COURSE NOTES

FOR

Bachelor Computer Applications

First Semester

MATH-I
as per syllabus of

Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi

 BCA-S105 Mathematics
UNIT-I
DETERMINANTS:
Definition, Minors, Cofactors, Properties of Determinants, MATRICES: Definition, Types of
Matrices,
Addition, Subtraction, Scalar Multiplication and Multiplication of Matrices, Adjoint, Inverse,
Cramers Rule,
Rank of Matrix Dependence of Vectors, Eigen Vectors of a Matrix, Caley-Hamilton Theorem
(without proof).

UNIT-II
LIMITS & CONTINUITY:
Limit at a Point, Properties of Limit, Computation of Limits of Various Types of Functions,
Continuity at a
Point, Continuity Over an Interval, Intermediate Value Theorem, Type of Discontinuities

UNIT-III
DIFFERENTIATION:
Derivative, Derivatives of Sum, Differences, Product & Quotients, Chain Rule, Derivatives of
Composite
Functions, Logarithmic Differentiation, Rolle’s Theorem, Mean Value Theorem, Expansion of
Functions
(Maclaurin’s & Taylor’s), Indeterminate Forms, L’ Hospitals Rule, Maxima & Minima, Curve
Tracing,
Successive Differentiation & Liebnitz Theorem.

UNIT-IV
INTEGRATION:
Integral as Limit of Sum, Fundamental Theorem of Calculus( without proof.), Indefinite Integrals,
Methods of
Integration: Substitution, By Parts, Partial Fractions, Reduction Formulae for Trigonometric
Functions, Gamma
and Beta Functions(definition).

UNIT-V
VECTOR ALGEBRA:
Definition of a vector in 2 and 3 Dimensions; Double and Triple Scalar and Vector Product and
physical
interpretation of area and volume.

Reference Books :
1. B.S. Grewal, “Elementary Engineering Mathematics”, 34th Ed., 1998.
2. Shanti Narayan, “Integral Calculus”, S. Chand & Company, 1999
3. H.K. Dass, “Advanced Engineering Mathematics”, S. Chand & Company, 9th Revised Edition,
2001.
4. Shanti Narayan, “Differential Calculus ”, S.Chand & Company, 1998.
 1 
a a a a a a
a a
a a a a

Contents
DETERMINANTS: Definition, Minors, Cofactors, Properties of Determinants,

MATRICES: Definition, Types of Matrices,Addition, Subtraction, Scalar Multiplication and

Multiplication of Matrices, Adjoint, Inverse, Cramers Rule,Rank of Matrix Dependence of
Vectors, Eigen Vectors of a Matrix, Caley-Hamilton Theorem (without proof).

DETERMINANTS

Def.
ij 
Let A  a be a square matrix of order n. The determinant of A, detA or |A| is defined as

follows:
(a) If n=2, det A  a11 a12  a a  a a
a21 a22 11 22 12 21

a11 a12 a13

(b) If n=3, det A  a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
or det A  a11a22 a33  a21a32 a13  a31a12 a23
a31a22 a13  a32 a23a11  a33a21a12

1 3 1 2 3
e.g. Evaluate (a)
4 1 (b) det2 1 0 
 2 1

3 2 x
e.g. If 8 x 1  0 , find the value(s) of x.
3 2 0

a11 a12 a13 a a a a a a

N.B. det A  a a a  a11 22 23
 a12 21 23
 a13 21 22
21 22 23
a31 a32 a33 32 33 31 33 31 32

a23 a13
or  a a21  a a11  a a11 a13
12 22 32
31 33 31 33 21 23

or .........
 2  2 2

 
By using   
  

3 2 0 0 2 0
e.g. Evaluate (a) 0 1 1 (b) 8 2 1
0 2 3 3 2 3

PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

a1 b1 c1 a1 a2 a3
(1) a2 b2 c2  b1 b2 b3 i.e. det(AT )  det A .
a3 b3 c3 c1 c2 c3

a1 b1 c1 b1 a1 c1 b1 c1 a1
(2) a2 b2 c2   b2 a2 c2  b2 c2 a2
a3 b3 c3 b3 a3 c3 b3 c3 a3
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
a2 b2 c2   a1 b1 c1  a3 b3 c3
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a1 b1 c1

a1 0 c1 a1 b1 c1
(3) a2 0 c2  0  a 2 b2 c2
a3 0 c3 0 0 0

a1 a1 c1 a1 b1 c1
(4) a2 a2 c2  0  a1 b1 c1
a3 a3 c3 a3 b3 c3

a1 a 2 a3 a1 b1 c1
(5) If   , then a b c 0
b b b 2 2 2
1 2 3
a3 b3 c3

a1  x1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 x1 b1 c1
(6) a2  x 2 b2 c2  a2 b2 c2  x 2 b2 c2
a3  x 3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 x 3 b3 c3

pa1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
(7) pa2 b2 c2  p a 2 b2 c2  pa2 pb2 pc2
pa3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

pa pb pc a b c
pa21 pb12 pc12  p 3 a1 b1 c1
pa3 pb3 pc3 a3 b3 c3
 a1 a 1  pc
b1 pac111 pb b 1 b  ca11 b1 c1 

b  pac2  pb    c2 
N.B.
(8) (1)
a a 2 bpc2  b p ca22

b2

a b  c3 pb a 3 bpc3  b  ca33 b3 c3 

(2) If the order of A is n, then det(A)  n det( A)

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3

x y z
C  C  C
x  y  z y z
N.B. x y z x  y
  z y z
z  x  y  z
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x y y z
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

1 2 0 5 3 7
e.g. Evaluate (a) 0 4 5 , (b) 3 7 5
6 7 8 7 2 6

1 a b c
e.g. Evaluate 1 b c  a
1 c ab

e.g. Factorize the determinant

x y xy
y xy x
xy x y
e.g. Factorize each of the following :
a3 b3 c3
(a) a b
c
1 1 1
2a3 2b3 2c3
(b) a2 b2 c2
1  a3 1  b3 1  c3

Multiplication of Determinants.
a11 a12 b
Let A  , B  11 b12
a21 a22 b21 b22

a11 a12 b11 b12

Then A B 
a21 a22 b21 b22
a b  a12 b21 a11b12  a12 b22
 11 11
a21b11  a22 b21 a21b12  a22 b22

Properties :
 a  0
(1) det(AB)=(detA)(detB)
a a a i.e.a a0
AB  A B
a a
a a
(2) |A|(|B||C|)=(|A||B|)|C| N.B. A(BC)=(AB)C

(3) |A||B|=|B||A| N.B. ABBA in general

(4) |A|(|B|+|C|)=|A||B|+|A||C| N.B. A(B+C)=AB+AC

1 1 1
e.g. Prove that a b c  (a  b)(b  c)(c  a)
a2 b2 c2

Minors and Cofactors

 a11 a12 a13 

Def. 
Let A  a a a  , then Aij , the cofactor of a ij , is defined by
 21 22 23

 a31 a32 a33 
a a23 , a a a12 .
A  22 A   21 a23 , ... , A  11
11
32 33
12 a31 a33 33
21 22

a13
Since A  a 21
a12
+ a a11 a13 a11 a12
 a21 A21  a22 A22  a23 A23
a33 22 23
32 31 33 31 32

det A if i  j
Theorem. (a) ai1 Aj1  ai 2 Aj 2  ai 3 Aj 3 
 if i  j
det A if i  j
(b) a1i A1j  a2i A2 j  a3i A3 j 
 if i  j

e.g. a11 A11  a12 A12  a13 A13  det A , a11 A21  a12 A22  a13 A23  0 , etc.
 a11 a12 a13 
e.g.23 Let A   a a a  and cij be the cofactor of a ij , where 1  i, j  3.
 21 22 23

 a31 a32 a33 
 c11 c21 c31 
(a) Prove that A c c  (det A)I
 12 22 32

 c13 c23 c33 
c11 c21 c31
(b) Hence, deduce that c12 c22 c32  (det A)2
c13 c23 c33

INTRODUCTION : MATRIX / MATRICES

1. A rectangular array of mn numbers arranged in the form

  a11 a12 a 1n 
a n1 n2 nn   a 21 a22 2n
 ⁝ 
a a a⁝
 m1 m2 mn 
is called an mn matrix.

e.g.
2 3 4
is a 23 matrix.
 1 8 5

2
e.g.  7  is a 31 matrix.
3
 

2. If a matrix has m rows and n columns, it is said to be order mn.

2 0 3 6
e.g. 3 4 7 0 is a matrix of order 34.
1 9 2 5
 

 1 0 2
e.g.  2 1 5  is a matrix of order 3.
1 3 0
 

3. a 1
a2 an  is called a row matrix or row vector.

b1 
b2 
4.   is called a column matrix or column vector.
⁝
 
bn 

2
e.g.  7  is a column vector of order 31.
3
 
e.g. 2 3 4is a row vector of order 13.

5. If all elements are real, the matrix is called a real matrix.

a11 a12 a1n 
 ⁝ 21 a22 a 2n  is called a square matrix of order n. And a , a , …, a is
6.
⋱ ⁝ 11 22 nn

 
a a a
called the principal diagonal.

e.g. 3 9  is a square matrix of order 2.

0 2
 mn

n n

7.  : aij
Notation   m n
, a 
ij , A , ...

SOME SPECIAL MATRIX.

Def .1 If all the elements are zero, the matrix is called a zero matrix or null matrix, denoted by
Omn .

0 0
e.g.
0 0
is a 22 zero matrix, and denoted by O2 .

Def.2 Let A  a
ij   n n
be a square matrix.

(i) If aij  0 for all i, j, then A is called a zero matrix.

(ii) If aij  0 for all i<j, then A is called a lower triangular matrix.
(iii) If aij  0 for all i>j, then A is called a upper triangular matrix.

a 0 0 0 a11 a12 a1n 

a 1121 a 22 0 ⁝ 0 a22 ⁝
  0 0 ⁝
⁝ 0  
  ⁝ ⁝
ann   
an1 an 2 0 a nn 
 0
i.e. Lower triangular matrix Upper triangular matrix

 1 0 0
e.g.  2 1 0 is a lower triangular matrix.
1 0 4
 

e.g.
2 3 is an upper triangular matrix.
 0 5 

Def.3 Let A  a
ij   be a square matrix. If aij  0 for all i  j , then A is called a diagonal
matrix.

1 0 0
e.g. 0 3 0 is a diagonal matrix.
0 0 4
 

Def.4 If A is a diagonal matrix and a11  a22   ann  1, then A is called an identity matrix
or a unit matrix, denoted by I n .
 1mn 0 mn mn

1 0 0
e.g. I2  0 1 , I 3  0 1 0

mn  0 0 1
 
mn

ARITHMETRICS OF MATRICES.

Def. 5 Two matrices A and B are equal iff they are of the same order and their corresponding
elements are equal.

i.e. a 
ij  
 bij  aij  bij for all i, j .

a 2  1 c a  1, b  1, c  2, d  4 .
e.g. 
 4 b  d 1

2 3  2 4 and  2 1 2 3 1

4 0 3 0 3 0 
1 4 1 0 4 
N.B.
   
 

Def.6 Let A  a
ij   and B  b
ij   . Define A  B as the matrix C   cij  of the same
order such that
cij  aij  bij for all i=1,2,...,m and j=1,2,...,n.

e.g. 2 3 1  2 4 3 
 1 0 4  2 1 5

 2 1 2 3 1
 3 0  is not defined.
1 4 1 0 4 
N.B. 1.

 
2.
2 3  5
is not defined.
4 0
Def.7 Let A  a
ij   mn  
. Then  A  aij mn
and A-B=A+(-B)

1 2 3 2 4 0
e.g.1 If A  and B  . Find -A and A-B.
1 0 2 3 1 1

Properties of Matrix Addition.

Let A, B, C be matrices of the same order and O be the zero matrix of the same order. Then
(a) A+B=B+A
(b) (A+B)+C=A+(B+C)
(c) A+(-A)=(-A)+A=O
(d) A+O=O+A
 mn

Scalar Multiplication.

ij
a 
mn

 

ij
mn

Let A  a 
ij , k is scalar. Then kA is the matrix C  cij   defined by cij  kaij , i, j.

i.e. kA  kaij 
3 2
e.g. If A  , then -2A= ;
5 6 

N.B. (1) -A=(-1)A

(2) A-B=A+(-1)B

Properties of Scalar Multiplication.

Let A, B be matrices of the same order and h, k be two scalars.
Then (a) k(A+B)=kA+kB
(b) (k+h)A=kA+hA
(c) (hk)A=h(kA)=k(hA)


Let A  a
mn
. The transpose of A, denoted by A , or A , is defined by
T

a a21 am1 
a1211 a22
A  T m2

⁝ ⁝
a1n a2 n anm  nm

3 2
e.g. A , then A 
T

5 6 
3 0 2
e.g. A , then A 
T

4 6 1 

e.g. A  5 , then A T 

N.B. (1) IT 
(2) A a  mn
, then A 
T

Properties of Transpose.
Let A, B be two mn matrices and k be a scalar, then
(a) ( AT )T 
(b) (A  B)T 
(c) (kA)T 

A square matrix A is called a symmetric matrix iff A T  A .

i.e. A is symmetric matrix  AT  A  aij  a ji i, j
 B
 1 k 1  n
 1 3 1
e.g.  3 3 0  is a symmetric matrix.
mn

1 0 6
 
 1 3 1
e.g.  0 3 0  is not a symmetric matrix.
1 3 6
 

A square matrix A is called a skew-symmetric matrix iff A T   A .

i.e. A is skew-symmetric matrix  AT   A  aij  a ji i, j

0 1
3
Prove that A  3 5  is a skew-symmetric matrix.
0
 5 0 
Is a ii  0 for all i=1,2,...,n for a skew-symmetric matrix?

Matrix Multiplication.
Let A  aik  and B  b
kj  n p  
. Then the product AB is defined as the mp matrix C  cij m p

where
  aik bkj .
cij  ai1b1 j  ai 2 b2 j  ain bnj k 1

 n

i.e. AB   aik bkj 
  m p

 2 1 B  2 3 1
e.g.4 Let A   3 0 
and 1 0 4 . Find AB and BA.
1 4   23
  3 2

2 1
e.g.5 Let A   3 0
and 12 01 . Find AB. Is BA well defined?
1 4   2 2
  3 2

N.B. In general, AB  BA .
i.e. matrix multiplication is not commutative.

Properties of Matrix Multiplication.

(a) (AB)C = A(BC)
(b) A(B+C) = AB+AC

(c) (A+B)C = AC+BC

 B  C  
(d) AO = OA = O
 0 0(e)
 IA = AI = A
(f) k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
(g) ( AB) T  B T A T .

N.B. (1) Since AB  BA ;

Hence, A(B+C)  (B+C)A and A(kB)  (kB)A.

(2) A2  kA  A(A  kI )  (A  kI )A .

(3) AB  AC  O  A(B  C)  O
 A  O or B  C  O


0 0

 1 0 , 0 0
e.g. Let A     0 1  1 0
 1 0  0 0   1
Then AB  AC  
0  0 0
    
 0 00 1  0 0 1 0
 
0 0  0 0  0 0
    
 0 0  0 0  0 0

But A  O and B  C,
so AB  AC  O 
 A  O or B  C .

Powers of matrices
For any square matrix A and any positive integer n, the symbol A n denotes A –
A  A–
 –
A .
n factors

N.B. (1) ( A  B)2  ( A  B)( A  B)

 AA  AB  BA  BB
 A 2  AB  BA  B 2
If AB  BA , then ( A  B)  A  2AB  B
2 2 2
(2)
 1 2 3  2 4 0  2 1  1
e.g. Let A    , B  , C   1 0 and D   2
 1 0 2  3 1 1 
   
 1 1  0

Evaluate the following :

(a) ( A  2B)C (b) ( AC) 2
(c) (BT  3C) T D (d) (2 A) T B  DD T

e.g. (a) Find a 2x2 matrix A such that

 1 
2 A  3 1 0  A   1 0 
 1 1 2   1 1 
   A
 2 
(b)  Aa 2x2 matrix A0  
Find  such that
A    
 sin cos   2 1
A T  A and A   2 1
 3 0  3 0
 3 1  1     0 1 , find the values of x and  .
If 
(c)     
 1 1  x  0   x

Let A  
 cos  sin  
e.g.  . Prove by mathematical induction that

n cos n  sin n 
for n = 1,2, .
 sin n cos n 

a 1 where a,b  R
e.g. (a) Let  and a  b .
 0 b
 n a n  bn 
a
  for all positive integers n.
Prove that An

 a  b 
 bn 
95
 1 2
(b) Hence, or otherwise, evaluate   .
0 3 

 0 1 0
e.g. (a) Let A  0 0 1 and B be a square matrix of order 3. Show that if A

 0 0 0
and B are commutative, then B is a triangular matrix.

(b) Let A be a square matrix of order 3. If for any x, y, z  R , there exists   R such that
 x  x
A y   y , show that A is a diagonal matrix.
   
 z  z
(c) If A is a symmetric matrix of order 3 and A is nilpotent of order 2 (i.e. A2  O ), then A=O,
where O is the zero matrix of order 3.

Properties of power of matrices :

(1) Let A be a square matrix, then ( An )T  ( AT ) n .

(2) If AB  BA , then
(a) ( A  B) n  A n  C n A n1 B  C n A n2 B 2  C n A n3 B 3  C n AB n1  B n
1 2 3 n1

(b) ( AB) n  A n B n .
 1 2 3 n1 n

(3) ( A  I )  A n  C n A n1  C n A n2  C n A n3  C n

n
A  Cn I
 

e.g (a) Let X and Y be two square matrices such that XY = YX.
Prove that (i) ( X  Y) 2  X 2  2XY  Y 2
n

( X  Y)  C
n
(ii) n
X n r Y r for n = 3, 4, 5, ... .
r0

(Note: For any square matrix A , define A  I .) 0

 1 2 4
(b) 
By using (a)(ii) and considering 0 1 3 , or otherwise, find
 0 0 1
100
 1 2 4
 0 1 3 .
 0 0 1
(c) If X and Y are square matrices,
(i) prove that ( X  Y) 2  X 2  2XY  Y 2 implies XY = YX ;
(ii) prove that ( X  Y) 3  X 3  3X 2Y  3XY 2  Y 3 does NOT
implies XY = YX .
1 0 b 0
(Hint : Consider a particular X and Y, e.g. X   , Y   .)
1 0  0 0

INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX

N.B. (1) If a, b, c are real numbers such that ab=c and b is non-zero, then
c
a  cb1 and b1 is usually called the multiplicative inverse of b.
b
C
(2) If B, C are matrices, then is undefined.
B
Def. A square matrix A of order n is said to be non-singular or invertible if and only if there exists
a square matrix B such that AB = BA = I.The matrix B is called the multiplicative inverse of
1
A, denoted by A

i.e. AA1  A1 A  I .

3 5
Let A    2 5
e.g.  , show that the inverse of A is  
1 2  1 3 

1  2 5
 3 5
i.e.    .
 1 2 1 3 
1
 2 5  3 5
e.g. Is     ?
1 3   1 2
Non-singular or Invertible
A  
Def. 1
If a square matrix A has an inverse, A is said to 0
be non-singular or invertible. Otherwise, it is
called singular or non-invertible.

 3 5 and  2 5 are both non-singular.

e.g.    
 1 2  1 3

i.e. A is non-singular iff A1 exists.

Thm. The inverse of a non-singular matrix is unique.

N.B. (1) I 1  I , so I is always non-singular.

(2) OA = O  I , so O is always singular.
(3) Since AB = I implies BA = I.
Hence proof of either AB = I or BA = I is enough to assert that B is the inverse of
A.

2 1
e.g. Let  .
 7 4
Show that I  6A  A  O .
2
(a)
(b) Show that A is non-singular and find the inverse of A.
1 1
(c) Find a matrix X such that AX   .

Properties of Inverses

Thm. Let A, B be two non-singular matrices of the same order and  be a scalar.
(a) ( A1 )1  A .
(b) AT is a non-singular and ( AT )1  ( A1 )T .
(c) A n is a non-singular and ( An )1  ( A1 ) n .
1 1
(d) A is a non-singular and (A) 1  A .

(e) AB is a non-singular and (AB)1  B1 A1 .

INVERSE OF SQUARE MATRIX BY DETERMINANTS

  A  A11 A12 A13 
a a  A 
Def.  Amatrix
TheAcofactor   ofAAis defined
 as  cofA  A21 A22 A23 .
 
 A31 A32 A33 

Def. The adjoint matrix of A is defined as

 A11 A21 A31 

adjA  (cofA)  A12 T
A22 A32  .
 
