.

Example: Sarah loves cats. She has three of them.

2. Conjunctions:
o Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) connect words,

phrases, or clauses of equal importance.

o Subordinating conjunctions (because, although, since, unless, while) connect
a dependent clause to an independent clause.

Example: "I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining."

3. Adverbials:
o Time (first, then, next, finally)

o Place (here, there, nearby)

o Manner (quickly, slowly)
o Frequency (often, sometimes, rarely)
o Reason/Cause (therefore, thus, consequently)
o Addition (also, furthermore, moreover)
o Contrast (however, on the other hand, nevertheless)

Example: "First, we visited the museum. Then, we went to the park."

4. Repetition:
o Repeating key words or phrases helps to reinforce important ideas.

Example: "Climate change is a critical issue. Addressing climate change requires

global cooperation."
 5. Synonyms and Antonyms:
o Using synonyms (words with similar meanings) and antonyms (words with

opposite meanings) to create variety and maintain interest.

Example: "The meal was delicious. Every dish was a treat."

6. Ellipsis:
o Omitting parts of a sentence because they are understood from the context.

Example: "She can play the guitar, and he the piano."

7. Parallelism:
o Using the same grammatical structure in multiple parts of a sentence or text to

create a rhythm and make the text easier to read.

Example: "She likes reading, writing, and hiking."

8. Reference:
o Referring back to something previously mentioned to keep the text connected.

Example: "The committee decided to postpone the meeting. This decision was well-
received."

Using these cohesive devices effectively can greatly enhance the clarity and
readability of your writing, making it easier for readers to follow and understand our
ideas.

PARAGRAPH WRITING

Paragraph writing on any topic is not only about expressing your thoughts on the given

topic, but it is also about framing ideas about the topic and making it convenient for the

readers to follow it. In English paragraph writing, it is essential to focus on the writing

style, that is the flow and connection between the sentences.

 Find a Topic Sentence: It is the first sentence which is an introduction to the given

topic. It gives the main idea of what the paragraph would be about.

 Supporting details: These are the details that can be collected from various sources. It

comprises information related to the topic that gives strong support to the main topic.

 Closing sentence: It is the last sentence that ends the paragraph and restates the whole

idea of the paragraph. It is basically the concluding sentence that gives the basic idea of

the whole topic.

Types of Paragraph Writing:

 Descriptive: This kind of writing basically describes the topic and appeals to the five

senses.

 Narrative: These kinds of writing are basically a narration of a story or a situation that

includes a sequence.

 Expository: These kinds of writing are a definition of something. These paragraphs

require a lot of research.
 Persuasive: These kinds of writing aim to make the audience admit a writer’s point of
view. These are mostly used by the teachers to provide a strong argument.

TECHNICAL WRITING V/S GENERAL WRITING

Structure and Format Technical Writing:

 Structured with headings, subheadings, lists, tables, and diagrams to support

comprehension.
  Includes documents like manuals, reports, instructions, technical articles, and white

papers.

 This follows a logical structure to present information systematically.

 Often includes diagrams, charts, tables, and other visual aids to support the text.

 Uses standardized templates and formats for consistency and ease of understanding.

 Examples are :Software documentation, Engineering reports, Medical research

papers,User manuals and research reports

Structure and Format of General Writing:

 Less rigid in structure, more narrative or free-form.

 Includes documents like novels, essays, articles, blog posts, and personal letters.
 This More flexible structure, which can vary significantly depending on the type of
writing.
 Narrative flow and structure may be driven by the writer's style and the content's
needs.
 Visual aids are used less frequently but can be incorporated to enhance the content.

Examples are Novels, Magazine articles, Opinion pieces, Personal essays

Purpose of Technical Writing:

 Aimed at conveying specific information, instructions, or explanations about

technical subjects, processes, or systems.
 Often used to create manuals, user guides, technical reports, white papers, and
instructional materials.
 Focuses on clarity, precision, and accuracy to ensure the reader can understand and
use the information correctly.
Purpose of General Writing:

 Covers a broad range of purposes, including entertainment, education, persuasion,

and story telling.
 Includes essays, articles, blog posts, novels, and creative writing.
 Emphasizes engaging the reader, expressing ideas, and evoking emotions or thoughts.