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ADVANCED DATA STRUCTURE AND ALGORITHM NOTES

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Advanced DSA Asg

ADVANCED DATA STRUCTURE AND ALGORITHM NOTES

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anirudhappu45
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Assignment 1

Time and Space Complexity of Algorithms

Time and Space Complexity are two essential aspects of analyzing an algorithm's performance.
Understanding these concepts is critical for writing efficient programs that perform well under different
constraints.

Time Complexity

Time complexity refers to the amount of time an algorithm takes to complete as a function of the size of
its input. It provides a way to estimate the efficiency of an algorithm and predict its scalability. It is
expressed using Big-O notation.

Types of Time Complexity:

1. Best Case:

o The scenario where the algorithm performs the fewest number of steps.

o Example: In a linear search, the best case occurs when the target is the first element.

2. Worst Case:

o The scenario where the algorithm performs the maximum number of steps.

o Example: In a linear search, the worst case occurs when the target is not present.

3. Average Case:

o The average number of steps the algorithm takes across all inputs of the same size.

o Often used when the input is uniformly distributed.

Common Time Complexities:

1. Constant Time, O(1):

o The runtime does not depend on the input size.

o Example: Accessing an element in an array by index.

2. Logarithmic Time, O(log n):

o The runtime grows logarithmically as the input size increases.

o Example: Binary search.

3. Linear Time, O(n):

o The runtime grows linearly with the input size.

o Example: Iterating through an array.

4. Linearithmic Time, O(n log n):


o Often seen in efficient sorting algorithms.

o Example: Merge sort.

5. Quadratic Time, O(n²):

o The runtime grows proportionally to the square of the input size.

o Example: Bubble sort, insertion sort (in worst-case scenarios).

6. Exponential Time, O(2ⁿ):

o The runtime doubles with each additional input.

o Example: Recursive algorithms for the Fibonacci sequence.

7. Factorial Time, O(n!):

o Extremely inefficient; often seen in brute-force approaches.

o Example: Solving the traveling salesman problem using brute force.

Space Complexity

Space complexity refers to the amount of memory an algorithm uses as a function of the size of its input.
It includes both:

1. Auxiliary space: Extra space required by the algorithm apart from the input data.

2. Input space: Memory required to store the input data.

Factors Affecting Space Complexity:

1. Fixed Part:

o Memory needed for constants and variables.

2. Variable Part:

o Memory needed for dynamic allocation, recursion, and data structures.

Common Space Complexities:

1. Constant Space, O(1):

o The algorithm uses a fixed amount of memory.

o Example: Swapping two variables.

2. Logarithmic Space, O(log n):

o Typically seen in recursive algorithms.

o Example: Binary search.


3. Linear Space, O(n):

o Memory grows linearly with the input size.

o Example: Storing elements in an array.

4. Quadratic Space, O(n²):

o Memory usage increases quadratically with input size.

o Example: Creating a 2D matrix.

Analyzing Complexity

Steps to Analyze Time Complexity:

1. Identify loops and nested loops.

2. Count operations within loops.

3. Consider recursive calls and their depth.

4. Disregard constants and non-dominant terms for asymptotic analysis.

Steps to Analyze Space Complexity:

1. Count memory allocated for variables and data structures.

2. Account for recursive function calls (stack space).

3. Include auxiliary data structures.


Assigment 2

Basic Operations of B-Tree

A B-tree is a self-balancing search tree commonly used in databases and file systems. It maintains sorted
data in a way that allows for efficient insertion, deletion, and search operations, even with large amounts
of data. Below is a detailed explanation of the basic operations of a B-tree:

Search Operation

The search operation in a B-tree finds whether a specific key exists in the tree and, if so, retrieves it.

Steps:

1. Start at the root node.

2. Traverse the keys in the node:

o If the key matches a key in the current node, return it.

o If the key is smaller than the current key, move to the left child of the current key.

o If the key is larger, move to the right child of the current key.

3. Repeat the process in the child node.

4. If the key is not found and a leaf node is reached, conclude that the key does not exist.

Complexity:

• Time Complexity: O(log n), where n is the number of keys.

• The height of the B-tree is proportional to log(n), making search efficient.

Insertion Operation

Inserts a key into the B-tree while maintaining the properties of the B-tree:

• Each node has a maximum of 2t - 1 keys (for order t).

• All leaves are at the same depth.

Steps:

1. Find the Appropriate Leaf:

o Use the search-like process to locate the correct leaf node where the key should be
inserted.