 A13 A23 A33 

a b
e.g. If , find adjA.
c d

1 1 3
e.g. (a) Let A  1 2 0  , find adjA.
1 11
3 12
(b) 
Let B  1 1 1 , find adjB.
 5 1 1
Theorem. For any square matrix A of order n , A(adjA) = (adjA)A = (detA)I

 a11 a12 a1n  A11 A21 An1 

A(adjA)   a22 2n 12 A22 n2

 ⁝
⁝ ⁝  ⁝ ⁝ ⁝

 an1 an2 ann  A1n A2n Ann 

Theorem. Let A be a square matrix. If detA  0 , then A is non-singular

1
A  det A adjA .
and 1

1
Proof Let the order of A be n , from the above theorem ,  AadjA  I
det A

3 2 1 
e.g.

Given that A   1 1 1 , find A .
1


 5 1 1 
a b
e.g. Suppose that the matrix   is non-singular , find A1 .
 c d

3 5
e.g. Given that  1
, find A .
1 2

Theorem. A square matrix A is non-singular iff detA  0 .

 
3 5
e.g. Show that

A 1 2 is non-singular.

 x  1 2 x  1
e.g. Let A   x  1 1  , where x R .
2
 
 5 7 x 
(a) Find the value(s) of x such that A is non-singular.

(b) If x=3 , find A1 .

N.B. A is singular (non-invertible) iff A1 does not exist.

Theorem. A square matrix A is singular iff detA = 0.

Properties of Inverse matrix.

Let A, B be two non-singular matrices of the same order and  be a scalar.

1 1
(1) (A) 1  A

(2) ( A1 ) 1  A

(3)
( A T ) 1   A 1 
T

(4) for any positive integer n.

(A )  A
n 1

1 n

(5) ( AB) 1  B 1 A1

(6) The inverse of a matrix is unique.
1
(7) det( A1 ) 
det A
N.B. XY  0 
 X  0 or Y  0
(8) If A is non-singular , then AX  0  A1 AX  A0  0
X 0
N.B. XY  XZ 
 X  0 or Y  Z
(9) If A is non-singular , then AX  AY  A1 AX  A1 AY
X Y
(10) ( A1 MA) n  ( A1 MA)( A1 MA) ( A1 MA)  A1 M n A

 a 0 0  a 1 0 0
(11) 
If M  0  
0 , then M  0
1
0  .
b1
   
0 0 c  0 0 c1
  a 0 0  an 0 0 
(12) If M   0 0 , then M n   0 bn 0  where n  0 .
   
0 0 c  0 0 cn
 4 1 0 1 3 1   1 0 0
e.g. Let A   1 ,3 B   0 13 4  and M   0 1 0 .
     
0 3 1  0 33 10 0 0 2 

(a) Find A1 and M 5 .

(b) Show that ABA1  M .

(c) Hence, evaluate B 5 .

2 4
Let A   and P  
3
e.g. 
 1 5  1 1 
(a) Find P1 AP .

(b) Find An , where n is a positive integer.

e.g. (a) Show that if A is a 3x3 matrix such that A t   A , then detA=0.
 1 2 74 
(b) Given that B   2 1 67 ,
 
74 67 1 
use (a) , or otherwise , to show det(I  B)  0.
Hence deduce that det(I  B 4 )  0 .

e.g. (a) If  ,  and  are the roots of x 3  px  q  0 , find a cubic equation whose roots
are  2 ,  2 and  2 .

x 2 3
(b) Solve the equation 2 x 3  0 .
2 3 x
Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation

x 3  38x2  361x  900  0 .

a a12 
e.g. Let M be the set of all 2x2 matrices. For any A   11  M ,
 a21 a22 
define tr ( A)  a11  a22 .

(a) Show that for any A, B, C  M and ,   R,

(i) tr(A  B)  tr( A)  tr(B) ,
(ii) tr( AB)  tr(BA) ,
(iii) the equality “ tr( ABC)  tr(BAC) ” is not necessary true.

(b) Let A  M.
(i) Show that A2  tr( A) A  (det A)I ,
where I is the 2x2 identity matrix.
 ba1 a12 a13
11 b1 a13
b2 a22 a23
a21 b2 a23 n 
X 
b3
a31
a23
b3
a33
a33 (ii)1 If1 2tr ( A2 )  0 and2 tr( A)  0, use (a) and (b)(i) to show that
 1 2 X 1 2
A is singular and A2  0 .
(c) Let S, T  M such that (ST  TS)S  S(ST  TS) .Using (a) and (b) or
otherwise, show that
(ST  TS) 2  0
Eigenvalue and Eigenvector
3 1
Let A    and let x denote a 2x1 matrix.
2 0 
(a) Find the two real values  and  of  with 
> such that the matrix equation
(*) Ax  x
has non-zero solutions.

(b) Let x1 and x2 be non-zero solutions of (*) corresponding to

and  respectively. Show that if
x x
x   11  and x   12 
 x21  x22 
 x11 x12 
then the matrix X   x22 
 is non-singular.
 x21

 1 0
(c) Using (a) and (b), show that AX 
0 2
 n
0 
and hence A  X n 1 1
where n is a positive integer.
 0 2
n
 3 1
Evaluate   .
2 0 
Cramer’s rule

The Cramer’s rule can be used to solve system of algebraic equations.To solve the system, x1 and x2 are
written under the form:

x1 
D

x2 
D

And the same thing for x3

When the number of equations exceeds 3, the Cramer’s rule becomes impractical because thecomputation
of the determinants is very time consuming.
 a
12
Example
3x1  x2  5
Solve using the Cramer’s rule the following system 
x1  2x 2  3

The elimination of unknowns

To illustrate this well known procedure, let us take a simple system of equations with two equations:

a11x1  a12 x2  b1 (1)


 21 x1  a22 x2  b2 (2)

Step I. We multiply (1) by a21 and (2) by a11, thus

a11a21 x1  a12 a21 x2  b1a21

a11a21 x1  a11a22 x2  b2 a11

By subtracting

a11a22 x2  a12a21x2  b2 a11  b1a21

Therefore;

a11b2  a21b1
x 
a11a22  a12 a21

Step II. And by replacing in the above equations:

a22b1  a12b2
x 
a11a22  a12 a21

Note vv Compare the to the Cramer’s law… it is exactly the same.

The problem with this method is that it is very time consuming for a large number of equations.

Rank of a Matrix:
Recall:
Let
  a11 a
2
a
a1n 
6
Example: a  12
 
a22 2n 
 21  
A  .
⁝ ⁝ ⋱ ⁝
 
 m1
am 2 amn 
The i’th row of A is
rowi (A)  ai1 ai2 ain , i  1,2,…, m, ,
and the j’th column of A is
a1 j 
a 

col j ( A)  2 j , j  1,2,…, n.
 ⁝
 
amj 

Definition of row space and column space:

spanrow1 ( A),row2 ( A),…, rowm ( A),
which is a vector space under standard matrix addition and scalar multiplication, is referred to
as the row space. Similarly,
spancol1 ( A),col2 ( A),…,coln ( A),
which is also a vector space under standard matrix addition and scalar multiplication, is referred
to as the column space.

Definition of row equivalence:

A matrix B is row equivalent to a matrix A if B result from A via elementary row operations.

Let
1 2 3 4 5 6
 2 4 6
 1 2 3

A 4 5 6 ,B  1 2 3 ,B  4 5 6 ,B  3 3 3
  1   2   3  
7 8 9 7 8 9 7 8 9 7 8 9
Since
(1) 1 2 3 4 5 6
A  (2) 4 5 6   B  1 2 3
  (1) (2) 
  1  ,
(3) 7 8 9 7 8 9
(1) 1 2 3 2 4 6

A  (2) 4 5 6   B  4 5 
(1)2*(1)
,
(3) 7 8 9 7 8 9
 ⁝ 2 3
0 ⁝ 1 2 3
Example:   3 3 3
5 6  B
( 2)(2)(1)
(1) 1
A  (2) 4
  3  ,
(3) 7 8 9 7 8 9

B1 , B2 , B3 are all row equivalent to A.

Important Result:
If A and B are two m  n row equivalent matrices, then the row spaces of A and B are equal.

How to find the bases of the row and column spaces:

Suppose A is a m  n matrix. Then, the bases of the row and column spaces can be found via the
following steps.

Step 1:
Transform the matrix A to the matrix in reduced row echelon form.

Step 2:
 The nonzero rows of the matrix in reduced row echelon form form a basis of the row space of A.
 The columns corresponding to the ones containing the leading 1’s form a basis. For example, if
n  6 and the reduced row echelon matrix is
1     
 
 0 1   
0 0 0 1  
 
 0 0 0 0 0 ,
 ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ ⁝ 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
then the 1’st, the 3’rd, and the 4’th columns contain a leading 1 and

thus col1 A, col3 A, col4 A form a basis of the column

space of A.

Note:
To find the basis of the column space is to find to basis for the vector space
spancol1 ( A),col 2 ( A),…, coln ( A) . Two methods introduced in the previous section
can also be used. The method used in this section is equivalent to the second method in the previous
section.

Let
 1 2 0 3  4
  3 

A  2 8 1 0 4 0 0 0 0
2 3 7 2 3 .
 
1 2 0 4 3
Find the bases of the row and column spaces of A.
[solution:]

Step 1:
Transform the matrix A to the matrix in reduced row echelon form,
 1 2 0 3  4 1 0 2 0 1
3 2 8 1 4   0 1 1 0 1
A   
in reduced row echelon form  
2 3 7 2 3  0 0 0 1 1
   
1 2 0 4 3
Step 2:
 The basis for the row space is

1 0 2 0 1,0 1 1 0 1,0 0 0 1 1

 The columns corresponding to the ones containing the leading 1’s are the 1’st, the 2’nd, and the
4’th columns. Thus,
 1   2 3
 3   2  1
 ,  ,   
 
 2   3  2
     
   1  2   4 


form a basis of the column space.

Definition of row rank and column rank:

The dimension of the row space of A is called the row rank of A and the dimension of the column
space of A is called the column rank of A.

Example
Since the basis of the row space of A is

1 0 2 0 1, 0 1 1 0 1, 0 0 0 1 1,

the dimension of the row space is 3 and the row rank of A is 3. Similarly,
 1   2 3
 3   2  1
 ,  ,   
 
 2   3  2
     

   1  2   4 

is the basis of the column space of A. Thus, the dimension of the column space is 3 and the column
rank of A is 3.

Important Result:
The row rank and column rank of the mn matrix A are equal.
Definition of the rank of a matrix: 0
0 of a 0
Since the row rank and the column rank m  n matrix A are equal, we only refer to the rank

of A and write rank A.

Important Result:
If A is a mn matrix , then
rank( A)  nullity( A)
 the dimension of the columnspace  the dimension of the null space
n

1 0 0 0 0

 1 0 0 
Example A  0 0 1 0 
0 and n  5 .
 
 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 
0
Since
1 0 0
0 1 0
     
0, 0, 1
0  
0
 
0
     
   
0  
0 

 0   
is a basis of column space and thus rankA  3 . The solutions of Ax  0 are

x1  0, x2  0, x3  0, x4  s1 , x5  s2 , s1 , s2  R .
Thus, the solution space (the null space) is
0 0 0 0
0 0   0
0
       
s1 0  s2 0  span0, 0
       .
1  0  1 0
   
0 1 0   
1  

0 0
0 0
    nullityA  2
Then, 0 and 0 are the basis of the null space. and .
   
1 0
  
0 1 
Therefore,
rank( A)  nullity( A)  3  2  5  n .

Important Result:
Let A be an nn matrix.

A is nonsingular if and only if rankA  n .

 rankA  n  A is nonsingular  detA  0
 Ax  b has a unique solution.
rankA  n  Ax  0 has a nontrivial solution.

Important Result:
Let A be an m  n matrix. Then,

Ax  b has a solution rank(A)  rankA | b

Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues of a matrix

The eigenvectors of a square matrix are the non-zero vectors which, after being multiplied by the
matrix, remain proportional to the original vector, i.e. any vector x that satisfies the equation:

Ax  x,

where A is the matrix in question, x is the eigenvector and  is the associated eigenvalue.

As will become clear later on, eigenvectors are not unique in the sense that any eigenvector can be
multiplied by a constant to form another eigenvector. For each eigenvector there is only one associated
eigenvalue, however.

If you consider a 2  2 matrix as a stretching, shearing or reflection transformation of the plane, you
can see that the eigenvalues are the lines passing through the origin that are left unchanged by the
transformation1.

Note that square matrices of any size, not just 2  2 matrices, can have eigenvectors and eigenvalues.

In order to find the eigenvectors of a matrix we must start by finding the eigenvalues. To do this we
take everything over to the LHS of the equation:

Ax  x  0,

then we pull the vector x outside of a set of brackets:

A  Ix  0.

The only way this can be solved is if A  I does not have an inverse2, therefore we find values of 
such that the determinant of A  I is zero:

1 We leave out rotations for the moment as no vector other than the zero vector (the origin) is left unchanged. We will see
later there is a way of coping with rotation.
does have an inverse we find x  A  I  0  0 , i.e. the only solution is the zero vector.
1
If A  I
 A  I  0.
A  

Once we have a set of eigenvalues we can substitute them back into the original equation to find the
eigenvectors. As always, the procedure becomes clearer when we try some examples:

Example 1

Q) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix:

 2 1
.
 1 2

A) First we start by finding the eigenvalues, using the equation derived above:
 2 1   0 2 1
A  Ι    .
   
 1 2  0  1 2

If you like, just consider this step as, “subtract  from each diagonal element of the matrix in the
question”.

Next we derive a formula for the determinant, which must equal zero:

2 1
 2   2     1 1  2  2  3  0.
1 2

We now need to find the roots of this quadratic equation in  .

In this case the quadratic factorises straightforwardly to:

2  2  3    3  1  0.

The solutions to this equation are 1  1 and 2  3. These are the eigenvalues of the matrix A .

We will now solve for an eigenvector corresponding to each eigenvalue in turn. First we will solve for
  1 1:

 x1 
To find the eigenvector we substitute a general vector x    into the defining equation:
 x2 

Ax  x,
2 1  x1   x1 
    1  .
  2   2
By multiplying out both sides of this equation, we form a set of simultaneous equations:
x
2x1  x2   x1 
x  2x    ,
 1 2  2

or

2x1  x2  x1 ,
x1  2x2  x2 .

x1  x2  0,
x1  x2  0,

where we have taken everything over to the LHS. It should be immediately clear that we have a problem as it
would appear that these equations are not solvable! However, as we have already mentioned, the eigenvectors
are not unique: we would not expect to be able to solve these equation for
one value of x1 and one value of x2 . In fact, all these equations let us do is specify a relationship
between x1 and x2 , in this case:
x1  x2  0,
or,
x2  x1,

so our eigenvector is produced by substituting this relationship into the general vector x :

 x1 
x .
x
 1

This is a valid answer to the question, however it is common practice to put 1 in place of x1 and give
the answer:

 1 .

 1

We follow the same procedure again for the second eigenvalue,   2  3 . First we write out the
defining equation:

Ax  x,
2 1  x1   x1 
    3   ,
  2   2

and multiply out to find a set of simultaneous equations:

2x1  x2  3x1 ,
x1  2x2  3x2 .
Taking everything over to the LHS we find: 
   
 x1  x2  0,
x1  x2  0.

This time both equations can be made to be the same by multiplying one of them by minus one. This is
used as a check: one equation should always be a simple multiple of the other; if they are not and can
be solved uniquely then you have made a mistake!

Once again we can find a relationship between x1 and x2 , in this case x1  x2 , and form our general
eigenvector:

 x1 
x   .
 1

As before, set x1 1 to give:

1
x   .
1

Therefore our full solution is:

  1
1  1, x1  ;
 
1
x   .
 

Example 2

Q) You will often be asked to find normalised eigenvectors. A normalised eigenvector is an

eigenvector of length one. They are computed in the same way but at the end we divide by the length of
the vector found. To illustrate, let’s find the normalised eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the matrix:

 5  2
A .
7  4

A) First we start by finding the eigenvalues using the eigenvalues equation:

5   2 
A  I   0.
 
7 4

Computing the determinant, we find:

 5  242 72 27  0,

and multiplying out:

2    6  0.

This quadratic can be factorised into   3  2  0 , giving roots 1  2 and 2  3.

To find the eigenvector corresponding to   1  2 we must solve:

Ax  x,
 5  2  1 
x  x1 
    2   x .
  2   2

When we compute this matrix multiplication we obtain the two equations:

5x1  2x2  2x1 ,

7x1  4x2  2x2 .

Moving everything to the LHS we once again find that the two equations are identical:

7x1  2x2  0,
7x1  2x2  0,

7
and we can form the relationship x  x and the eigenvector in this case is thus:
2 1
2

 x1 
x   7 .
 x1 
2
 

In previous questions we have set x1  1, but we were free to choose any number. In this case things
are made simpler by electing to use x1  2 as this gets rid of the fraction, giving:

 2
x   .
 

This is not the bottom line answer to this question as we were asked for normalized eigenvectors. The
easiest way to normalize the eigenvector is to divide by its length, the length of this vector is:

x   53.

Therefore the normalized eigenvector is:

 2 12 1
 2   x̂ 7   214 49 53
11     531 ,53 
 53   53 x  7 53 53 53
 2
2

The chevron above the vector’s name denotes it as normalised. It’s a good idea to confirm that this
vector does have length one:

x̂     1.

We must now repeat the procedure for the eigenvalue   2  3 . We find the simultaneous equations
are:

2x1  2x2  0,
7x1  7x2  0,

and note that they differ by a constant ratio. We find the relation between the components, x1  x2 , and
hence the general eigenvector:

x 
x   ,
 1

and choose the simplest option x1 1 giving:

1
1.


This vector has length  , so the normalised eigenvector is:

1  1
x̂   .
2 1

Therefore the solution to the problem is:

 2
1  2, x̂1   ;
 
  3,  1
2
x̂ 2   .
1
Example 3

Q) Sometimes you will find complex values of  ; this will happen when dealing with a rotation
matrix such as:

0 1
A ,
1 0
 
which represents a rotation though 90. In this example we will compute the eigenvalues and
x 
eigenvectors of this matrix.

A) First start with the eigenvalue formula:

  1 
A  I     0.
1 

Computing the determinant we find:

2 1  0,

which has complex roots   i . This will lead to complex-valued eigenvectors, although there is
otherwise no change to the normal procedure.

For 1  i we find the defining equation to be:

Ax  x,
 0  1 x1   x1 
 1 0  x   i   x .
  2   2

Multiplying this out to give a set of simultaneous equations we find:

 x2  ix1 ,
x1  ix2 .

We can apply our check by observing that these two equations can be made the same by multiplying
either one of them by i . This leads to the eigenvector:

i 
x   .
1

Repeating this procedure for   2  i , we find:

 i 
 .
 

i
1  i, x1  ;

Therefore our full solution is:
 i 
2  i, x2  .
 
 Contents
LIMITS & CONTINUITY:
Limit at a Point, Properties of Limit, Computation of Limits of Various Types of Functions,
Continuity at a Point, Continuity Over an Interval, Intermediate Value Theorem, Type of
Discontinuities

Limit – used to describe the way a function varies.

a) some vary continuously – small changes in x produce small changes in f(x)
b) others vary erratically or jump
c) is fundamental to finding the tangent to a curve or the velocity of an object

Average Speed during an interval of time = distance covered/the time elapsed

(measured in units such as: km/h, ft/sec, etc.)

Δdistance/Δtime

a) free fall = (discovered by Galileo) a solid object dropped from rest (not moving) to fall
freely near the surface of the earth will fall a distance
proportional to the square of the time it has been falling

y = 16t² y is the distance fallen after t seconds, 16 is constant of

proportionality

ex. A rock breaks loose from a cliff, What is the average speed
a) during first 4 seconds of fall
b) during the 1 second interval between 2 sec. And 3 sec.

a) Δy 16(4)² - 16(0)² 256

Δt 4–0 4 64ft/sec
c) 16(3)² - 16(2)² 80 ft/sec
3–2

Average Rates of Change and Secant Lines: find by dividing the change in y by the length of the
interval:
Average rate of change of y = f(x) with respect to x over interval [x1,x2]

Δy = f(x2) – f(x1) = f(x1 + h) – f(x1)

Δx x2 – x1 h h≠0
**Geometrically the rate of change of f over the above interval is the slope of the line through two
point of the function(curve) = Secant
Example 3 and Example 4 p. 75 of book

LIMITS: Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about c, except possibly at c itself
** if f(x) gets very close to L, for all x sufficiently close to c we say that f
Approaches the limit L written as:

Lim f(x) = L “the limit of f(x) approaches c = L (in book call c x0)
x c

** underlying idea of limit – behavior of function near x=c rather than

at x = c
** when approaching from left and right – must approach same #, not
Different or else no limit exists

Ex. suppose you want to describe the behavior of: when x is very close to 4
f(x) = .1x4 - .8x3 + 1.6x² +2x – 8
x–4
a) first of all the function is not defined when x = 4

b) to see what happens to the values of f(x) when x is very close to 4,

observe the graph of the function in the viewing window 3.5≤x≤4.5 and
0≤y≤3 -- use the trace feature to move along the graph and examine
The values of f(x) as x gets closer to 4 (can use table function on calc)

c) also notice the “hole” at 4

d) the exploration and table show that as x gets closer to 4 from either
side(+/-) the corresponding values of f(x) get closer and closer to 2.
Therefore, the limit as x approaches 4 = 2 limf(x) = 2
x 4

Identity Function of Limits: for every real number c, lim x = c

x c

Ex. lim x = 2
x2

Limit of a Constant: if d is a constant then lim d = d

xc

Ex. lim 3 = 3 lim 4 = 4

x3 x 15

Nonexistence of Limits (limit of f(x) as x approaches c may fail to exist if:

#1. f(x) becomes infinitely large or infinitely small as x approaches c from either side
 Ex. lim 1
x0
x² * graph in calculator – as x approaches 0 from the left
or right the corresponding values of f(x) become larger
and larger without bound – rather than approaching 1
particular number – therefore the limit doesn’t exist!!

#2. f(x) approaches L as x approaches c from the right and f(x) approaches M with M≠L,
as x approaches c from the left.
Ex. lim |x|
x 0
x *function is not defined when x=0. and according to def. of
absolute value, |x| = x when x>0 and |x| = -x when x<0 so
2 possibilities: if x>0 then f(x) = 1
If x<0 then f(x) = -1
* if x approaches 0 from the right,(through + values) then
corresponding values always are 1
*if x approaches 0 from the left (-values) then correspond.
values are always -1
** so don’t approach the same real # as required by def. of limit –
Therefore, the limit doesn’t exist

#3. f(x) oscillates infinitely many times between numbers as x approaches c from either
Side.
Ex. lim sin π
x 0
x **If graph in calc. – see that the values oscillate
between -1 and 1 infinitely many time, not
approaching one particular real number – so
limit doesn’t exist.

Calculating using the Limit Laws:

If L,M,c and k are real numbers and:
lim f(x) = L and lim g(x) = M then
xc xc

#1. Sum Rule:lim (f+g)(x) = lim[f(x) + g(x)] = L + M

xc x c

#2. Difference Rule: lim(f-g)(x) = lim[f(x) – g(x)] = L-M

xc xc

#3. Product Rule: lim(f·g)(x) = lim[f(x) · g(x)] = L· M

x c xc

#4. Quotient Rule: lim f(x) = L

xc
g(x) M M≠0
#5. Constant Multiple Rule: lim(k·f(x)) = k·L
x c

the limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit
#6. Power Rule: if r and s are integers with no common factors and s≠0 then:
lim √f(x) = √L
x c

** Limits of Polynomial/Rational Functions can be found by substitution:

If f(x) is a polynomial function and c is any real #, then
lim f(x) = f(c)
xc **plug in c in the function**

ex. lim (x²+3x-6) = limx² + lim 3x – lim 6 (sum and difference rule)
x  -2 x  -2 x  -2 x -2

lim x · lim x + lim 3 · lim x – lim 6 (product rule)

lim x · lim x + 3 lim x – 6 (limit of a constant rule)

(-2) (-2) + 3(-2) – 6 (limit of x/Identity rule)

= -8

Ex. lim x³ -3x² +10 (done in 1 step) 2³-3(2)²+10 6

x 2
x² - 6x +1 2² -6(2) +1 -7 = -.857
** Substitution in a Rational Function works only if the denominator is not zero at the limit point c. –
if it is: cancelling common factors in the numerator and denominator may create s simplified fraction
where substitution may be possible:

Ex. lim = x² - 2x – 3
x 3
x–3 ** denom. Is 0 at x=3, so try to simplify
= (x-3)(x+1)
x–3 ** cancel out new fraction = x +1
= (3) + 1 = 4 **can substitute now bc won’t be 0 at 3

** creating a common factor so can substitute

Ex. lim √x²+8 - 3
x-1 x+1

lim (√x²+8 - 3) (√x² + 8 + 3)

x-1
x + 1 (√x²+ 8 + 3)

= (x²+8) – 9
(x+1)(√x²+8 +3

= (x+1)(x-1)
(x+1)(√x²+8 +3

= x-1
 (√x²+8 +3 (now can substitute -1)

= -1/3

Sandwich Theorem: refers to a function f whose values are sandwiched between the
values of 2 other functions g and h that have the same limit, L, the values
of f must also approach L:

Suppose that g(x)≤f(x)≤h(x) for all x in some open interval containing c,

except possibly at x =c itself. Suppose also that:

lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L then lim f(x) = L

xc xc xc

Ex. if √5 – 2x² ≤ f(x) ≤ √5 - x² for -1≤x≤1 find lim f(x)

x0

√5 -2(0)² ≤f(x) ≤ √5 – (0)² √5≤f(x)≤√5

Theorem 5:
If f(x) ≤ g(x) for all x in some open interval containing c, except possibly at
x = c, itself, and the limits of f and g both exist as x approach c, then:

lim f(x) ≤ lim g(x)

x c x c

The Precise Definition of a Limit

Let f(x) be defined on an open interval about (c), except possibly at (c) itself. We say that the limit of
f(x) as x approaches (c) is the number L and write:
Lim f(x) = L
x c
if for every number ε > 0, there exists a corresponding
number δ > 0 such that for all x
0 <|x – c| < δ and |f(x) - L| < ε

*ε = indicates how close f(x) should be to the limit (the error tolerance)
*δ = indicates how close the c must be to get the L (distance from c)

Using the Definition Example:

Ex. Prove that the lim (2x + 7) = 9
x1

Steps: 1. c = 1, and L =9 so 0<|x - 1|<δ and |(2x+7) - 9|<ε

Step 2: in order to get some idea which δ might have this property work
 backwards from the desired conclusion:
|(2x+7)-9|<ε
|2x - 2|<ε
|2(x-1)|<ε (factor out common)
|2| |x-1|<ε
2|x-1|<ε (divide by 2)
= |x-1|<ε/2 -- this says that ε/2 would be a good choice for δ
Step 3: go forward:
|x-1|<ε/2 (get rid of 2 by multiplying on both sides)
2|x-1|<ε
|2||x-1|<ε
|2(x-1)|<ε
|2x-2|<ε (rewrite -2 as 7-9)
|(2x+7)-9|<ε
|f(x) - 9|<ε therefore: ε/2 has required property and proven

Finding δ algebraically for given epsilons

The process of finding a δ>0 such that for all x:
0<|x – c|<δ ----- |f(x) - L|<ε can be accomplished in 2 ways:

1. Solve the inequality |f(x) - L|<ε to find an open interval (a,b) containing x0 on
Which the inequality holds for all x≠ c

2. Find a value of δ>0 that places the open interval (c – δ, c + δ) centered at x0 inside the interval
(a,b). The inequality |f(x)-L|<ε will hold for all x≠c in
This δ-interval

Ex. Find a value of δ>0 such that for all x, 0<|x-c|<δ ------ a<x<b
If a=1 b=7 c=2 so 1<x<7

Step 1: |x-2|<δ --- -δ<x-2<δ -------- δ+2<x<δ+2

Step 2: a) -δ+2 =1 -δ=-1 ---- δ = 1
b) δ+2 = 7 δ=5 **closer to a endpoint
therefore: the value of δ which assures |x-2|<δ 1<x<7 is smaller value δ=1

Ex. Find an open interval about c on which the inequality |f(x) - L|<ε holds. Then give a value for δ>0
such that for all x satisfying 0<|x-c|<δ the inequality |f(x)-L|<ε holds.
If f(x)=√x L=½ c=¼ ε=0.1

Step 1: |√x -½|<0.1 --- -0.1<√x - ½<0.1 --- 0.4<√x<.6 --- 0.16<x<.36
Step 2: 0<|x-¼|<δ --- -δ<x - ¼<δ ------- δ+¼<x<δ+¼
a) -δ+¼ =.16 -- -δ.=-09 -- δ=.09
b) δ+¼=.36 --- δ= .11
Therefore, δ=.09
 0
Ex. With the given f(x), point c and a positive number ε, Find L = lim f(x) xx
0

then find a number δ>0 such that for all x

f(x)=-3x-2 x0=-1 ε=.03 lim (-3x-2) = (-3)(-1)-2 = 1

Step 1: |f(x)-L|<ε = |(-3x-2)-1|<.03 = -.03<-3x-3<.03 = -1.01<x<-.99

Step 2: |x-x0|<δ = |x-(-1)|<δ = -δ<x+1<δ = -δ-1<x<δ-1
a) -δ-1 =-1.01 distance to nearer endpoint of -1.01 = .01
b) δ-1=-.99 distance to nearer endpoint of -.99 =.01 therefore: δ=.01

Two Sided Limits – what we dealt with in section 1, as x approaches c, a function,f,

Must be defined on both sides of c and its values f(x) must approach
L as x approaches c from either side.

One-Sided Limit – a limit if the approach is only from one side.

a) Right-hand limit = if the approach is
from the rightlim f(x) = L
x c+

where x>c
b) Left-hand limit = if the approach is
from the leftlim f(x) = L
x  c-

where x<c

** All properties listed for two sided limits apply for one side limits also.

Two Sided Limit Theorem; a function f(x) has a limit as x approaches c if and only if it
has left-handed and right hand limits there and the
one sided limits equal:
lim f(x) = L if and only if: lim f(x) = L and lim f(x) = L
xc x c- x c+

Precise Definitions of Right Hand and Left Hand Limits:

F(x) has right hand limit at x0(c) and write:
lim f(x) =L
xx
if for every number ε>0 there exists a corresponding number δ>0
such that for all x x0<x<x0+δ-------|f(x) - L|<ε

f(x) has left hand limit at x0(c) and write

lim f(x) = L
xx
0 if for every number ε>0 there exists a corresponding number δ>0such
that for all x x0-δ<x<x0 ---------- |f(x) – L|<ε
Theorem 7 involving Sin. – in radian measure its limit as Θ0 = 1 so…

lim = sinΘ =1 (Θ in radians)

Θ 0
Θ

Finite Limits as x ±∞ (have outgrown their finite bounds)

Definition: Limit as x approaches ∞ or -∞:

1. say f(x) has the limit L as x approaches infinity
and write:lim f(x) = L
x ∞
if, for every number ε>0, there exists a corresponding
number M such that for all x: x>M

2. say f(x) has the limit L as x approaches minus infinity

and write:lim f(x) = L
x-∞
if for every number ε>0, there exists a corresponding
number N such that for all x : x<N

Properties of Infinite Limits:

1. lim k = k Constant function

x±∞

2. lim 1=0 Identity function

x±∞
x
3. Sum, Difference, Product, Constant Multiple, Quotient, Power Rule all the
samewith infinity limits as with regular limits.

Limits of Rational Functions: -- divide the numerator and denominator by the highest
power of x in the denominator.—what happens depends
then on the degree of the polynomial:

a) numerator and denominator of the same degree ex. 8 p. 109

b) numerator degree less than denominator degree ex. 9 p. 109

Horizontal Asymptotes
A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a function y = f(x) if either:
lim f(x) = b or lim f(x) = b
x ∞ x  -∞

for the graph on p. 109 of the polynomial function – the as you approach 5/3 from the left and the right,
the curves go to ∞ and -∞ ---the asymptote serves as like a stop sign that turns the curve towards
infinity

Oblique (slanted) Asymptotes: if the degree of the numerator of a rational function is one greater
than the degree of the denominator.
Infinite Limits and Vertical Asymptotes

Ex. Find the lim 1

x0+
3x = ∞
lim 1
x0-
3x = -∞

so lim 1
x0
3x does not exist because the limits are not the same

Ex. Find lim 4

x7
(x-7)² (check 7- and 7+ both are ∞, so limit exists as ∞)

Vertical Asymptote – a line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a function

y= f(x) if either lim f(x) = ±∞ or lim f(x) = ±∞
x a+ x a-

** many times a graph will have both a horizontal and vertical asymptote

Ex. Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the curve:

Y= x+4
x–3
a) vertical asymptotes – look at denominator – what would make it = 0 (3)
so the vertical asymptote will be at 3
b) horizontal – since first term in numerator and denominator
are the same degree, look at the # in front of the terms = 1
(or view it as dividing x+2 into x+3 that will end up with a
remainder of 1

Find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of f(x) = -8

x²-4

** The curves of y = sec x amd y = tan x have infinitely many vertical asymptotes at the odd multiples
of π/2

** The curves of y = csc x and y = cot x have infinitely many vertical asymptotes at the
Odd Multiples of π
(pictures on p. 119)

Rational Functions with degree of Numerator greater than degrees of denominator:

a) need to determine the horizontal asymptote by dividing numerator into denominator:
Ex. y = x² - 4
x–1

Vertical Asymptote = 1 (bc makes the denominator = 0)

 Horizontal Asymptote = x -1 x² - 4
= x +1 – 3
x–1
**whenever the Numerator is larger than denominator – will get an OBLIQUE ASYMPTOTE –
which is a diagonal line through 1

a) the x+1 in the horizontal asymptote dominates the asymptote

when x isnumerically large, and the remainder part dominates
when x is numerically small. These are therefore: Dominant
Terms

Continuity

Continuous – if you can draw a graph of f(x) at or a certain point without lifting your pencil.

Discontinuous – anytime there is a break, gap or hole at a point in the curve

a) point of discontinuity – the point where the gap/jump is

Right-Continuous – continuous from the right – at a point x=c in its domain if

lim f(x) = f(c)
x  c+

Left-Continuous – continuous from left- at a point c if lim f(x) = f(c)

x c-

Continuity at a point:
#1 At an Interior Point – if function y = f(x) is continuous on interior point c of its
domain if: lim f(x) = f(c)
x c

#2. At an Endpoint – y=f(x) is continuous at a left endpoint a, or at right endpoint b, if:

Lim f(x) = f(a) or lim f(x) = f(b)
x  a+ xb-

Ex. Without graphing, show that the function f(x) = √2x (2 – x) is continuous at x = 3
x²
step 1: show f(3) = √2x(2 – x) = √2(3) · (2-3) = √6
x² 3² -9

step 2: show limf(x) = lim √2x (2-x) = limit of quotient lim √2x (2-x)
x3 x 3
x² lim x²

= lim √2x · lim(2 – x) limit of a product

lim x²

= √lim2x · lim(2 – x) = limit of a rootlim x²

 = √6 · (-1) = √6
9 9
** so lim f(x) = f(3) and is continuous at x = 3

Definition of Continuity/Continuity Test:

A function f(x) is continuous at x = c if and only if it meets the following 3 conditions:
1. f(c) exists – c lies in the domain of f
2. lim f(x) exists (f has a limit as x approaches c)
xc

3. lim f(x) = f(c) (the limit equals the function value)

x c

Continuity of Special Functions:

a) Every polynomial function is continuous at every real #
b) Every rational function is continuous at every real # in its domain
c) Every exponential function is continuous at every real #
d) Every logarithmic function is continuous at every positive real #
e) F(x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x are continuous at every real #
f) H(x) = tan x is continuous at every real # in its domain

Continuity on the Interval: - a function is continuous on the interval if and only if it is

continuous at every point of the interval.
- a function is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] provided that f is continuous from the right at x=
a and from the left at x=b and continuous at every value in the open int. (a,b)

Properties of Continuous functions:

If the functions f and g are continuous at x=c, then the following combinations are continuous at x = c
1. Sums: f + g
2. Differences: f-g
3. Products: f·g
4. Constant Multiples: k·f for any # k
5. Quotients: f/g provided g(c)≠0
6. Powers: fr/s provided it is defined on the open interval containing c, and r,s are integer

Continuity of Composite Functions: the function f is continuous at x=c and the function g is
continuous at x = f(c), then the composite function g◦f is continuous at x = c.

Ex. Show that h(x) = √x³ -3x² + x + 7 is continuous at x = 2

Steps: first show f(2) = 2³-3(2)²+2+7 = 5
Then check g(x) = √x which is continuous b/c by power property √limx=√5
x→5

So, with c=2 and f(c)=5, the composite function g◦f given by:
(g◦f)(x)=(g(f(x))=g(x³-3x²+x+7) = √x³-3x²+x+7

Ex. x2/3
 1+x4 is this continuous everywhere on their respective domains
Yes, because the numerator if a rational power of the identity function, and the
Denominator is an everywhere positive polynomial

Continuous Extension to a Point – often a functions (such as a rational function) may have a
limit even at a point where it is not defined.
**if f(c) is not defined, but limx—cf(x) = L exists, a new function rule can be
defined as:
f(x) = f(x) if x is in the domain of f
L if x =c

** in rational functions, f, continuous extensions are usually found by cancelling common

factors.

Ex. show that f(x)=x² + x -6 has a continuous extension to x=2, find the
x²-4 extension

steps: first factor (x-2)(x+3) = (x+3) which is equal to f(x) for x≠2, but is
(x-2)(x+2) (x+2) continuous at x=2
Shows continuous by plugging in 2 to new function
(2+3)= 5
(2+2) 4 ** have removed the point of discontinuity at 2

Intermediate Value Theorem for Continuous Functions

**A function y = f(x) that is continuous on a closed interval [a,b] takes on every value between f(a) and
f(b). In other words, if y0 is any value between f(a) and f(b) then
y0 = f(c) for some c in [a,b]

 What this is saying Geometrically is that – any horizontal line y=y0 crossing the y-axis between
the numbers f(a) and f(b) will cross the curve y=f(x) at least once over the interval
 Look at figure on p.131
 For this theorem-the curve must be continuous with no jumps/breaks
 This theorem tells us that if f is continuous, then any interval on which f changes signs contains
a zero/ root of the function

Tangents and Derivatives

Geometrically speaking – what is a tangent line?

We will now study it a bit further – finding the tangent to an arbitrary curve at point
P(x0,f(x0)
To do this we must:
1. calculate the slope of the secant through P and a point Q(x0+h, f(x0+h))
2. Then investigate the limit of the slope as h approaches 0
a) if limit exists—we call it the slope of the curve at P and define the tangent at P to be the
line through P having this slope

The slope of the curve y=f(x) at the point P(x0,f(x0)) is the following:

m= lim f(x0+h) – f(x0)

h 0 h (provided the limit exists)

The tangent line to the curve at P is the line through P with this slope.
y=y0 + m(x-x0)

Difference Quotient of F: f(x0 + h) – f(x0)

h
a) has a limit as h approaches 0 called the derivative of f at x0
1) if interpreted as the secant slope—the derivative gives the slope of the curve and tangent
at the point where x=x0
2) if interpreted at the average rate of change (as in 2.1) – the derivative gives the
function’s rate of change with respect to x at x=x0

Ex. Find an equation for the tangent to the curve at the given pt. Then sketch the curve and tangent
together.
y= (x-1)² +1 at pt (1,1)
= lim [(1+h-1)²+1– [(1-1)²+1] = lim h²
x 0 h h
= lim h = 0 (b/c constant), so at (1,1) y=1+0(x-1), y=1 is tangent line

Ex. Find the slope of the function’s graph at the given pt. Then find an equation for the line tangent to
the graph there.
F(x) = x-2x² (1,-1)
Lim [(1+h)-2(1+h)²]-[1-2(1)²] = (1+h-2-4h-2h²) + 1 = lim h(-3-2h) = -3
X 0 h h h

At (1,-1) = y +1 = -3(x-1)

Identifying Discontinuities

The three types of discontinuities are easily identified by the cartoonish graphs found in the textbook.
However, hole and jump discontinuities are invisible on graphing calculators. Therefore, you must be able to
identify the discontinuities algebraically.
1. Zeros in Denominators of Rational Functions: could be removable or nonremovable
discontinuities.

2. Holes in Piecewise Functions: these occur when there is a singular x-value that is not in the
domain of the function.

3. Steps in Piecewise Functions: these occur when the endpoints of adjacent branches don’t match
up.

4. Toolkit Functions: you must be familiar enough with the elementary functions to be able to
identify vertical asymptotes, i.e. tanx and lnx.

5. Plot with a Calculator: for unfamiliar functions, you may be able to identify vertical asymptotes
and steps by simply graphing the function. However, remember that holes cannot be seen on the
graphs of calculators. Also, you may want to plot the functions in “dot mode” so that vertical
asymptotes don’t appear to be part of the function.