2. Insert the Key:

o If the leaf node has fewer than 2t - 1 keys, simply insert the key in sorted order.

o If the leaf node is full:


▪ Split the Node: Split the full node into two nodes, each containing t - 1 keys.

▪ Promote a Key: Move the middle key of the full node up to the parent node.

▪ Repeat this process recursively if necessary, splitting the parent if it becomes


full.

3. If the root node is split, create a new root node, increasing the height of the tree.

Complexity:

• Time Complexity: O(log n) for search + O(t) for insertion into a node = O(log n).

• Splitting and promoting operations are performed in constant time.

Deletion Operation

Removes a key from the B-tree while ensuring the B-tree properties are maintained.

Cases:

1. Key in a Leaf Node:

o Simply remove the key.

o No restructuring is needed.

2. Key in an Internal Node:

o Replace the key with the largest key in the left subtree or the smallest key in the right
subtree (predecessor or successor).

o Recursively delete the replacement key.

3. Key Causes Underflow (Less Than t - 1 Keys):

o If the child node has fewer than t keys after deletion:

▪ Borrow a Key from a Sibling:

▪ If a sibling has more than t - 1 keys, move a key from the sibling to the
underflowed node.

▪ Merge with a Sibling:

▪ If neither sibling has extra keys, merge the underflowed node with a
sibling and move a key from the parent to the merged node.

o Repeat the process up the tree if necessary.

Complexity:

• Time Complexity: O(log n).


• Balancing operations such as borrowing or merging occur in constant time per level.

Traversal Operations

Purpose:

Visit all keys in the B-tree in a specific order, typically used for printing or processing the keys.

Types:

1. Inorder Traversal:

o Visit keys in sorted order.

o Process all keys in the left subtree, then the current node, followed by the right subtree.

2. Preorder Traversal:

o Visit keys in a node before visiting their children.

o Useful for copying or saving the structure of the tree.

3. Postorder Traversal:

o Visit keys in children before visiting the current node.

o Useful for deleting the tree.

Complexity:

• Time Complexity: O(n), where n is the total number of keys in the B-tree.

Split Operation

Handles overflow in a node when inserting a new key.

Steps:

1. Identify the middle key in the full node.

2. Split the node into two new nodes:

o Left node contains the first t - 1 keys.

o Right node contains the last t - 1 keys.

3. Promote the middle key to the parent node.

4. Adjust the child pointers to reflect the new structure.


Merge Operation

Handles underflow in a node during deletion.

Steps:

1. Merge an underflowed node with a sibling.

2. Move a key from the parent node to the merged node.

3. Adjust child pointers accordingly.

4. If the parent becomes underflowed, repeat the process recursively.

Height of B-Tree

The height of a B-tree determines its efficiency:

• For a B-tree of order t with n keys: h≤log⁡t(n+12)h \leq \log_t(\frac{n + 1}{2})h≤logt(2n+1) This
ensures logarithmic performance for all operations.
Assignment 3

Floyd-Warshall Algorithm

The Floyd-Warshall algorithm is a cornerstone in graph theory, designed to calculate the shortest paths
between all pairs of vertices in a weighted graph. It operates on both directed and undirected graphs
and accommodates negative edge weights, provided there are no negative weight cycles. Unlike single-
source shortest path algorithms such as Dijkstra's, the Floyd-Warshall algorithm simultaneously
considers all possible pairs of vertices, making it particularly effective in scenarios requiring
comprehensive shortest path solutions, such as network analysis and route optimization.

The algorithm is grounded in the principle of dynamic programming. It iteratively improves the shortest
path estimates by introducing intermediate vertices into consideration. Initially, the distance matrix
represents the direct edge weights between vertices; if no edge exists, the distance is set to infinity
(∞\infty∞). The algorithm then explores whether including an intermediate vertex kkk can create a
shorter path between two vertices uuu and vvv. Mathematically, the distance d[u][v]d[u][v]d[u][v] is
updated as min⁡(d[u][v],d[u][k]+d[k][v])\min(d[u][v], d[u][k] + d[k][v])min(d[u][v],d[u][k]+d[k][v]),
effectively checking if the path u→k→vu \to k \to vu→k→v is shorter than the direct path u→vu \to
vu→v. By iterating through all possible intermediate vertices and all pairs of vertices, the algorithm
ensures that the final distance matrix represents the shortest paths between every pair.

One of the strengths of the Floyd-Warshall algorithm is its ability to detect negative weight cycles. If the
diagonal of the distance matrix (representing the distance from a vertex to itself) contains a negative
value after all iterations, the graph contains a negative weight cycle, indicating that no shortest path
exists for some pairs of vertices.