6. TABLE: If you suspect that there is a discontinuity at a particular x-value, check the table on
your calculator. If an x-value has an ERROR, then there is a discontinuity.
 Contents
DIFFERENTIATION:
Derivative, Derivatives of Sum, Differences, Product & Quotients, Chain Rule, Derivatives of
Composite Functions, Logarithmic Differentiation, Rolle’s Theorem, Mean Value Theorem,
Expansion of Functions (Maclaurin’s & Taylor’s), Indeterminate Forms, L’ Hospitals Rule, Maxima&
Minima, Curve Tracing, Successive Differentiation & Liebnitz Theorem.

I. Notations for the Derivative

The derivative of y  f (x) may be written in any of the following ways:

dy d
f (x) , y , ,  f (x)  , or Dx  f (x)  .
dx dx

II. Basic Differentiation Rules

A. Suppose c and n are constants, and f and g are differentiable functions.

(1) f (x)  cg (x)

f (b)  f (x) cg (b)  cg (x)
f (x)  lim  lim  c lim g(b)  g(x)  cg (x)
b x bx b x bx b x bx

(2) f (x)  g(x)  k(x)

f (b)  f (x)
f (x)  lim  lim [g(b)  k(b)] [g(x)  k(x)] 
b x bx b x bx

g(b)  g(x) k(b)  k(x)

lim  lim  g (x)  k (x)
b x bx b x bx

(3) f (x)  g(x)k(x)

f (b)  f (x)
f (x)  lim  lim g(b)k(b)  g(x)k(x) 
b x bx b x bx

g(b)k(b)  g(b)k (x)  g(b)k(x)  g(x)k(x)

lim 
b x b  x
   k(b) 2k(x)    g(b)  g(x) 
lim g(b) lim   lim k(x) lim 
       
b x b x b  x  b x b x bx

g(x)k (x)  k (x)g (x) (Product Rule)

g(x)
(4) f (x)   f (x)k(x)  g(x)  g(x)  f (x)k (x)  k(x) f (x) 
k(x)
 g(x) 
g (x)  k (x)
 k(x)  k(x)g (x)  g(x)k (x)
g (x)  f (x)k (x)
f (x) 
k(x) k(x) .
k(x)2

This derivative rule is called the Quotient Rule.

(5) f (x)  c

f (b)  f (x) cc 0

f (x)  lim  lim  lim  lim 0  0
b x bx b x b  x b x b  x b x

(6) f (x)  x

f (b)  f (x) bx

f (x)  lim  lim  lim 1  1
b x bx b x b  x b x

(7) f (x)  xn

 f (x  h)  f (x) (x  h)n  x n
f (x)  lim  lim 
h0 h h0 h

 n n(n 1) n 2 2 
x  nxn 1h  x h  ...  x n
 2 
 
lim h
h0

  n(n 1) n  2 
nxn 1h  h2 x  ...
  
  
lim 
h0  h 
 

 n 1 
nx   n(n  1) n  2 n 1
lim 
h0   

Example 1: Suppose f and g are differentiable functions such that f (1)  3 ,

g(1)  7 , f (1)  2 , and g (1)  4 . Find (i) ( f  g)(1) , (ii) (g  f )(1) ,

 x x
3 23 2   3 5
  x  xg  f  x
(iii) ( fg) (1) , (iv)  f  (1) , and   (1) .
x
   

(i) ( f  g)(1)  f (1)  g (1)  2  4  2

(ii) (g  f )(1)  g (1)  f (1)  4  (2)  6
(iii) ( fg)(1)  f (1)g (1)  g(1) f (1)  3(4)  7(2)  12  (14)  2

g   3(4)  7(2) 12  14 26
(iv)   (1)  f (1)g (1)  g(1) f (1)   
2 9 9
f  f (1)2 3

f    7(2)  3(4) 14 12  26
(v)   (1)  g(1) f (1)  f (1)g (1)   
2 49
g g(1) 2 7 49

Example 2: If f (x)  x 4  3x3  5x 2  7x  11, find f (x) .

f (x)  4x3  3(3x2 )  5(2x)  7(1)  0  4x3  9x 2  10x  7

3 5 7
Example 3: If f (x)  4    , then find f (x) .
x x5

3 5 7 1 2
f (x)  4     4x 2  3x 3  5x 1  7x 5 
x x5

f (x)  4 2 x   3 x 
  5 1x  7 5x  =
2
 3   

 12 5 2 5 35
2x  2x 3  5x  2  35x 6  2   
x2 x6

x 2  2x  3
Example 4: If f (x)  , then find f (1) .
3x  4

2 2
(3x  4)(2x  2)  (x 2  2x  3)(3)  6x  2x  8  3x  6x  9 
f (x) 
(3x  4)2 (3x  4)2

3
3x2  8x  1 3(1)2  8(1)  1 4
      or
2 f (1) 4
(3x  4) 3(1)  42 1

3(1)  42(1)  2 [12  2(1)  3](3)  (1)(4)  (0)(3)   4

f (1)   4
3(1)  42 (1) 2 1

Trigonometric functions
(1) f (x)  sin x
f (x  h)  f (x)
f (x)  lim  lim sin(x  h)  sin x 
h 0 h h 0 h

sin x cosh cos x sinh sin x

lim  lim sin x(cosh 1)  cos x sinh 
h 0 h h 0 h

 cosh1  sinh
(sin x) lim  (cosx) lim  (sin x)(0)  (cosx)(1)  cos x
   
h0 h  h0 h 

(2) f (x)  cos x

f (x  h)  f (x)
f (x)  lim  lim cos(x  h)  cos x 
h 0 h h 0 h

cos x cosh sin x sinh cos x

lim  lim cos x(cosh 1)  sin x sinh 
h 0 h h 0 h

 cosh1  sinh
(cosx) lim  (sin x) lim  (cosx)(0)  (sin x)(1) 
   
h0 h  h0 h 

sin x

sin x
(3) f (x)  tan x 
cos x

2 2
(cosx)(cosx)  (sin x)(sin x)  cos x  sin x  1  sec2 x
f (x) 
(cosx)2 cos2 x cos2 x

1
(4) f (x)  sec x 
cos x

(cosx)(0) 1(sin x)
f (x)   sin x  1  sin x  sec x tan x
2
(cosx) cos2 x cos x cos x

1
(5) f (x)  csc x 
sin x

(sin x)(0)  1(cosx)  cos x 1 cos x

f (x)  
    csc x cot x
2 2 sin x sin x
(sin x) sin x

cos x
(6) f (x)  cot x 
sin x
 f (x)  (sin x)(sin x)  (cosx)(cosx) 2 2 1
  cos x  sin x   csc2 x
(sin x)2 sin2 x sin2 x

C. Composition and the generalized derivative rules

(1) f (x)  (g ∘ k )(x)  g(k(x))

f (b)  f (x) g(k(b))  g(k(x))

f (x)  lim  lim  lim g(k(b))  g(k(x)) 
b x bx b x bx b x bx

k(b)  k(x) g(k(b))  g(k(x))

 lim  lim k(b)  k(x) 
k (b)  k (x) b x k (b)  k (x) b x bx

g(k(b))  g(k(x)) k(b)  k(x)

lim  lim  g (k(x))  k (x) .
k (b)k (x) k(b)  k(x) b x bx

This derivative rule for the composition of functions is called the Chain Rule.

(2) Suppose that f (x)  g(k(x)) where g(x)  x n . Then f (x)  [k (x)]n .
g(x)  x n  g (x)  nxn 1  g (k(x))  nk(x)n 1 . Thus, f (x) 
g (k(x))  k (x)  nk (x)n 1  k (x). This derivative rule for the power of a
function is called the Generalized Power Rule.

(3) Suppose that f (x)  g(k(x)) where g(x)  sin x . Then f (x)  sin[k(x)].
g(x)  sin x  g (x)  cos x  g (k(x))  cos[k(x)]. Thus, f (x) 
g(k(x))  k (x)  cos[k(x)] k (x) .

(4) Similarly, if f (x)  cos[k(x)], then f (x)  sin[k(x)] k (x) .

(5) If f (x)  tan[k (x)] , then f (x)  sec2[k(x)] k (x) .

(6) If f (x)  sec[k (x)] , then f (x)  sec[k(x)]tan[k(x)] k (x) .

(7) If f (x)  cot[k (x)] , then f (x)  csc 2 [k(x)] k (x) .

(8) If f (x)  csc[k (x)], then f (x)  csc[k(x)]cot[k(x)] k (x) .

Example 1: Suppose f and g are differentiable functions such that:

f (1)  9 f (2)  5 g (1)  2 g(9)  3

f (1)  2 f (2)  6 g (1)  4 g (9)  7

Find each of the following:

(i) ( f ∘ g)(1);
 11
3 4 f (1)2 33 64
(ii) (g ∘ f )(1);f (x)  x  5x  2
2xf (x)
2 f (1)
(iii) h(1) if h(x)  3 ; 2 f (x)
3 (2 1  5  2)2
(iv) j(1) if j(x)  [g(x)]3 5 ;4
2x  x 2 2 5x
9 2 33 (2x 4 2 x 2f (x)
 5x  2)2
3
(v) l(1) if l(x)  ;
[ f (x)]2
(vi) s(1) if s(x)  sin[ f (x)] ; and
(vii) m(1) if m(x)  sec[g(x)].

(i) ( f ∘ g)(1)  f (g(1))  g(1)  f (2)  g(1)  (6)(4)  24

(ii) (g ∘ f )(1)  g( f (1))  f (1)  g(9)  f (1)  7(2)  14
1 1
(iii) h(x)   [ f (x)] 2  h(x)  1 2[ f (x)] 2  f (x)  

1
h(1)   
3

(iv) j(x)  [g(x)]5  j(x)  5[g(x)]4  g(x)  j(1)  5[g(1)]4  g (1) 

5(2)4 (4)  320
3
(v) l(x)   3[ f (x)] 2  l(x)  6[ f (x)]3  f (x)  l(1) 
[ f (x)]2
 6 f (1)  6(2) 12 4
  
[ f (1)] 3 93 729 243

(vi) s(x)  cos[ f (x)] f (x)  s(1)  cos[ f (1)] f (1)  cos(9)  (2)  2 cos9

(vii) m(x)  sec[g(x)]tan[ g(x)] g (x)  m(1)  sec[g(1)]tan[ g(1)] g (1) 

sec(2) tan(2)  4  4sec2 tan 2

Example 2: If f (x)  , then find f (1) .

1
f (x)   (2x 4  x 2  5x  2) 3  f (x) 

1 (2x 4  x 2  5x  2)  3 (8x3  2x  5) 
2 8x3  2x  5

3

825 11
f (1)   
12

4
Example 3: If g(x)  , then find g (x) .
(x  4)8
3

4 8 9
 96x2
g(x)   4(x  4)3
 g(x)  32(x  4) 3 2
(3x ) 
(x 3  4)8 (x 3  4)9
 1 
Example 4: If l(x) 2 2
3x  4 , 3x
h(x)  sin(cosx) then find h(x) .
3x  4 1  1
2(3x  4) 2 2(3x  4) 2
h(x)  cos(cosx)  (sin x)

Example 5: If j(x)  tan(2x 2  3x  1) , then find j(x) .

j(x)  sec2 (2x 2  3x  1)  (4x  3)

Example 6: If k(x)  x 2 , then find k (x) .

1  1 
k(x)  x 2  x 2 (3x  4) 2  k (x)  x 2 1 (3x  4) 2 (3) 
 2 
1
2x(3x  4) 2 3x2  4x(3x  4)
(3x  4) (2x)    
1

15x2  16x
1
2(3x  4) 2
7
4
 2x 1 
Example 7: If  3x  4  , then find l (x) .
 
3
 2x 1  (3x  4)(2)  (2x 1)(3)  4(2x 1)3  11 

l (x)  4 3x  4  
   (3x  4)  (3x  4)  (3x  4) 
44(2x 1)3
.
(3x  4)5

sin x
Example 8: If k (x)  , then find k (x) .
1  cos x

2 2
(1  cos x)(cosx)  (sin x)(sin x)  cos x  cos x  sin x 
k (x)  2
(1  cos x)2 (1  cos x)
cos x  1  1
.
(1  cos x)2 1  cos x

Example 9: If s(x)  sin3 (x 2 1) , then find s(x) .

s(x)  sin3 (x 2 1)  [sin(x2 1)]3  s(x)  3[sin(x2 1)]2  cos(x2 1)  2x 
6x sin2 (x 2  1) cos(x 2  1) .

Implicit Differentiation
 Example 1: Find the slope of the tangent line to the circle 2
2 25  x 2 1 x  y 2  25 at the
25  x
point (3, 4). 2
33 25x 2 x 2
25  25  x2x 2
2525 25  x 2
3 3
25  9 16
y
(0, 5)

(3, 4)

(– 5, 0) x
(5, 0)
m=?

(0, – 5) 8
Solution 1 : A circle is not a function. However, x 2  y 2  25  y 2 
25  x 2  y   y is the equation of the upper

half circle and y   is the equation of the lower half circle.

Since the point (3, 4) is on the upper half circle, use the function f (x) =

 1
 25  x 2 2  f (x)  25  x 2  12 (2x)  x


3 3
m  f (3)     .
4

Sometimes, an equation [ x 2  y 2  25 ] in two variables, say x and y, is given, but it

is not in the form of y  f (x) . In this case, for each value of one of the variables,
one or more values of the other variable may exist. Thus, such an equation may describe one or
more functions [ y  and y   ]. Any function
defined in this manner is said to be defined implicitly. For such equations, we may not be able to
solve for y explicitly in terms of x [in the example, I was able to solve
for y explicitly in terms of x]. In fact, there are applications where it is not essential
to obtain a formula for y in terms of x. Instead, the value of the derivative at certain
points must be obtained. It is possible to accomplish this goal by using a technique
called implicit differentiation. Suppose an equation in two variables, say x and y, is
given and we are told that this equation defines a differentiable function f with y = f(x). Use the
following steps to differentiate implicitly:

(1) Simplify the equation if possible. That is, get rid of parentheses by
multiplying using the distributive property or by redefining subtraction, and
 clear fractions by multiplying every term of the equation by a common
denominator for all the fractions; simplify and combine like terms.

(2) Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x. Use all the relevant
differentiation rules, being careful to use the Chain Rule when differentiating
expressions involving y.
dy
(3) Solve for .
dx

Note: It might be helpful to substitute f (x) into the equation for y before
differentiating with respect to x. This will remind you when you must use the
generalized forms of the Chain Rule. Since dy
f (x)  , you differentiate
dx
dy
with respect to x and substitute y for f(x) and for f (x) . Then you can
dx
9
dy
solve for .
dx

2 2 2 2
Solution 2: x  y  25  x  [ f (x)]  25 
d
x 2
 [ f (x)]2  25 
dx
 2x dy  x dy
2x  2[ f (x)] f (x)  0  f (x)     x 3   3 .
2[ f (x)] dx y dx y 4 4

2 3
Example 2: Suppose that the equation   x defines a function f with y  f (x) .
x y
dy
Find and the slope of the tangent line at the point (2, 3).
dx

2 3 2 3x
Solution 1: Solve for y. xy x  y   xy(x)  2 y  3x  x
dy (x 2  2)(3)  3x(2x)  3x2  6 dy 18 9
     
x2
 

dx 2 2 2 2 dx 4 2
(x  2) (x  2)

Solution 2: Clear fractions  2 y  3x  x 2 y 

d
2 y  3x  x y   2
dx
dy 2 dy dy 3  2xy dy 3 12 9
2 3 x  2xy    x 2  
dx dx dx x2  2 dx y 3 2 2

Solution 3:
d 2 3
   x 
 d
 
2x 1  3y 1  x  2x  2  3y  2 dy  1 
dx  x y  dx dx
 2 3 dy    2  2 dy 2 2 dy  2 y 2  x 2 y 2
   
1 2y 3x x y
x 2 y 2 dx dx dx 3x2
dy 18  36  54 9
x 2   
dx y 3 12 12 2
 Example 3: If cos(xy)  y , then find dy
.
dx
d  dy  dy dy
cos(xy)  y    y(1)   x sin(xy)  y sin(xy) 
sin(xy)  x
 dx
dx  dx dx
dy dy dy
  y sin(xy)  1  x sin(xy) 
 
  y sin(xy)
dx dx dx 1  x sin(xy)

10

IV. Higher Order Derivatives

A. Notation
dy
(1) 1st derivative (derivative of the original function y  f (x) ):  f (x)
dx
d2y
(2) 2nd derivative (derivative of the 1st derivative):  f  (x)
dx2
d3y
(3) 3rd derivative (derivative of the 2nd derivative):  f (x)
dx3
B. Distance functions

Suppose s(t) is a distance function with respect to time t. Then s(t)  v(t)
is an instantaneous velocity (or velocity) function with respect to time t, and
s (t)  v(t)  a(t) is an acceleration function with respect to time t.

Example 1: If f (x)  x 2 sin x , then find f (x) and f  (x) .

f (x)  x 2 cos x  2x sin x
f  (x)  x 2 (sin x)  2x cos x  2x cos x  2sin x  x 2 sin x  4x cos x  2sin x

2x  3
Example 2: If g(x)  , then find g (x) and g  (x) .
4x  5

(4x  5)(2)  (2x  3)(4) 8x  10  8x 12

g (x)  
   22  22(4x  5) 2
(4x  5)2 (4x  5)2 (4x  5)2
176
g  (x)  44(4x  5)3 (4)  176(4x  5)3 
(4x  5)3

2 2 dy d2y
Example 3: If x  y  25 , then find and .
dx 2
dx

d
x 2  y 2  25  2x  2 y dy  0  dy   2x   x
dx dx 2y dx y
 dy   x
d2y d  dy  d  x  y(1)  (x) dx   y  x y   y2  x2
         =
2 2 3
dx dx  dx  dx  y  y2 y y
 (x 2  y 2 )  25 2 

y3 y3 

After reading this section, you should be able to

1. understand the basics of Taylor’s theorem,

2. write transcendental and trigonometric functions as Taylor’s polynomial,
3. use Taylor’s theorem to find the values of a function at any point, given the values of the
function and all its derivatives at a particular point,
4. calculate errors and error bounds of approximating a function by Taylor series, and
5. revisit the chapter whenever Taylor’s theorem is used to derive or explain numerical methods
for various mathematical procedures.

The use of Taylor series exists in so many aspects of numerical methods that it is imperative to devote aseparate
chapter to its review and applications. For example, you must have come across expressions such as
x2 x4 x6
cos(x)  1  (1)
2! 4! 6!
x3 x5 x7
sin(x)  x  3!  5!
 (2)
7!
x x2 x3
e  1 x    (3)
2! 3!
All the above expressions are actually a special case of Taylor series called the Maclaurin series.
Why are these applications of Taylor’s theorem important for numerical methods? Expressions such as
given in Equations (1), (2) and (3) give you a way to find the approximate values of these functions by
using the basic arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication.

Example 1
Find the value of e 0.25 using the first five terms of the Maclaurin series.
Solution
The first five terms of the Maclaurin series for e x is
x  x3  x 4
ex  1  x  4!
2! 3!
0.252 0.253 0.254
e0.25  1  0.25   
2! 3! 4!
 1.2840
The exact value of e 0.25 up to 5 significant digits is also 1.2840.
But the above discussion and example do not answer our question of what a Taylor series is.
Here it is, for a function f x
f  x f x
f x  h  f x  f xh  h2  h3  (4)
2! 3!
provided all derivatives of f x exist and are continuous between x and x  h .

What does this mean in plain English?

As Archimedes would have said (without the fine print), “Give me the value of the function at a single
point, and the value of all (first, second, and so on) its derivatives, and I can give you the value of the
function at any other point”.
      
It is very important to note that the Taylor series is not asking for the expression of the function
   
and its derivatives, just the value of the function and its derivatives at a single point.
Now the fine print: Yes, all the derivatives have
 to exist and be continuous between x (the point
where you are) to the point, x  h where you are wanting to calculate the function at. However, if you
want to calculate the function approximately by using the nth order Taylor polynomial, then
1st ,2nd ,...., nth derivatives need to exist and be continuous in the closed interval [x, x  h] , while the
(n  1)th derivative needs to exist and be continuous in the open interval (x, x  h) .

Example 2

Take f x  sinx, we all know the value of sin   1 . We also know the f x  cosx and
2
 
   
cos 2  0 . Similarly f x  sin(x) and sin 2  1 . In a way, we know the value of sinx and
   

all its derivatives at x  . We do not need to use any calculators, just plain differential calculus and
2
trigonometry would do. Can you use Taylor series and this information to find the value of sin2?
Solution

x
2
xh 2
h  2 x

 2
2
 0.42920
So h2 3
             h 
4
 h 
f x h f x f xh f x f x f (x)
2! 3! 4!

x
2
h  0.42920
f x  sinx, f     sin    1
   
2 2
   

f x  cosx, f  2   0
 

f x  sinx, f  2   1
 

f x  cos(x), f  2   0
 
 
f x  sin(x) , f  2  1
 
Hence  h
f


   
 
 h2
 
 h3
   
 2 h  f  2   f  2 h  f  
       2  2! 2  2  3! 3  2  4!
 
  0.42920 0.42920 0.429204
f  2  0.42920  1  0 0.42920 1 2! 0 3!
 
 1 0  0.092106 0  0.00141393
 0.90931
 1 
The value of sin2 I get from my calculator is 0.90930which is very close to the value I just obtained.
Now you can get a better value by using more terms of the series. In addition, you can now use the
value calculated for sin2 coupled with the value of cos2 (which can be calculated by Taylor series
just like this example or by using the sin2 x  cos2 x  1 identity) to find value of sinx at some other
point. In this way, we can find the value of sinx for any value from x  0 to 2 and then can use
the periodicity of sinx, that is sinx  sinx  2n , n  1,2,… to calculate the value of sinx at any
other point.

Example 3 x3
 x5 x7
Derive the Maclaurin series of sin x  x  
3!
 
Solution 5! 7!

In the previous example, we wrote the Taylor series for sinx around the point x  . Maclaurin
2
series is simply a Taylor series for the point x  0 .
f x  sinx, f 0  0
f x  cosx, f 0  1
f x  sinx, f 0  0
f x  cosx, f 0  1
f x  sinx, f 0  0
f x  cos(x) , f 0  1

Using the Taylor series now, h2 h h3

               
     4

f x h f x f xh f x f x

f x
f 
x
2! 3! 4 5 h5
             h 2    h 3    h 4    
f 0 h f 0 f 0h f 0 f 0 f 0 
f 
0
2! 3! 4 h5 5
            h 2    h 3    h 4    
f h f 0 f 0h f 0 f 0 
f 0 
f 0
2! 3! 4 5
4
h2 h3 h h 5
 0 1h 0 0 1 
2! 3! 4 5
3 5
h h
 h  
3! 5!
So
3 5
f x   x  x  x
3! 5!
3 5
sinx   x  x  x
3! 5!

Example 4
Find the value of f 6 given that f 4  125, f 4  74 , f 4  30, f 4  6 and all other higher
derivatives of f x at x  4 are zero.
Solution 3
           2
  h 
f x h f x f xh f x f x
2! 3!
x4
 f 4 f 4
h  64 
 f
2
Since fourth and higher derivatives of f x are zero at x  4 .
22 23
f 4  2  f 4 f 42 
       
2! 3!
 22   23 
f 6  125  742 30   6 
   
 125148 60  8
 341
Note that to find f 6 exactly, we only needed the value of the function and all its derivatives at some
other point, in this case, x  4 . We did not need the expression for the function and all its derivatives.
Taylor series application would be redundant if we needed to know the expression for the function, as
we could just substitute x  6 in it to get the value of f 6.
Actually the problem posed above was obtained from a known function
f x  x3  3x 2  2x  5 where f 4  125, f 4  74 , f 4  30, f 4  6 , and all other higher
derivatives are zero.

Error in Taylor Series

As you have noticed, the Taylor series has infinite terms. Only in special cases such as a finite
polynomial does it have a finite number of terms. So whenever you are using a Taylor series to
calculate the value of a function, it is being calculated approximately.

The Taylor polynomial of order n of a function f (x) with (n  1) continuous derivatives in the
domain [x, x  h] is given by
h2 hn
              n      
f x h f x f xh f x f x 

Rn x h
2! n!
where the remainder is given by
  hn1   

Rn x  h n 1
c .
(n  1)!
where
x c  xh
that is, c is some point in the domain x, x  h.

Example 5
The Taylor series for ex at point x  0 is given by
x 2 x3 x 4 x5
ex  1  x    
2! 3! 4! 5!
a) What is the truncation (true) error in the representation of e1 if only four terms of the series are
used?
b) Use the remainder theorem to find the bounds of the truncation error.
Solution
a) If only four terms of the series are used, then
2 3
ex  1  x  x  x
2! 3!
 e e1
1 2 e 3
1 f 
0   f
1 3!
e1  1  1 
2!
 2.66667
The truncation (true) error would be the unused terms of the Taylor series, which then are
x 4 x5
Et   
4!
1 15!
  
4! 5!
 0.0516152
b) But is there any way to know the bounds of thish error other than calculating it directly? Yes,
           n   n    
f x h f x f xh f x Rn x h
n!
where
  hn1 n 1     
Rn x  h c , x c x h , and
n  1!
c is some point in the domain x, x  h. So in this case, if we are using four terms of the Taylorseries, the
remainder is given by x  0, n  3
  131   

c
3 1

1
3  1!
 f
4!
4 
c
ec

24
Since
x c  xh
0  c  0 1
0  c 1
The error is bound between
 R3 1 
24 24
 R3 1 
24 24
0.041667 R3 1  0.113261
So the bound of the error is less than 0.113261 which does concur with the calculated error of
0.0516152.

Example 6
The Taylor series for ex at point x  0 is given by
x 2 x3 x 4 x5
ex  1  x    
2! 3! 4! 5!
As you can see in the previous example that by taking more terms, the error bounds decrease and hence
you have a better estimate of e1 . How many terms it would require to get an approximation of e1
within a magnitude of true error of less than106 ?
Solution
Using n 1 terms of the Taylor series gives an error bound of
  h
n1
  

  f f c
  n 1
n  1!
x  0, h  1, f (x)  e x
  1
n1
 

c
n 1
x2
n  1!
 1
n1
ec
n 1 !
Since
x c  xh
0  c  0 1
0  c 1
1 e
 Rn 1 
(n  1)! (n  1)!
So if we want to find out how many terms it would require to get an approximation of e1 within amagnitude
of true error of less than106 ,
e
 106
(n  1)!
(n  1)! 106 e
(n  1)! 106  3 (as we do not know the value of e but it is less than 3).

n9
So 9 terms or more will get e1 within an error of 106 in its value.

We can do calculations such as the ones given above only for simple functions. To do a similar
analysis of how many terms of the series are needed for a specified accuracy for any general function,
we can do that based on the concept of absolute relative approximate errors discussed in Chapter 01.02
as follows.
We use the concept of absolute relative approximate error (see Chapter 01.02 for details), which
is calculated after each term in the series is added. The maximum value of m , for which the absolute
relative approximate error is less than 0.5 102m % is the least number of significant digits correct in
the answer. It establishes the accuracy of the approximate value of a function without the knowledge
of remainder of Taylor series or the true error.

Indeterminate Form
0
I. Indeterminate Form of the Type
0

0
We have previously studied limits with the indeterminate form as shown in the
0
following examples:

x2  4
Example 1: lim  lim (x  2)(x  2)  limx  2  2  2  4
x2 x  2 x2 x2
 cos x  12

x  3
h 3
sin 3x 2
tan 3x sin 3x 1 1
Example 2: lim  lim cos3x  lim    3
x
x0 sin 2x sin 2x 1 cos3x sin 2x
3 8h 2 x0 x0


3   1  2x  3 3
2
lim sin 3x  lim  lim  (1)(1)(1) 
 3x0 3x  x0 cos3x  2 x0 sin 2x  2 2

sin 
[Note: We use the given limit lim  1 .]
0 

1 1
Example 3: lim  f (8)  . [Note: We use the definition
h0 3 3 82 12
f (a  h)  f (a)
of the derivative f (a)  lim where f (x) 
h0 h
and a = 8.]

Example 4: lim    
 f   3   sin  3   . [Note: We use the
x 3

f (x)  f (a)
definition of the derivative f (a)  lim where
xa xa
f (x)  cos x and a   3 .]

However, there is a general, systematic method for determining limits with the
0
indeterminate form . Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions at x = a
0
0
and that lim f (x) is an indeterminate form of the type ; that is, lim f (x)  0
xa g(x) 0 xa

and lim g(x)  0 . Since f and g are differentiable functions at x = a, then f and g
xa
are continuous at x = a; that is, f (a)  lim f (x) = 0 and g(a)  lim g(x) = 0.
xa xa

Furthermore, since f and g are differentiable functions at x = a, then f (a) 

f (x)  f (a) g(x)  g(a)
lim and g (a)  lim . Thus, if g (a)  0 , then
xa xa xa x  a
f (x)  f (a)
f (x) f (x)  f (a) xa f (a) f (x)
lim  lim  lim   lim if f  and
xa g(x) xa g(x)  g(a) xa g(x)  g(a) g(a) xa g(x)

xa
g  are continuous at x = a. This illustrates a special case of the technique known as
L’Hospital’s Rule.

0
L’Hospital’s Rule for Form
0
Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions on an open interval containing x = a, except possibly at
 cos x  12
2
x = a, and that lim 2
f (x)3(8  h) 03 3(8) 3
2
8x h 3 2
3
3
f (x)  0 and lim g(x)  0 . If lim
2 has a finite limit, or if this limit is
xa h xa x x xa g (x)
f (x) f (x)
  or   , then lim  lim . Moreover, this statement is also true in the case of a limit
xa g(x) xa g(x)

as x  a  , x  a  , x  , or as x  .

In the following examples, we will use the following three-step process:

f ( x) 0
Step 1. Check that the limit of is an indeterminate form of type . If it
g ( x) 0
is not, then L’Hospital’s Rule cannot be used.

f ( x)
Step 2. Differentiate f and g separately. [Note: Do not differentiate
g ( x)
using the quotient rule!]
f (x)
Step 3. Find the limit of . If this limit is finite,   , or   , then it is
g (x)
f ( x)
equal to the limit of . If the limit is an indeterminate form of type
g ( x)
, then simplify f (x) algebraically and apply L’Hospital’s Rule again.
0
0 g (x)

x2  4
Example 1: lim  lim 2x  2(2)  4
x2 x2 x2 1

tan 3x 3sec2 3x 3(1) 3

Example 2: lim  lim  
x0 sin 2x x0 2 cos2x 2(1) 2

1  23
(8  h) (1)
1 1 1
Example 3: lim  lim 3  lim  
h0 h0 1 h0 12

Example 4: lim  lim

 sin x
 sin
   3
1 3 2
x 3 x 3

e x  x 1 e x 1 x 1
Example 5: lim 2
 lim  lim e  [Use L’Hospital’s Rule
x0 x x0 2x x0 2
twice.]

Example 6: lim 1x  lim 2x  lim 2x   0 , or

x  
sin 1x x   1 
cos 1 2
x  x
cos 1 1
 x2
2  x2
2
1
1 2 where y  x. 4
4x  1

4x 2 4x

1 2 1
 1
x y  4 2
lim 1  lim  lim 2 y x 2 2(0) x2 x
 0
x sin  x y0 sin y y0 cos y 1

Example 7: lim
x
 lim x 1   0(0)  0 [This limit is not an indeterminate
x0 ln x x0 ln x
0
form of the type , so L’Hospital’s Rule cannot be used.]
0


II. Indeterminate Form of the Type



We have previously studied limits with the indeterminate form as shown in the following examples:

3x 2 5x 7 5 7
2
  3

3x  5x  7
 x2 x2 x2 x x2 3 00 3

2
Example 1: lim 2x 2  3x  1 lim 2x 3x 1 lim 3 1 lim 200 2
x  x  x  2   x 
 
x x2
x2 x2 x2

33x 1 1
 
Example 2: lim
3x  1
 xlim x 2 x 2  lim x x12  0  0  0  0
2  x 1 x  1 
x  x  1  1 0 1
x2 x2 x2

3x3 4 4
3  3
lim 3x  4  x3 x3 3 30 3
Example 3: 2x  1 lim 2x 1  lim 1 00 0 limit does not exist.
x  x  x  

x3 x3
x x3

4x 2  1 x (
Example 4: lim x 1 lim x 1  lim x 1  x
x  x  x 
x x


because x < 0 and thus x   )= lim  lim   2 .
x 1 1 1
x  x  1
x x2

However, we could use another version of L’Hospital’s Rule.

  3 4x2 2  1

14x  1
2
2 4x 2  1
4
x2 1

1 
L’Hospital’s Rule for Form
x 0
2
x3
Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions on an open interval
containing x = a, except possibly at x = a, and that lim f (x)   and
xa

f (x)
lim g(x)   . If lim  has a finite limit, or if this limit is   or
xa xa g (x)

f (x) f (x)
  , then lim  lim . Moreover, this statement is also true
xa g(x) xa g(x)

in the case of a limit as x  a  , x  a  , x  , or as x  .

Example 1: lim 3x 2  5x  7 lim 6x  5  lim 6  3

2

x 2x  3x  1 x 4x  3 x 4 2

3x 1 3 3 1 3
Example 2: lim  lim  lim  (0)  0
x x2 1 x 2x 2 x x 2

Example 3: lim 3x  4 lim 9x  lim 18x  

3 2

2
x 2x  1 x 4x x 4

8x

 lim  lim 4x
Example 4: lim  L’Hospital’s Rule does not help in
x x 1 x x

this situation. We would find the limit as we did previously.

2xx3  1
2x
ln(x 2  1) x2 1 2x 4  2x
Example 5: lim  lim  lim 2  lim
x ln(x3  1) 3x 2
x x 3x x 2  1 x 3x =
 3x 2
x3  1
lim 8x 3  2  lim 24x2
3 2
 lim 48x  48  2
x 12x  6x x 36x  6 x 72x 72 3

x x 02
Example 6: lim ln x  lim  lim  lim  
x0 
x0 
x0   2x x0  2 2
 csc x
1
arctan x  1  x x   
 arctan  0 [This limit is not an indeterminate
lim x lim  lim1   (0)  lim 1
1 2
 x
x x x x  x x
 x 2

form of the type , so
1 L’Hospital’s
 Rule cannot be used.]


III. Indeterminate Form of the Type 0 

Indeterminate forms of the type 0  can sometimes be evaluated by rewriting the product as a
0 
quotient, and then applying L’Hospital’s Rule for the indeterminate forms of type or .
0 

 lim  x  lim(x)  0
2
Example 1: lim x ln x  lim ln x  lim
x0 x0 x0 x0 x x0 

1
ln x x  sin x tan x
Example 2: lim (sin x) ln x  lim  lim csc x cot x  x 
x0 x0 x0 x0

  sin x  
tan x  (1)(0)  0
 lim  lim 
 x0 x  x0 

1
 
sin 1x sin y
Example 3: lim x sin
x
  lim x
 lim
y0 y
 1 [Let y  .]
x

IV. Indeterminate Form of the Type   

A limit problem that leads to one of the expressions

()  () , ()  () , ()  () , ()  ()

is called an indeterminate form of type    . Such limits are indeterminate because the two
terms exert conflicting influences on the expression; one pushes it in the positive direction and the
other pushes it in the negative direction. However, limits problems that lead to one the expressions

()  () , ()  () , ()  () , ()  ()

are not indeterminate, since the two terms work together (the first two produce a limit of   and the
last two produce a limit of   ). Indeterminate forms of the type    can sometimes be evaluated
0 
by combining the terms and manipulating the result to produce an indeterminate form of type or .
0 

1 1   sin x  x  cos x  1
   
x0

  x0

  x0

 1
1 x 2

sin x 0 x  1
lim e      0 x2
x0  x sin x  cos lim x  cos x 2





ln(1  cos x)  lnx  
2 
  1  cos x 

x0 x0   x 
  1  cos x   ln  sin x    1 
ln

lim  2  lim 

V. Indeterminate Forms of the Types 00 , 0 , 1

or g ( x) 
Limits of the form lim  f (x) lim  f (x)
g ( x)
frequently give rise to indeterminate forms
xa  x 
of the types 00 , 0 , 1 . These indeterminate forms can sometimes be evaluated as follows:

(1) y   f (x)
g ( x)

(2) ln y  ln f (x)g ( x)  g(x) ln f (x)

(3) lim ln y  lim g(x) ln f (x)
xa xa

The limit on the righthand side of the equation will usually be an indeterminate limit of the type 0  .
Evaluate this limit using the technique previously described. Assume that lim g(x) ln f (x)= L.
xa

(4) Finally, lim ln y  L  ln y  L  lim y  e L .

xa  xa  xa

Example 1: Find lim x x .

x0

This is an indeterminate form of the type 0 0 . Let y  x x  ln y  ln x x 

xln x . lim ln y  limx ln x  lim

ln x
 lim  lim x  0.
x0 x0 x0 x0 x0

Thus, lim x x  e0  1.
x0

2
Example 2: Find lim (e x  1) x
.
x

2
This is an indeterminate form of the type 0 . Let y  (ex 1) x 
 2 ln(ex  1) ln y  lim  2 ln(e  1) =
x
ln y  ln(ex 1) x 
2
 . lim
x x x x

 2
x 

 e x  1
lim  2e  lim  2e  2 . Thus, lim (e x  1)
x x
lim x
=
1 x e  1 ex
x x x x

e 2 .

Example 3: Find lim cos x  .

1
x

x0
 This is an indeterminate form of the type 1 . Let y  (cosx) x  1
ln(cosx) ln(cosx)
ln y  ln(cos x) x  
1
. lim ln y  lim 
  x x0 
x0 x
lim tan x  0 . Thus, lim cos x 
1
x = e0  1.
x0  x0

Tangents
The tangent to the graph of a function f at the point c, f (c) is a line such that:

- its slope is equal to f '(c).

- it passes through the point c, f (c).

The equation of the tangent to the graph of a function f at the point c, f (c) is given by the following
formula:
y  f '(x)(x  c)  f (x).

Example: Find the equation of the tangent to the graph of f (x)  x2 at the point (1,1).

We have f '(x)  2x and, since c 1 , we obtain

y  f '(1)(x 1)  f (1)  y  2(x 1) 1  y  2x 1.

Maximum and minimum

A function f (x) is said to have a local maximum at x0 if there exists a  0 such that, for
x (x0  a, x0  a) , we have f (x)  f (x0 ) .

Intuitively, it means that around x0 the graph of f will be below f (x0 ) .

Similarly, a function f (x) is said to have a local minimum at x0 if there exists a  0 such that, for
x (x0  a, x0  a) , we have f (x)  f (x0 ) .
This time, the graph of f will be situated above f (x ) for values of x around x .
0 0

Examples:

f (x)  x2  x  3 .

From the graph, it is rather obvious that the function has a unique minimum and that this minimum is
global (i.e. the whole graph is above this minimum).

On the other hand, if we take f (x)  x3  4x2  3x  2 , the situation is rather different:

Here, we have a local maximum and a local minimum.

Minima and maxima have one thing in common: say f has a local minimum at x0 . Then the tangent to
the graph of f at the point x0 , f (x0 ) is a horizontal line:
 3

The slope of the tangent is therefore 0 .

Remember, the slope of the tangent to the graph of f at the point x0 , f (x0 ) is equal to f '(x0 ), so
here we end up with f '(x0 )  0 .

If f has a local minimum or a local maximum at x0 , we therefore have f '(x0 )  0 .

In general, the solutions of f '(x)  0 are called stationary points. There are three different kinds of
stationary points: local minima, local maxima and turning points.

You can classify them as follows:

Say x0 is a stationary point. Then if

- f ''(x0 )  0 , there is a local maximum at x0 .

- f ''(x0 )  0 , there is a local minimum at x0 .
- f ''(x0 )  0 , there is a turning point at x0 .

x  x2
Example: f (x)  2  6x  2 . Find and classify the stationary points of f .To find the stationary
3
points, we solve f '(x)  0 :

Here, f '(x)  x2  x  6  (x  2)(x  3) , so that f '(x)  0  x2 or x  3 .

Next, we calculate f ''(x) and use the rule above to classify the stationary points:

f ''(x)  2x 1 .
f ''(2)  5  0 , so that f has a local minimum at x  2.
f ''(3)  5  0 , so that f has a local maximum at x  3 .

Let’s have a look at the graph of f :

The graph indicates that there is indeed a local minimum at x  2 and a local maximum at x  3 . The
graph also indicates that they are both local and not global.

Successive Differentiation:
The derivative f' (x) of a derivable function f (x) is itself a function of x. We suppose that it also
possesses a derivative, which is denoted by f'' (x) and called the second derivative of f (x). The third
derivative of f (x) which is the derivative of f'' (x) is denoted by f '''(x) and so on. Thus the successive
derivatives of f (x) are represented by the symbols, f (x), f; (x), . . . , f n (x), . . .
where each term is the derivative of the previous one. Sometimes y1 , y2 , y3 , . . . , yn , . . . are used to
denote the successive derivatives of y.

• Leibnitz’s Theorem
The nth derivative of the product of two functions: If u, v be the two functions possessing derivatives ofthe nth
order, then (uv)n = un v + nC1 un−1 v1 + nC2 un−2 v2 + . . . +n Cr un−r vr + . . . + uvn .
 1 x2  a2
1.  dx  lnx  c 2.
 exdx ex  c
x  x2  a2
3.  cosxdx  sinx  c 4.  sinxdx   cosx  c a
a x
2 2
5.  sec2 xdx  tanx  c 6.  csc2 xdx   cotx  c
7.  secxtan xdx  secx  c 8.  cscxcotxdx   cscx  c

Contents
INTEGRATION:
Integral as Limit of Sum, Fundamental Theorem of Calculus( without proof.), Indefinite Integrals,
Methods of Integration: Substitution, By Parts, Partial Fractions, Reduction Formulae for
Trigonometric Functions, Gamma and Beta Functions(definition).

INDEFINITE INTEGRATION

Definition f (x) is said to be primitive function or anti-derivative of g(x) if f '(x)  g(x) .

d 2
Example (x )  2x  x 2 is the primitive function of 2x .
dx

Note Primitive function is not UNIQUE.

Definition For any function f (x) if F(x) is the primitive function of f (x) , i.e. F '(x)  f (x) , then
we define the indefinite integral of f (x) w.r.t.x as
 f (x) dx F(x)  c , where c is
called the constant of integration.

Theorem Two function f (x) and h(x) differ by a constant if and only if they have the same
primitive function.

Standard Results

x a cx 1
9.  a dx1  lna x
10.  dx  ln c
11*.  dx  sin1  c 12*.
1 1 x
dx  tan1  c
a  x2  a2 a a
 1
 x2  a2  x
13.   dx  ln x2  a2  x  c 2
2  a2
x  a2  x a
x a
2 2 x a
x2  a2 a

Theorem (a)  kf (x)dx  k  f (x)dx

(b) [f(x)  g(x)]dx   f (x)dx   g(x)dx .
x
a
Example Prove  a dx 
x
c
lna
proof Let y  ax .
1 dy dy
lny  xlna   lna   ylna
y dx dx
dy
dx
dx =  ylna dx
y =
lna y dx

 axdx = ax
c
lna

METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION

Theorem ( CHANGE OF VARIABLE )

If x  g(t) is a differentiable function,  f (x)dx   f (g(t)) g '(t) dt .
Proof Let F(x) is the primitive function of f (x) .
dF(x)
i.e.  f (x)
dx
x  g(t)
d dF(x) dx
We have F(x) = 
dt dx dt
dF(x)
= g '(t)
dx
F(x) =

f (g(t))g '(t)dt

 f (x)dx =  f (g(t))g '(t)dt

1
Example Prove  dx  ln c

proof sub x  a tan θ  dx  asec2 θ dθ

1 1
 dx = asecθ asec2 θ dθ

=  sec θdθ
= lnsec θ  tan θ  c

(  secθ dθ  lnsecθ  tanθ  c )

= ln c

Remark By using substitution, the following two formulae can be derived easily.
 1 x

(I)
 f'(x)f (x)
 e
x dx  lnf (x)  c ,
f (x) 1 f (x)
f '(x)
(II)
2
dx  c. 
x
The following examples illustrate the use of the above results.

Example and
 secθ dθ  lnsecθ  tanθ c  cscθdθ   lncscθ  cotθ  c
proof

Example lnx
dx
 tanθdθ x
sin θ
= dθ
cos θ
1
=  lnx d(lnx)
(lnx)2
=  d( cos θ ) = c
cos θ 2
=  ln cos θ  c

cosx
dx
Example  cotθ dθ 3  2sinx
cos θ
= dθ
sin θ
1
=  d(sin θ )
sin θ
= ln sinθ  c
dx
Example (a) (b)
 x 2e x dx
3

x
e

Example  dx ( Let y  )

ex  1 esin 2x sin2 x
Example (a)  ex  dx (b)  e2x dx

Example dx
x 2

Example (a)
 ex cot(ex )dx
a2x  b2x
(b)  ex
dx
  x
2

(c)  px  q dx  

INTEGRATION BY PARTS

*Theorem ( INTEGRATION BY PARTS )

If u, v are two functions of x , then  udv  uv   vdu.
d dv du
proof uv = u v
dx dx dx
dv d du
u = uv  v
dx dx dx
We integrate both sides with respect to x to obtain
dv
udv = u dx =
dx uv   vdu

Example (a)  lnx dx (b)  x2 lnx dx

Example (a) I   x2 cosxdx

(b)
I  x2 sinxdx

xex
Example I dx
(1  x)2

Example
 tan1 x dx

Example  (lnx)2 dx

d x 1
Example (a) Show that tan  .
dx 2 1  cosx
x  sinx
(b) Using (a), or otherwise, find dx
1  cosx

SPECIAL INTEGRATION

P(x)
We resolve the rational function by simple partial fraction for P(x),Q(x) being poly. The
Q(x)
integration of rational function is easily done by terms by terms integration.
  2

5  4x  x2

Px  1Q  x  15  4x  x2
 
2  bx  c dx
2 2
 n
ax  b
x1
Example  2 ax
x ax bx
(a) c
x2 x 1 a
cx (b)
d
x 1
dx

x3  2x2  1
Example dx
(x  1)(x  2)(x  3)2

2x4  x3  3x2  3x
Example Evaluate dx .
x3  1

Solution By decomposing into partial fractions,

2x  x  3x2  3x
4 3
1 2x

x3  1 2x  1   .
x 1 x2  x  1
Hence,

Integration of

Example Evaluate 4x  1
 dx.

Solution Observing that the derivative of 5  4x  x2 is  (4  2x) , we have

 2(4  2x)  9
4x  1 = dx
 dx 5  4x  x2

Integration of

dx
Example
x

ax  b
Integration of )dx
 R(x, cx  d
n

In solving such problems, we use the substitution u 

x2
Example I dx
x

INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION

Integration of  R( cosθ ,sinθ )dθ
(1) If  R(  cosθ ,sinθ )  R( cosθ ,sinθ ) , put u  sinθ .

(2) If  R( cosθ , sinθ )  R( cosθ , sinθ ) , put u  cosθ .

(3) If R(  cosθ , sinθ )  R( cosθ ,sinθ ) , put u  tanθ .

θ 2t
(4) Otherwise, put t  tan .  tanθ 
2 1  t2
1 t2
cosθ 
1  t2
2t
sinθ 
1 t2

Example (a)  cos3 θ sin2 θ dθ (b)  cos2 θ sin3 θ dθ

REDUCTION FORMULA

Certain integrals involving powers of the variable or powers of functions of the variable can be related
to integrals of the same form but containing reduced powers and such relations are called
REDUCTION FORMULAS (Successive use of such formulas will often allow a given integral to be
expressed in terms of a much simpler one.

Example Let In   sinn x dx for n is non-negative integer.

1 n1
Show that I   cosxsinn1 x  I
n
n n n2
Hence, find I 6 .

Example Show that if In   cosn θ dθ , where n is a non-negative integer, then

sinθ cosn1θ  n  1
In  I , for n  2 .
n n n2
Hence evaluate I 5 and I 6 .

Example If In   tann x dx , where n is a non-negative integer, find a reduction formula

for In .
1
( In  tann1 x  I n2 )
n 1

This formula relates In with In2 , and if n is a positive integer, successive use of it will ultimately

relate with either  tan x dx or  dx .Since  tan xdx  lnsecx  c,  dx  x  c , and positive integral
power of tanx can therefore be integrated.
 logsec ax  b
b
log cos axinteger
cbFor non-negative
Example ax  b  tan
n, Iax  b(lnx)n dx .
n 
 log aaxlogb sec
n1 
ax
dx
. for I and hence evaluate I .
Find aaxreduction
logsin b
formula n 3

Example Let n be a positive integer and a  0 .

dx
In  (*)
(ax  bx  c)n
2

 2ax  b
(a) Prove that n(4ac  b 2 )I n1  2(2n  1)a In .
(ax 2 bx  c)n

(b) Evaluate  (x2  2x  2)2

METHODS OF INTGRATION

1. Integration using formulae i.e. simple integration

2. Integration by substitution
(i) Integrand of the form f ax  b
FORMULAE BASED ON f ax  b
 ax  b n1
  ax  b 
n
1. dx   c, n  1
1
2. dx  c
ax  b a
axb

3.  c dx  k
a log c
axb eaxb
4.  e dx  c
a
cosax  b
5. sin ax  b dx   c
a
sin ax  b
6. cosax  b dx  c
a
tan ax  b
7. sec2 ax  b dx  c
a
cot ax  b
8.  cos ec ax  b dx =
2  +c
a
secax  b
9. secax  b tan ax  b dx  c
a
cos ec ax  b
10. cos ec ax  bcot ax  b dx   c
a

11.  tan ax  b dx    c or c

a a
c
12.  cot ax  b dx  a
log tan


ax  b 
 
4 2
 c or   c
13. sec ax  b dx 
 a a
 log tan
ax  b
log cos ec ax  b  cot ax  b 2
 2    n

 ax  b  ax  b 1 2
 ec ax
  b dx   c or
2

14. cos c
a a
   sin1 ax  b
2
ax  b ax  b 1
1
dx  +c
15.  1 ax  b 2 a

1 cos1 ax  b
16.   dx  +c
1 ax  b a
2

1 tan1 ax  b
17. dx  c
1 ax  b a
1 cot1 ax  b
18.  dx  c
1 ax  b a
dx  sec ax  b c
1 1

19.  a

dx  cos ec ax  b c
1 1

20.   a

f /  x f /  x
 f  x dx ;  g  f x. f  x  dx
n
(ii) Integration of the type
  f  x  . f /  x  dx ;  f  x 
dx ;
/

METHOD: Put f(x) = t and f/(x) dx = dt and proceed.

f /  x
dx  log f  x  c
NOTE:  f x
(iii) Integration of the type: sinm  x.cosn  xdx , where either ‘m’ or ‘n’ or both are odd.

METHOD:

Case(i) If power of sine i.e. m is odd and power of cosine i.e. n is even then put
cos x  t and proceed.
Case(ii) If power of sine i.e. m is even and power of cosine i.e. n is odd then put
sin x  t and proceed.
Case(iii) If power of sine i.e. m is odd and power of cosine i.e. n is also odd then put
cos x  t or sin x  t and proceed.

(iv). Integration which requires simplification by trigonometric functions:

Learn the following formulae:

sin2 x 
1 cos 2x 2sin Acos B  sin( A  B) sin  A  B
2
cos2 x 
1 cos 2x 2cos Asin B  sin( A  B) sin  A  B
2
1 2cos Acos B  cos A  B  cos A  B
sin3 x  3sin x  sin 3x
4
1 2sin Asin B  cos A  B cos A  B
cos3 x  3cos x  cos 3x
4

NOTE: A student may require formulae of class XI, other then above; therefore he is suggested
to learn all trigonometric formulae studied in class XI.

(v). SOME SPECIAL INTEGRALS:

1  x 1 1 bx  c 
1.  dx  sin1    c . 1.  dx  sin1 c.
a2  x2 a 2  
  a2  bx  c b  a 
1 x 1 1  bx  c 
2.  dx  cos1    c . 2.  dx  cos1 c.
a2  x2 a 2  
  a2  bx  c b  a 
1 1 x 1 1  bx  c 
3.  dx  tan1    c . 3.  2 2 dx  tan1  c.
a2  x 2 a a a   bx  c  ab a 
   
1 1 x 1 1  bx  c 
4.  2 dx  cot1    c 4.  dx  cot1  c
a x 2 a a a   bx  c 
2 2
ab a 
 
1 1 x 1 1  bx  c 
5.  dx  sec1    c . 5.  dx  absec1  a  c
 bx  c   bx  c   a
2
x x a
2 2 a a 2
   

.
11  x
6.  dx  co sec1    c . 6.
x x2  a2 a a
  1 1 1  bx  c  
  bx  c   bx  c  2
 a 2 dx  abco sec

a c


.
1
7.  dx  log x  x2  a2  c . 7.
1 1
x2  a2
 dx  log  bx  c   bx  c 2  a 2 c
 bx  c 2  a2 b

.
1 1 1
  dx  log  bx  c    bx  c   a 2  c .
2
8. dx  log x  x2  a2  c . 8.
x2  a2 bx  c 2  a2 b
1 1 xa
9. 
1 1 bx  c  a  c .
9.  dx  log c. dx  log
x a
2 2
2a xa  bx  c   a
 bx  c 2  a 2 2ab
1 1 ax 1 1 a  bx  c
10. a dx  log c. 10.  dx  log c.
2
x 2
2a ax a   bx  c 
a   bx  c 
2
2 2ab

3. INTEGRATION PARTIAL FRACTIONS:

FACTOR IN THE CORRESPONDING PARTIAL FRACTION
 DENOMIANTOR 
( Linear factor) A
ax  b ax  b
Repeated linear factor
(i)  ax  b 
2 A B

ax  b  ax  b 2
(ii)  ax  b 
n
A1 A2 A3 An
   ... 
ax  b  ax  b 2  ax  b 3  ax  b 
n

Quadratic factor
ax2  bx  c Ax  B
ax2  bx  c
Repeated quadratic factor
(i)  ax 2  bx  c 
2

A1x  B1 A2 x  B2
(i) 
 
n
(ii) ax 2  bx  c ax 2  bx  c  ax  bx  c 
2 2

(ii)
A1x  B1 A2 x  B2 A3 x  B3 An x  Bn
   ... 
 ax2  bx  c   ax2  bx  c   ax 2  bx  c 
2 3 n
ax  bx  c
2

NOTE: Where A,B and Ai’s and Bi’s are real numbers and are to be calculated by an
appropriate method

p  x
NOTE: If in an integration of the type (i.e.) a rational expression deg p  x  degq  x
q  x
p  x
then we first divide p  x by q  x and write as
qx
p  x remainder and then proceed.
 quotient 
q  x divisor

4. INTEGRATION BY PARTS:

Integration by parts is used in integrating functions of the type f  x.g  x as follows.

 d
 I st function  II nd functiondx  I st function II nd functiondx   I st function II nd functiondx  dx
 
st nd
Where the I and II functions are decided in the order of ILATE;

I: Inverse trigonometric function

L: Logarithmic function
T: Trigonometric functions
A: Algebraic functions
E: Exponential Functions
 1
dx

x x2  a2 a a 2
There are three type
x xof
2  questions
a
x
2 a  on
based  a2
x integration by parts:
2 
axx2 
ax
a2
2 x 2  a 2

TYPE1. Directly based on the formulae

 x sin xdx ;  logxdx ;  sin -1 x 

2
Example: dx etc.

TYPE2: Integration of the type: eax sin bxdx ; eax cos bxdx
TYPE3: Integration of the type:
 e x  f  x  f /  xdx  ex f  x   c
ekx kf  x  f / xdx  ekx f  x   c
5. SOME MORE SPECIAL INTEGRALS

sin 1    c
2
x

1.  dx 
2 2  

2
dx   log x  c
2.  2 2
2

dx   log x  c
3.  2 2

NOTE: SOME MORE SPECIAL INTEGRALS OF THE TYPE f(ax+b)

 
1   bx  c   bx  c   a 2 a2 1  bx  c 
2

  bx  c  dx 
2
1.  a2
b

2  2 sin   
c
a
  
  bx  c   bx  c 2  a 2 
1  a2

 bx  c   a 2 dx   log  bx  c    bx  c   a 2  c
2 2
2.   
b 2 2
 
  bx  c   bx  c 
2  c
 bx  c   a2  a log bx  c   bx  c 
2 2
3.  a 2 dx 1 2
 a2
 
b 2 2
 

x2 1
6. INTEGRATION OF THE TYPE:
x4  kx2 1
dx ;  x4  kx2 1

METHOD:
1
STEP1: Divide the Nr. and Dr. by x2. We get 1 in the Nr.
2
x2
 1
STEP2: Introduce  x   in the Dr.
 
1
STEP3: Put x   t , as per the situation and proceed.
x

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TYPES OF INTEGRATION OTHER THAN GIVEN IN THE N.C.E.R.T.

 1 tan2 x 2
1 tan2 x 2
1. Integration of the type
 1x 2 x 1 2 1
  2 dx , 2 dx , dx
 1 x dx 2 a Qb sin x a  b cos x a sin x  b cos x
a sin x  b cos x2

METHOD:
Step1. Divide Nr. and Dr. by sin2 x (or cos2 x )
Step2. In the Dr. replace cos ec2 x by 1 cot2 x (or s ec2 x by1 tan2 x ) and proceed.
1 1 1 1
2. Integration of the type  dx ,  dx ,  dx  dx
a  b sin x a  b cos x a sin x  b cos x a sin x  b cos x  c

METHOD:
2 tan x 2
Step1. Replace sin x  dx and cos x  dx
1 tan2 x 2

Step2. In the Nr. Replace1 tan2  sec2 .

Step3. Put tan  t and proceed.

3. Integration of the type.

a sin x  b cos x
TYPE:1. dx
c sin x  d cos x
METHOD:
d
Put a sin x  b cos x   c sin x  d cos x   c sin x  d cos x 
dx
Where  and  are to be calculated by an appropriate method.

a sin x  b cos x  c
TYPE:2. dx
d sin x  e cos x  f
METHOD:
d
d sin x  e cos x  f    d sin x  e cos x  f   
Put a sin x  b cos x  c  
dx
Where  and  are to be calculated by an appropriate method.

  x
4. Integration of the type dx , where P and Q are either linear polynomial and quadratic
P
polynomial alternately or simultaneously.

CASE(i) If P & Q both are linear then put Q  t 2 and proceed.

CASE(ii) If P is quadratic & Q is linear then put Q  t 2 and proceed.
1
CASE(iii) If P is linear and Q is quadratic function of x, we put P  .
t
1
CASE(iv) If P and Q both are pure quadratic of the form ax2  b then put x  .
t
 Trigonometric Integrals
nn nn
I. Integrating Powers of the Sine and Cosine Functions

A. Useful trigonometric identities

1. sin2 x  cos2 x  1

2. sin2x  2sin xcosx

3. cos2x  cos2 x  sin2 x  2 cos2 x 1  1  2sin2 x

4. 1  cos2x
sin2 x 
2
5. 1  cos2x
cos2 x 
2
1
6. sin x cos y  [sin(x  y)  sin(x  y)]
2
1
7. sin x sin y  [cos(x  y)  cos(x  y)]
2
1
8. cos x cos y  [cos(x  y)  cos(x  y)]
2

B. Reduction formulas

 
1 n 1
1. sin n x dx   sin n1 x cos x  sin n2 x dx

 cos x dx   cos
1 n 1
2. n cosn1 x sin x  n2 x dx

C. Examples

1. Find
 sin x dx .
2

Method 1(Integration by parts):  sin x dx   sin x (sin x dx) . Let

2


u  sin x and dv  sin x dx  du  cos x dx and v  sin x dx 

1
 cos x . Thus,
 sin x dx  (sin x)( cos x)   cos x dx  sin x cos x 
2 2

 (1 sin x) dx  sin x cos x  1dx   sin x dx  sin x cos x  x 

2 2
 3 3

   
1 1  1  cos4x  1 1
sin 2 2x dx  dx  1dx  cos4x dx 
4
 sin 2 x dx  2 sin
1 1
2 
 2 x dx 2sin x cos x  x  sin 2 x dx 
 2  42 4 
 sin x cos x  x  C .
2 2

 
1 1 1
Method 2(Trig identity): sin 2 x dx  (1  cos2x) dx  x  sin 2x  C .

 
1 1
Method 3(Reduction formula): sin 2 x dx   sin x cos x  1dx 
2 2
1 1
 sin x cos x  x  C .
2 2

2. Find
 cos x dx . 3

Use the reduction formula:

 
1 2
cos3 x dx  cos2 x sin x  cos x dx 

1 2 1 2
cos2 x sin x  sin x  C  sin x(1  sin2 x)  sin x  C 
3 3 3 3
1 3
sin x  sin x  C .
3


3. Find sin 3 x cos2 x dx .

 sin x cos x dx   sin x sin x cos x dx   (1  cos x) cos x sin xdx 

3 2 2 2 2 2

 (cos x  cos x)(sin x dx) . Let u  cos x  du   sin x dx . Thus,

2 4

1
 
1 1
(cos x  cos x)(sin x dx)   (u  u ) du   u  u  C 
2 4 2 4 3 5

3 5
1 1
 cos3 x  cos5 x  C .
3 5

4. Find
 sin x cos x dx .
2 2

   (1  cos 2x) dx 
 1  cos2x  1  cos2x  1
sin 2 x cos2 x dx  dx  2

 
4  2  8 8
1 1
x sin 4x  C .
8 32

5. Find
 sin 4x cos3x dx .
 

u 4x
Method 1(Integration3 by parts): Let sin sin4x
2

39  3 99 1 3
cos3xand

dxdv  cos3x dx  du =
3 9 3
4 cos4x dx and v  sin 3x . Thus, sin 4x cos3x dx 
3
1  4 1
(sin 4x) sin 3x  cos4x sin 3x dx  sin 4x sin 3x 
  3 3

 cos4x sin3x dx . Find  cos4x sin3x1 dx . Let u  cos4x and dv =

4

sin 3x dx  du  4sin 4x dx and v   cos3x . Thus,

3

 1
1 4
cos4x sin3x dx   cos4x cos3x  sin 4x cos3x dx . Returning to

the original integral,

 sin 4x cos3x dx = 3 sin 4x sin 3x 
 1

4 1 4  sin 4x sin 3x 
 cos4x cos3x 

  sin 4x cos3x dx 
4 16 7
cos4x cos3x  sin 4x cos3x dx  


1 4
sin 4x sin 3x  cos4x cos3x  sin 4x cos3x dx =
3 4
 sin 4x sin 3x  cos4x cos3x  C .
7 7

  sin x  sin 7x dx 

Method 2(Trig identity): 1
sin 4x cos3x dx 
1 1
 cos x  cos7x  C .
2 14

II. Integrating Powers of the Tangent and Secant Functions

A. Useful trigonometric identity: tan 2 x  1  sec2 x

B. Useful integrals

1.
 sec x tan x dx  sec x  C
2.
 sec xdx  tan x  C
2

 C  ln cos x  C
3.
 tan x dx  ln sec x

4.
 sec x dx  ln sec x  tan x  C
C. Reduction formulas
 1.
2.
 secn x dx 
secn2 x tan x n  2
2 n 1 
 n  1 2 sec
2 n2 x 4dx
 2
2
4

tan n1 x
tan n x dx   tan n2 x dx
n 1

D. Examples

1. Find
 tan 2 x dx .

 tan 2 x dx 
 (sec x 1) dx   sec x dx  1dx  tan x  x  C .
2 2

2. Find
 tan xdx .
3

 
tan 2 x 1 C.
tan 3 xdx   tan x dx  tan 2 x  ln sec x

3. Find
 sec xdx .
3

 
sec x tan x 1 1 1
sec3 x dx   sec x dx  sec x tan x  ln sec x  tan x  C .
2 2 2 2

4. Find
 tan x sec x dx .
2

 
1
Let u  tan x  du  sec2 xdx  tan x sec2 x dx  udu  u 2  C 
1
tan 2 x  C .
2

5. Find
 tan x sec x dx .
4

 tan x sec x dx   tan x sec x sec x dx   tan x(1  tan x) sec x dx 

4 2 2 2 2

 tan x sec x dx   tan x sec dx . Let u  tan x  du  sec x dx . Thus,

2 3 2 2

  
1 1 1 1
tan x sec x dx  udu  u du  u  u  C  tan x  tan x  C .
4 3 2 4 2 4
 tan x

secsec
x x
6. Find tan xsec x 3 tan x
x x sec x dx .
tantan
4 4 4 4

 tan x sec x dx   sec x (secx tan1 x dx) . Let1 u  secx  du  secx tan xdx .
3 2

  3
Thus, tan x sec x dx  u du  u  C  sec x  C .
3

3
2 3 3

7. Find
 tan x sec x dx .
2 3

 tan x sec x dx   (sec x 1) sec x dx   sec x dx   sec x dx . Using

2 3 2 3 5 3

  sec x dx . Thus,
1 3
the reduction formula, sec x dx  sec tan x  5 3 3

   
1 3
tan 2 x sec3 x dx  sec5 x dx  sec3 x dx  sec3 x tan x  sec3 xdx 

 
1 1 1 1
sec3 x dx  sec3 x tan x  sec3 x dx  sec3 x tan x  sec x tan x 
4 4 4 8
1
ln sec x  tan x  C .
8

sec4 x dx.
8. Find

 sec4 x dx 
 tan x sec2 x sec2 xdx 
 tan x (1  tan 2 x) sec2 xdx .

Let u  tan x  du  sec2 xdx 

 sec4 x dx  tan x sec2 xdx 

  
1 5 2 3 2 7
tan 2 x sec2 x dx  u 2 du  u 2 du  u 2  u 2  C 
3 7
2 3 2 7
(tan x) 2  (tan x) 2  C .
3 7

9. Find
 tan xdx .

Let u  u u22  sec x  2udu  sec x tan xdx  u 22 tan xdx 

tan x dx   du . Thus,
u sec x u

tan x dx  u du  2 1du 

 
2u  C  2  
C .

Practice Sheet forTrigonometric Integrals

 nn n  1 n n1n
(11) dx =

4
cos x
 
 sin x dx   sin x cos x   sin

 2 n 1 n 1
n1 n2
8 x dx

(1) Prove the reduction formula:

  cos
(2) Prove the reduction formula: 1 n 1
cosn x dx  cosn1 x sin x  n2 x dx

  sec
(3) Prove the reduction formula: secn2 x tan x n2
secn x dx   n2 x dx

tan n1 x
(4) Prove the reduction formula: tan n x dx   tan n2 x dx
n 1

(5)

0
tan 3 (3x) dx =

(6)

0
cos2 (2x) dx =

(7)

0
sin(5x) cos(3x)
dx =

(8)
 tan 3 x sec3 x dx =

sin x cos3 x dx =
(9)

(10)
 cos3 x sin 2 x dx =


sin3 x

(12)
 sin 2 x cos2 xdx 
(13)
 tan x sec xdx 
5

nn nn

Solution Key for Trigonometric Integrals

 
(1) and
sinn xdx  sinn1x sin xdx. Use integration by parts with u  sinn1 x

dv  sin xdx  du  (n 1) sinn2 x cos xdx and v 

 sin xdx  cos x 

 sin x dx   sin
n n1 x sin x dx

=  sin n1 x cos x  (n 1) sin n2 x cos2 x dx 

  
 sin n1 x cos x  (n 1) sin n2 x 1  sin 2 x dx  sin n1 x cos x 

  
(n 1) sin n2 x dx  (n 1) sin n x dx  n sin n x dx  sin n1 x cos x 

  
1 n 1
(n 1) sin n2 x dx  sin n x dx   sin n1 x cos x  sin n2 x dx .

 
(2) and
cosn xdx  cosn1x cos xdx . Use integration by parts with u  cosn1 x

dv  cos xdx  du  (n 1) cosn2 x (sin x) dx and v 

 cos xdx  sin x 
 cos x dx   cos
n n1 x cos x dx

= cosn1 x sin x  (n 1) cosn2 x sin 2 x dx 

  
cosn1 x sin x  (n 1) cosn2 x 1  cos2 x dx  cosn1 x sin x 

  
(n 1) cosn2 x dx  (n 1) cosn x dx  n cosn x dx  cosn1 x sin x 

   cos
1 n 1
(n 1) cosn2 x dx  cosn x dx  cosn1 x sin x  n2 x dx .
  
(3) and
secn x dx  secn2 x sec2 x dx . Use integration by parts with u  secn2 x
 
4

dv  sec2 xdx  du  (n  2) secn3 x (secx tan xdx)

 n 1 n 1
3
 and v  3sec2 x dx  tan2x 


 sec x dx   sec
n n2 x sec2 x dx = secn2 x tan x  (n  2) secn2 x tan 2 x dx 


  
secn2 x tan x  (n  2) secn2 x sec2 x 1 dx  secn2 x tan x  (n  2) secn xdx 


 
(n  2) secn2 x dx  (n 1) secn x dx  secn2 x tan x  (n  2) secn2 x dx 


  sec
secn2 x tan x n2
secn x dx   n2 x dx .

 tan x dx   tan  tan  tan

(4) n n2 x tan 2 x dx  n2 x  sec 2 
x 1 dx  n2 x sec2 xdx 

tan n1 x
tan n2 x dx   tan n2 x dx .
n 1

   tan u du . Use
1 1
(5) Let u  3x  du  3dx  tan 3 (3x) dx  tan 3 (3x) 3dx  3

1 3 1  tan 2 u  1
u du  
  tan u du 
reduction formula #4 above to get
tan 3 
3 2 3

1 1
 tan 3 (3x) dx = 1 tan 2 (3x)  1 ln sec(3x)   
4
tan 2 u  ln secu 
 6 
6 3 
 
0

6  4  3  4   66  46 3 6  4  4  6 3

1 1 1 1
(0)2  ln1   ln  2 .
6 3 6 3

1  cos2
(6) Use the trigonometric identity cos2  
 cos (2x) dx 
to get 2
2
 
4

 
1   sin 1x  
 
1 cos(4x) 1  1 
dx  2 4
1dx 4 2dx 3 x  sin74x
cos(4x) 4  162 (2x) dx =
cos
2 2 2 2 8
0

1    1  1 1 
 sin  (0)  sin(0)  .
 2  4  8   2 8 8 

1
(7) Use the trigonometric identity sin x cos y  [sin(x  y)  sin(x  y)] to get
2

  
1 1 1 1
sin(5x) cos(3x) dx  sin(2x) dx  sin(8x) dx   cos(2x)  cos(8x) 


  1
8
 1   1 1 
sin(5x) cos(3x) dx cos  cos    cos0  cos0 
16 416
0

1  2  1 1 1 3 2
     
4  2  16 4 16 8

10

(8)
 tan 3 x sec3 x dx =
 tan x sec x (secx tan x dx) 
2 2

 (sec x 1) sec x (secx tan x dx)   sec x (secx tan x dx) 
2 2 4

1 1
sec2 x (secx tan xdx)  sec5 x  sec3 x  C .
5 3


 sin2 x cos xdx 
(9)
 sin x cos x dx = 3
 cos x( cos x dx)   (sin x)
2 2
1

 
1 5 2 3 2 7
(sin x) 2
cos x dx  (sin x) 2
cos x dx  (sin x) 2
 (sin x) 2  C .

(10)
 cos3 x sin 2 x dx =
 cos x sin x cos x dx   1  sin xsin xcos x dx 
2 2 2 2

 
1 1
sin 2 x (cosx dx)  sin 4 x (cosx dx)  sin 3 x  sin 5 x  C .
3 5

sin3 x
(11) dx
 12  12
1  cos xsin xdx 
 
sin2 x (sin xdx 2
cos x  (cosx)  (cosx)
  
2  2  4


2
 
 
1 3 1 2 5
4 (cosx) 42 (sin x dx)   (cosx)
4 4
2
(sin
 x 2  2(cosx)
dx)  4 2  85(cosx) 2 
8 4 8  32 8 32


sin3 x  2
5
dx =  2 cos   cos     2 cos0  2 cos05 2   8 .
    2     
2 5 2 5 5
0

1  cos2 1  cos2
(12) Use the trigonometric identities cos2   and sin2   .
2 2

 sin 2 x cos2 xdx 


 1  cos2x  1  cos2x 
dx 
1
 1  cos 2

2x dx 

11

   1dx 
1 1 1 1  1  cos4x  1 1
1dx  cos2 2x dx  x dx  x


1 1 1 1 1 1
cos4x dx  x  x  sin 4x  C  x  sin 4x  C .

   tan x
2
(13) tan 5 x sec xdx  tan 4 x tan x sec x dx  2 tan x sec x dx 

 sec   sec x  2sec x 1sec x tan x dx 

2
2 x 1 sec x tan x dx  4 2

 sec x sec x tan x dx  2 sec xsec x tan x dx   sec x tan x dx 
4 2

1 2
sec5 x  sec3 x  sec x  C .
5 3
 Contents
VECTOR ALGEBRA:
Definition of a vector in 2 and 3 Dimensions; Double and Triple Scalar and Vector Product and
physical interpretation of area and volume.

Vectors and Scalars

A vector is a quantity that has size (magnitude) and direction. Examples of vectors are velocity,
acceleration, force, displacement and moment. A force 10N upwards is a vector.
So what are scalars?
A scalar is a quantity that has size but no direction. Examples of scalars are mass, length, time, volume,
speed and temperature.
How do we write down vectors and scalars and how can we distinguish between them?
A vector from O to A is denoted by OA or written in bold typeface a and can be represented
geometrically as: A

O
Fig 1

A scalar is denoted by a , not in bold, so that we can distinguish between vectors and scalars.
Two vectors are equivalent if they have the same direction and magnitude. For example the vectors d
and e in Fig 2 are equivalent.
D
B

C
A

Fig 2

The vectors d and e have the same direction and magnitude but only differ in position. Also note thatthe
direction of the arrow gives the direction of the vector, that is CD is different from DC .
 20N
a
AB
Object

The magnitude or length of the vector AB is denoted by .

There are many examples of vectors in the real world:

(a) A displacement of 20m to the horizontal right of an object from O to A:

O 20m

Fig 3

(b) A force on an object acting vertically downwards:

Fig 4

(c) The velocity and acceleration of a particle thrown vertically upwards:

Velocity

Acceleration

Fig 5

A2 Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication

O
Fig 6

The result of adding two vectors such as a and b in Fig 6 is the diagonal of the parallelogram, a  b ,
as shown in Fig 6.
The multiplication ka of a real number k with a vector a is the product of the size of a with the number
k. For example 2a is the vector in the same direction as vector a but the magnitude is twice as long.

Fig 7
 a -b
2 2 2

The vector subtraction of two vectors a and b is defined by

a  b  a  b
1 a
What does the vector a look like? O
2

1 a

Fig 8

Same direction as vector a but half the magnitude.

What effect does a negative k have on a vector such as ka ?
If k  2 then 2a is the vector a but in the opposite direction and the magnitude is multiplied by 2,
that is:

Fig 9

A vector a is the vector a but in the opposite direction. We can define this as
a  1a
We call the product ka scalar multiplication.
We can also subtract vectors as the next diagram shows:

Fig 10

A3 Vectors in
What is meant by 2?

is the plane representing the Cartesian coordinate system named after the French mathematician
(philosopher) Rene Descartes.
  3
2

Rene Descartes was a French-4philosopher born in 1596. He4

-2 2 3 2
5 36 8 5 10
attended a Jesuit college and because of his poor health he
was allowed to remain in bed until 112 o’clock in the morning, a
-2
habit he continued until his deathin
-6 
1650.

 -3 
Descartes studied law at the University of Poitiers which is
located south west of Paris. After graduating in 1618 he went
to Holland to study mathematics.
Over the next decade he travelled through Europe eventually

Descartes main contribution to mathematics was Fig 11 Rene Descartes 1596 to 1650
his analytic geometry which included our present x-y plane and the three dimensional space.
In 1649 Descartes moved to Sweden to teach Queen Christina. However she wanted to learn her
mathematics early in the morning (5am) which did not suit Descartes because he had a habit of getting
up at 11am. Combined with these 5am starts and the harsh Swedish winter Descartes died of
pneumonia in 1650.
The points in the plane are ordered pairs with reference to the origin which is denoted by O . For
example the following are all vectors in the plane 2 :
y

Fig 12  6   7 
These are examples of vectors with two entries, ,  2  and  1 .
       
       
The set of all vectors with two entries is denoted by and pronounced “r two”. The represents that
the entries are real numbers.
We add and subtract vectors in as stated above, that is we apply the parallelogram law on the
vectors. For example:
 y
b

a+b
3
a

2
b

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x

Fig 13
What does the term ordered pair mean?
The order of the entries matters, that is the coordinate a, b is different from b, a provided a  b .
a
Normally the coordinate a, b is written as a column vector .
 
Example 1
3  2 
Let u    and v    . Plot u  v and write down u  v as a column vector. What do you notice
 1  3
about your result?
Solution 3
y

u=  -2 
 
3 1 u+v

-2 -1 1 2 3

v= 3 x
-1  
 -1 

-2

Fig 14
By examining Fig 14 we have that the coordinates of u  v are (1, 2) and this is written as a column
1
vector   .
 2
If we add x and y coordinates separately then we obtain the resultant vector.
 3   2   3  2   1 
That is if we evaluate u  v             which means that we can add the
 1  3   1 3   2 
corresponding entries of the vector to find u  v .
 d 
3a 
and v   c  then
3
In general if u  3
 b   bd    b 
2 b  1 0.5  12 2 1 32 1 1 3

a  c   a c 
b uv   
     
2
Example 2
 3 1
Let v    . Plot the vectors v, 2v, 3v and  v on the same axes.
1  2
Solution. Plotting each of these vectors on we have
y

3v

2 4 6 8 10 x

–v

Fig 15

Note that by reading off 3the coordinates of

 1.5 
each vector we 3have:
 3  6    9  3  3
1 1
v  
  , 2v  2     , 3v  3    and v      
               
Remember the product k v is called scalar multiplication. The term scalar comes from the Latin word
scala meaning ladder. Scalar multiplication changes the length of the vector or we can say it changesthe scale
of the vector as you can see in Fig 15.
a
In general if v  then the scalar multiplication
 
a  ka 
kv  k 
   
A4 Vectors in
What does the notation mean?
is the set of all ordered triples of real numbers and is also called 3-space.
We can extend the vector properties in mentioned in subsection A3 above to three dimensions
pronounced “r three”.
The x  y plane can be extended to cover three dimensions by including a third axis called the z axis.
This axes is at right angles to the other two, x and y, axes. The position of a vector in three dimensions
is given by three co-ordinates  x, y, z  .
z

x
 z

b
cc Fign 16 n f 3 c kc
  c  f  c f 
5
 the 3 axes x, y and z.
Shows    

1
 
For example the following is the vector 2 in and is represented geometrically by:
 
 

Fig 17

Vector addition and scalar multiplication is carried out as in the plane 2 . That is if
a
   
d 
u  b and v  e then the vector addition
   
   
   
a  d  a  d 
u v  b e    be 

     
     
Scalar multiplication is defined by
 a   ka 
ku  k b    kb 

   
   

A5 Vectors in
What does represent?
a
In the 17th century Rene Descartes used ordered pairs of real numbers, v  , to describe vectors in
 
the plane and extended it to ordered triples of real numbers,
a
v  b  , to describe vectors in 3 dimensional space. Why can’t we extend this to an

 
 
 n n
2
8 7 ,5n 41a,  5 , 6 n   v1 
b   v2
ordered quadruple of real numbers, v  n  , or n- tuples of real numbers,8 v    ?
n

8c   
   
d v
   n
In the 17th century vectors were defined as geometric objects and there was no geometric interpretation
of for n greater than 3. However in the 19th century vectors were thought of as mathematical
objects that can be added, subtracted, scalar multiplied etc so we could extend the vector definition.
An example is a system of linear equations where the number of unknowns x1, x2 , x3 , and xn is
greater than 3.
 v1   1
v   2 
A vector v   2
is called an n dimensional vector. An example is v   .
  
  
v
 n 
Hence is the set of all n dimensional vectors where signifies that the entries of the vector are
real numbers, that is v1, v2 , v3 , and vn are all real numbers. The real number v j of the vector v is
called the component or more precisely the jth component of the vector v.
This n is also called n-space or the vector space of n-tuples.
Note that the vectors are ordered n-tuples. What does this mean?
1  2 
   
    , that is the order of the components matters.
The vector v  is different from
  
  
  
How do we draw vectors in for n  4 ?
We cannot draw pictures of vectors in etc. What is the point of the n-space, n , for
n 4?
Well we can carry out vector arithmetic in n-space.
A6 Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication in
Geometric interpretation of vectors in is not possible for n  4 therefore we define vector addition
and scalar multiplication by algebraic means.
Two vectors u and v are equal if they have the same number of components and the corresponding
components are equal. How can we write this in mathematical notation?
 u1   v1 
u  v 
Let u   2
and v  2  and if

   
   
u v
 n  n
(3.2) u j  v j for j  1, 2, 3, then the vectors u  v .
 
 1    1 
For example the vectors 5 and 7 are not equal because the corresponding components are not
   
   
   
equal.

Example 3
  x  3  113  n
 5           
Let u  y 1 and v  2 . If u  v then determine the real numbers x, y and z .
 z  x  
 
Solution.
Since u  v we have
Our solution is x  4, y  1 and zx  1
3 . 1 gives x  4
y 1  2 gives y  1
z  x  3 gives z  4  3  z  1

We can also define vector addition and scalar multiplication in n .

 u1   v1 
u  v 
Let u    and v    be vectors in
2 2
then
   
   
u v
 n  n
 u1 
 1  1 1 
v u v
 u   v  u  v 
(3.3) u v   2  2    2 2 
     
     v 
u v u
 n  n  n n
The sum of the vectors u and v denoted by u  v is executed by adding the corresponding components
as formulated in (3.3). Note that u  v is also a vector in n .
Scalar multiplication k v is carried out by multiplying each component of the vector v by the real
number k:
 v1   kv1 
 v   kv 
(3.4) kv  k  2    2 
   
   
v kv
 n  n
Again k v is a vector in n .
Example 4
 3 9
1  2
Let u    and v    . Find
7  4 
   
   
(a) u  v (b) 10u (c) 3u  2v (d) u  u (e) 2u 8v
Solution.
(a) By applying (3.3) we have
 3  9   3  9   6 
1  2  1 2   3
u v       
 7   4  7  4   3 
       
5 1 5 1 4
(b) By using (3.4) we have
 n  3  310   30 
 51 1  1 5
5 1  110
5 51 5  5
 10 0
 
 10u  10             
  7   7 10   70 
0
     
5 510 50
(c) By applying both (3.3) and (3.4) we have
 3  9   3 3  9  2 
 1   2   1 3   2 2 
3u  2v  3   2      
 7   4   7  3   4  2 
5 1 5 3 1 2
       
 9   18   9 18  9 
 3   4   3 4   7 
       
 21   8  21 8   13 
       
15 2 15  2 13
(d) We have
 3  3  3  3
       
u  u           1  
7 7 7 7
       
       
 3  3   3  3  0
 1   1  11   0
       O
 7   7   7  7   0
       
       
Hence u  u gives the zero vector O.
(e) We have
 3  9   3  2    9  8 
1  2 1  2  2 8
2u  8v  2    8   
 7   4   7 2   4 8 
     52  18 
5 1
       
 6   72   6  72   66
 2   16   2 16   18
    
 14   32   14  32  18 
     10  8   
10 8 2
       
You may like to check these results of Example 4 in MATLAB.Note
that for any vector v we have
vv O
The zero vector in is denoted by O and is defined as
0
 
0
(3.5) O [All entries are zero]



There are other algebraic properties of vectors which we describe in the next section.
Why is this chapter called Euclidean Space?
Euclidean space is the space of all n-tuples of real numbers which is denoted by n.

Hence Euclidean space is the set n.

 3

2
AB CD
2
Euclid was a Greek mathematician who lived around 300BC and developed n distances and angles in the
3
plane and  uthree
1  v1 space. A more detailed profile of Euclid is given in the next section.
dimension
u  v 
Let u   2
and v  2  be vectors in n then

SUMMARY    
   
un  magnitude vas
Vectors have n well direction. Scalars only have magnitude. Vectors are normally denoted

by bold letters such as u, v, w etc. u1   v1   u1  v1 

 carried
 v out by the parallelogram
Vector addition in the plane uis u v  rule and scalar multiplication scales
u v      2 2
2 2
(3.3)
the vector according to the multiple  k.   
is also called 2-space.      
 un   vn   un  vn 
is the three dimensional space with x, y and z axis at right hand angles to each other. is also
 v1   kv1 
called 3-space.  v   kv 
(3.4)
We can extend the above  2 ton-space

k v space  2
where n is a natural number such as
    which is denoted by
1, 2, 3, 4 ,5 …    
 v n   kv n 

Double and Triple Scalar and Vector Product and physical interpretation of area and volume
Fundamental Concepts

1. Scalar quantities: mass, density, area, time, potential, temperature, speed, work, etc.
2. Vectors are physical quantities which have the property of directions and magnitude.
e.g. Velocity v , weight w , force f , etc.
3. Properties:
→
(a) The magnitude of u is denoted by u .

(b) AB  CD if and only if  , and AB and CD has the same direction.

(c) AB  BA
→
(d) Null vector, zero vector 0 , is a vector with zero magnitude i.e.  0 .
0

The direction of a zero vector is indetermine.

(e) Unit vector, uˆ or eu , is a vector with magnitude of 1 unit. I.e. u→  1.
 u
→
u

(f) → →
uˆ   u  u û

7.2 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

1. Geometric meaning of addition and subtraction.

AB  BC  CD  AD

PQ  q  p

→
2. Properties: and , w , we have
For any vectors
(a) u v  vu,
(b) u  (v  w)  (u  v)  w ,
(c) u0  0u
(d) u  (u)  (u)  u  0
N.B. (1) u  v  u  (v)
(2) c  a b  a  c b

7.3 Scalar Multiplication

When a vector a is multiplied by a scalar m, the product ma is a vector parallel to a such that
(a) The magnitude of ma is m times that of a .
(b) When m  0 , ma has the same direction as that of a ,
When m  0 , ma has the opposite direction as that of a .

These properties are illustrated in Figure.

Theorem Properties of Scalar Multiplication

Let m, n be two scalars. For any two vectors a and b , we have
 a 2  b2  c 2
a(a) c 2  (mn)a
2  b2 m(na)

(b) (m  n)a  ma  na
(c) m(a  b)  ma  mb
(d) 1a  a
(e) 0a  o
(f) 0  0

Theorem Section Formula

Let A,B and R be three collinear points.
AR m mOB  nOA
If  , then OR  .
RB n mn

Example Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Solution

Properties
(a) If a, b are two non-zero vectors, then a // b if and only if a  mb for some m  R .
(b) a  b  a  b , and a  b  a  b
Vectors in Three Dimensions

(a) We define i, j, k are vectors joining the origin O to the points (1,0,0) , (0,1,0) , (0,0,1)
respectively.
(b) i, j and k are unit vectors. i.e. i  j  k  1.
(c) To each point P(a, b, c) in R3 , there corresponds uniquely a vector OP  p  ai  bj  ck
where is called the position vector of P .
(d) p 
ai  bj  ck
(e) p

(f) Properties : p1  x1i  y1 j  z1k and p2  x2i  y2 j  z2 k . Then

(i) p1  p2 if and only if x1  x2 , y1  y2 and z1  z2 ,
(ii) p1  p2  (x1  x2 )i  ( y1  y2 ) j  (z1  z2 )k
(iii) p1  (x1i  y1 j  z1k)  x1i y1 j z1k

N.B. For convenience, we write p  (x, y, z)

Example Given two points A(6,8,10) and B(1,2,0) .

(a) Find the position vectors of A and . B .
(b) Find the unit vector in the direction of the position vector of A .
(c) If a point P divides the line segment AB in the ration 3 : 2 , find the coordinates of
P.
Example Let A( 0,2,6 ) and B( 4,2,8 )
(a) Find the position vectors of A and B . Hence find the length of AB .
 (b) If P is a point onn AB such that AP  2PB, find the coordinates of P .n
(c) Find the unit vector along OP .

Linear Combination and Linear Independence

Definition Consider a given set of vectors v1, v2 ,…, vn . A sum of the form
a1v1  a2 v2   anvn
where a1 , a2 ,…, an are scalars, is called a linear combination of v1 , v2 ,…, vn .
If a vector v can be expressed as v  a1v1  a2 v2   anvn
Then v is a linear combination of v1 , v2 ,…, vn . .

Example r  u  2v  w is a linear combination of the vectors u, v, w .

Example Consider u  (1,2,1),v  (6,4,2)  R3 , show that w  (9,27) is a linear combination of

u and v while w1  (4,1,8) is not.
Definition If v1 , v2 ,…, vn are vectors in R and if every vector in Rn can be expressed as the

linear combination of v1, v2 ,…, vn . Then we say that these vectors span (generate) R

or v1 , v 2 ,…, v n  is the set of the basis vector.

Example i, j is the set of basis vectors in R2 .

Example (1,0,0),(0,1,0),(0,0,1) is the set basis vector in R3 .

Remark :The basis vectors have an important property of linear independent which is defined as
follow:

Definition The set of vector v1, v2 ,…, vn  is said to be linear independent if and only if the
vectors equation k1v1  k2 v2   k n v n  0 has only solution k1  k2   kn  0

Definition The set of vector v1, v2 ,…, vn  is said to be linear dependent if and only if the vectors
equation k1v1  k2 v2   k n v n  0 has non-trivial solution.
(i.e. there exists some ki such that ki  0 )

Example Determine whether v1  (1,2,3),v2  (5,6,1),v3  (3,2,1) are linear independent or

dependent.

Example Let a  i  j  k, b  2i  j  k and c  j  k. Prove that

(a) a, b and c are linearly independent.
(b) any vector v in R3 can be expressed as a linear combination of a, b and c .
Example If vectors a, b and c are linearly independent, show that a  b, b  c and c  a are also
linearly independent.

Example Let a  ( 2,3  t ,1 ) , b  ( 1  t ,2,3 ) and c  ( 0,4,2  t ).

 a b
(a) Show that b and c are linearly independent for all real values of t .
ab
(b) Show that there pis only
q one real number t so that a , b and c are linearly
p qvalue of t , express a as a linear combination of b and c .
dependent.For this
Theorem
(1) A set of vectors including the zero vector must be linearly dependent.
(2) If the vector v can be expressed as a linear combination of v1, v2 ,…vn , then the set of vectors
v1 , v2 ,…vn and v are linearly dependent.
(3) If the vectors v1 , v2 ,…vn are linearly dependent, then one of the vectors can expressed as a linear
combination of the other vectors.

Example Let a  i  3 j  5k, b  i and c  3 j  5k .

Prove that a, b and c are linearly dependent.

Theorem Two non-zero vectors are linearly dependent if and only if they are parallel.

Theorem Three non-zero vectors are linearly dependent if and only if they are coplanar.

Products of Two Vectors

A. Scalar Product

Definition The scalar product or dot product or inner product of two vectors a and b , denoted by
a  b , is defined as a  b  a b cos (0     )
where  is the angle between a and b .

Remarks By definition of dot product, we can find  by cos  .

Example If a  3, b  4 and angle between a and b is 60, then

a b 6

Theorem Properties of Scalar Product

Let a, b, c be three vectors and m be a scalar. Then we have
(1) aa  a 2

(2) ab  b a
(3) a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c

(4) m(a  b)  (ma)  b  a  (mb)

(5) a  a  0 if a  0 and a  a  0 if a  0

Theorem If p  a1i  b1 j  c1k and q  a2i  b2 j  c2 k . Then

(1) p  q  a1a2  b1b2  c1c2
(2) cos = ( p, q  0)
 a1a2  b1b2  c1c2
= a12  b12  c 12 a 2 2  b 2 2  c 22

(3) p  q  0 if and only if p  q .

(4) a1a2  b1b2  c1c2  0 if and only if p  q .

Example Find the angle between the two vectors a  2i  2 j  k and b  2i  2k.

Remarks Two non-zero vectors are said to be orthogonal if their scalar product is zero.

Obviously, two perpendicular vectors must be orthogonal since   , cos  0 , and
2
so their scalar product is zero. For example, as i, j and k are mutually perpendicular,

we have i j  j k  k i  0.
Also, as i, j and k are unit vectors, i  i  j  j  k  k  1.

Example State whether the two vectors i  3 j  4k and  i  j  k are orthogonal.

Example Given two points A  (2s,s  1, s  3) and B  ( t  2,3t  1,t ) and two vectors
r1  2i  2 j  k and r2  i  j  2k
If AB is perpendicular to both r1 and r2 , find the values of s and t .

Example Let a, b and c be three coplanar vectors. If a and b are orthogonal, show that
ca c b
c a b
aa bb

Example Determine whether the following sets of vectors are orthogonal or not.
(a) a  4i  2 j and b  2i  3 j
(b) a  5i  2 j  4k and b  i  2 j  k
(c) a  3i  j  4k and b  2i  2 j  2k

Vector Product

Definition If u  (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and v  (v1, v2 , v3 ) are vectors in R3 , then the vector product and
cross product u  v is the vector defined by

uv = (u2 v3  u3v2 , u3v1  u1v3 ,u1v2  u2 v1 )

i j k
= u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3

Example Find a b , a  (a  b) and b  (a  b) if a  3i  2 j  k and b  i  4 j  k .

Example Let
i  k, b  2i  uj 
a   vk and
= c  i  2 j  2k. Find

(a) ais bu  v  u v sin en(b) bc (c) a b

(d) ac
(e) (a  b)c (f) a  (b  c)
(g) a b  b c  c  a (h) (a  b)  c  (c  b)  a
(i) [(a  b)  c]  a (j) [(a  b)  (c  a)] b
(k) a  (b  c) (l) (a  b)  c

Theorem If u and v are vectors, then

(a) u  (u  v)  0
(b) v  (u  v)  0
(c) u  v 2  u 2 v 2  (u  v)2
Proof

Remarks (i) By (c) u  v 2 = u 2 v 2  (u  v)2

= u 2 v 2  u 2 v 2 cos2  , where
 is angle between u and v .
= u 2 v 2 (1 cos2  ) = u 2 v 2 sin2 
u v sin
The another definition of u  v where en is a unit vector perpendicular to the
plane containing u and v .

(ii) u  v  v  u and u  v  v  u

(iii) i j  jk  k j 

Definition The vector product (cross product) of two vectors a and b , denoted by a b , is a
vector such that (1) its magnitude is equal to a b sin , where  is angle between a and b.

(2) perpendicular to both a and b and a, b, a  b form a right-hand system.

If a unit vector in the direction of a b is denoted by en , then we have

a  b  a b sin en (0     )

Geometrical Interpretation of Vector Product

(1) a b is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and b .
(2) The magnitude of the vector product of a and b is equal to the area of parallelogram with a and
b as its adjacent sides.
Corollary (a) Two non-zero vectors are parallel if and only if their vector product is zero.
(b) Two non-zero vectors are linearly dependent if and only if their vector product is
zero.

Theorem Properties of Vector Product

(1) a  (b  c)  a  b  a  c
(2) m(a  b)  (ma)  b  a  (mb)

Example Find a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the points A(1,2,3), B(1,4,8) and
C(5,1,2) .

Example If a  b  c  0, show that a b  b  c  c  a

Example Find the area of the triangle formed by taking A(0,2,1), B(1,1,2) and C(1,1,0) as
vertices.

Example Let OA  i  2 j  k, OB  3i  j  2k and OC  5i  j  3k .

(a) Find AB  AC .
(b) Find the area of ABC.
Hence, or otherwise, find the distance from C to AB .

Example Let a and b be two vectors in R3 such that a  a  b  b  1 and a  b  0

Let S  a  b  R3 : ,   R.

(a) Show that for all u  S , u  (u  a)a  (u  b)b

(b) For any v  R3 , let w  (v  a)a  (v  b)b. Show that for all u  S,(v  w)  u  0 .

Example Let a,b, c  R3 .

If a  (b  c)  (a  b)  c  0 , prove that a  b  b  c  c  a  0 .

Example Let u, v and w be linearly independent vectors in R3 . Show that :

u1 v1 w1
(a) If u  (u1 , u2 , u3 ) , v  (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w  (w1 , w2 , w3 ) ,then u2 v2 w2  0
u3 v3 w3

(b) If s  R3 such that s  u  s  v  s  w  0 , then s  0 .

(c) If u  (v  w)  (u  v)  w  0 , then u  v  v  w  w u  0 .
(d) If u  v  v  w  w u  0 ,
r u r v rw
then r  u v w for all r  R3 .
u u vv w w
Scalar Triple Product

Definition The scalar triple product of 3 vectors a, b and c is defined to be (a  b)  c .

Let the angle between a and b be  and that between a b and c be  .As shown in Figure, when

0  , we have
2

Volume of Parallelepiped = Base Area  Height

Geometrical Interpretation of Scalar Triple Product

The absolute value of the scalar triple product (a  b)  c is equal to the volume of the parallelepiped
with
a, b and c as its adjacent sides.
Let a , b and c be three vectors. Then
(a  b)  c  (b  c)  a  (c  a)  b

a1 a2 a3
Remarks Volume of Parallelepiped = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3

Example Let A(3,5,6), B(2,3,2) , C(1,8,8)

(a) Find the volume of parallelepiped with sides OA,OB and OC .
(b) What is the geometrical relationship about point O, A, B, C in (a).

Example A, B, C are the points (1,1,0) , (2,1,1), (1,1,1) respectively and O is the origin.
Let a  OA,b  OB and c  OC .
(a) Show that a, b and c are linearly independent.
(b) Find
(i) the area of OAB , and
(ii) the volume of tetrahedron OABC .
Solution

Matrix Transformation*

Linear transformation of a plane (reflections, rotation)

Consider the case with the point P(x, y)  P'(x', y') such that x  x', y  y'
 x'  1 0  x 
  =  0   
 y'  1 y 
1 0
r' = Ar, where A   
0  1
A is a matrix of transformation of reflection.
In general, any column vector pre-multiplied by a 2  2 matrix, it is transformed or mapped (x', y')
into another column vector.

 a b   x'  a b  x 
Example A   c d  ,  y'    c  
      
We have x'  ax  by
y'  cx  dy
If using the base vector in R2 , i.e (1,0),(0,1) .
 a b  1   a   a b  0   b 
       ,      
 c d 0
   c  c d  1   d 
then a, b, c, d can be found.
The images of the points (1,0),(0,1) under a certain transformation are known.
Therefore, the matrix is known.

Eight Simple Transformation

I. Reflection in x-axis

II. Reflection in y-axis

III. Reflection in x  y .

IV. Reflection in the line y  x

V. Quarter turn about the origin

VI. Half turn about the origin

VII. Three quarter turn about the origin

VIII. Identity Transformation

Some Special Linear Transformations on R2

I. Enlargement
 If OP  r, then OP'  kr .
k 0
A 
0 k 

II. (a) Shearing Parallel to the x-axis

The y-coordinate of a point is unchanged but the x-coordinate is changed by adding to it

(a) quantity which is equal to a multiple of the value of its y-coordinate.

(b) Shearing Parallel to the y-axis

III. Rotation

IV. Reflection about the line y  (tan )x

Example If the point P(4,2) is rotated clockwise about the origin through an angle 60, find its
final position
Solution

 x
Example A translation on R2 which transforms every point P whose position vector is p   
 
 x'   x'  x   2
To another point Q with position vector q    defined by        
       
Find the image of (a) the point (4,2) (b) the line 2x  y  0

Linear Transformation

Definition Let V and U be two sets. A mapping  :V U is called a linear transformation

from V to U if and only if it satisfies the condition:
 (au  bv)  a (u)  b (v),u, v V and a, b  R.

Example Let V be the set of 31 matrices and A be any real 33 matrix. A mapping f : V  V
Such that f (x)  Ax, x V . Show that f is linear.

In R3 , consider a linear transformation  : R 3  R 3 , let v  R3 , v  (a, b, c)  ai  bj  ck .

We are going to find the image of v under  .
 (v)   (ai  bj  ck )  a (i)  b ( j)  c (k)
Therefore,  (v) can be found if  (i), ( j) and  (k ) are known. That is to say, to specify 
completely, it is only necessary to define  (i), ( j) and  (k ) .
For instance, we define a linear transformation
 
 : R 3  R 3 by 1(i)11 2i  0j  3k, ( j)  i2 2k,2(k)  3i  2 j  2k.3
  
  (3i  2 j  4k) = 

=  4i  5 j 13k

We form a matrix A such that A =  (i)  ( j)  (k)

 2 1 3 
 
= 1 0  2
 3 2 2 
 3   2 1 3  3   4 
      
Consider A 2  =  13 02  2  =  5 
  4 2  4 13
      
The result obtained is just the same as  (3i  2 j  4k) .
The matrix A representing the linear transformation  is called the matrix representation of the
linear transformation 
Example Let  : R3  R 2 , defined by  (i)  i  2 j, ( j)   j, (k)  4i  3 j.
1 0 4 
The matrix represent representation of a linear transformation is   .
 2 1 23

1 2 
 
Example The matrix B   0 1 represents a linear transformation
 
 
 : R 2  R3 , defined by  (i)  i  k, ( j)  2i  j  k .

Example Let  , : R3  R3 be two linear transformations whose matrix representations are

respectively
 1 0  1 0 2 1
   
A   0 1 2  and B   1 1 0 .
 
 1   1 1

Find the matrix representation of  ∘  .

 x'  a b  x  2 a b
Example If       for any (x, y)  R , then   is said to be the matrix
      
representation of the transformation which transforms (x, y) to (x', y') .
Find the matrix representation of
(a) the transformation which transforms any point (x, y) to (x, y) ,
(b) the transformation which transforms any point (x, y) to ( y, x)

Example It is given that the matrix representing the reflection in the line y  (tan )x is
cos2 sin 2 
 
 sin 2  cos2
 Let T be the reflection in the line 1
y x.
2
(a) Find the matrix representation of T .
(b) The point (4,7) is transformed by T to another point (x1, y1) . Find x1 , y1 .
1
(c) The point (4,10) is reflected in the line y  x  3 to another point (x , y2 ) .
2
2
Find x2 and y2 .