The algorithm's time complexity is O(V3)O(V^3)O(V3), where VVV is the number of vertices, due to the
triple nested loops that examine all vertex pairs and intermediates. Its space complexity is
O(V2)O(V^2)O(V2), reflecting the memory required for the distance matrix. This cubic time complexity
makes the Floyd-Warshall algorithm less efficient for very large graphs or sparse graphs compared to
alternatives like Dijkstra’s or Bellman-Ford algorithms, which focus on single-source shortest paths.

Despite its limitations in scalability, the Floyd-Warshall algorithm is widely used in real-world
applications. In network routing, it helps compute the shortest paths between routers or devices,
ensuring efficient data transfer. It is also used in traffic flow analysis to determine optimal routes
between intersections and in computational biology for analyzing genetic sequence similarities. Another
common use is finding transitive closures in databases, where it determines if there is a direct or indirect
connection between two entities.

The algorithm’s straightforward implementation and adaptability to handle negative weights make it a
popular choice for dense graphs or situations where comprehensive all-pairs shortest path information is
required. However, when applied to sparse graphs or very large datasets, its computational demands
necessitate consideration of alternative algorithms better suited for those contexts. By balancing its
versatility and computational overhead, the Floyd-Warshall algorithm remains an essential tool in graph
analysis and optimization tasks.
Applications

1. Network Routing:

o Used in computer networks to find the shortest paths between routers or nodes,
ensuring efficient data packet delivery.

o Helps in determining optimal routing tables.

2. Traffic Management:

o In transportation and logistics, it identifies the shortest or fastest routes between


intersections or hubs.

o Used in road networks to calculate minimum travel times between locations.

3. Transitive Closure:

o Determines whether a path exists between two vertices in a directed graph.

o Common in database management systems to query indirect relationships.

4. Computational Biology:

o Analyzes similarities in genetic sequences by computing minimal transformation


distances.

5. Social Network Analysis:

o Measures the shortest connection paths between individuals in social graphs.

o Useful for identifying influencers or analyzing network centrality.

6. Game Theory:

o In board games or network-based games, computes paths between various nodes or


positions.

7. Finance and Profit Optimization:

o Analyzes profitability in systems with interdependencies, such as multi-market trading.

8. Geographic Information Systems (GIS):

o Helps find shortest paths in geographical data, aiding in navigation and spatial analysis.
Advantages

1. Comprehensive Pathfinding:

o Computes shortest paths between all pairs of vertices in a single execution, making it
suitable for dense graphs.

2. Handles Negative Weights:

o Unlike Dijkstra’s algorithm, it can work with graphs containing negative edge weights,
which are useful in scenarios like debt and profit modeling.

3. Simple Implementation:

o The algorithm’s matrix-based approach is straightforward to implement and understand.

4. Cycle Detection:

o It can detect negative weight cycles by checking the diagonal of the distance matrix for
negative values.

5. Wide Applicability:

o Supports various graph-related problems across different domains such as routing,


connectivity, and optimization.

Disadvantages

1. High Computational Cost:

o With a time complexity of O(V3)O(V^3)O(V3), it becomes inefficient for graphs with a


very large number of vertices, especially sparse graphs.

2. Space Usage:

o Requires O(V2)O(V^2)O(V2) memory to store the distance matrix, which can be


prohibitive for large graphs.

3. Unsuitable for Dynamic Graphs:

o Does not efficiently handle changes to the graph, such as adding or removing edges, as
the entire computation must be redone.

4. Limited to Weighted Graphs:

o Only applicable to graphs where edge weights are defined.

5. Inefficient for Single-Source Problems:

o When only the shortest paths from one source are needed, algorithms like Dijkstra or
Bellman-Ford are faster and more space-efficient.
Assignment 4

Greedy Algorithm

A greedy algorithm is a problem-solving approach that builds up a solution step by step, choosing the
most optimal choice at each stage with the hope that this leads to the overall optimal solution. It is
widely used in optimization problems, where the goal is to maximize or minimize some quantity.

The central idea of the greedy algorithm is local optimization—making the best choice at each step
without considering the global implications. Greedy algorithms are typically faster and simpler to
implement than other approaches, such as dynamic programming or backtracking. However, they are
not always guaranteed to produce the optimal solution for every problem.

Characteristics of Greedy Algorithms

1. Greedy Choice Property:

o A globally optimal solution can be arrived at by choosing the best local option at every
step.

2. Optimal Substructure:

o The problem can be divided into smaller subproblems, and the optimal solution of these
subproblems leads to the optimal solution of the entire problem.

3. Non-Reversible Decisions:

o Once a decision is made, it cannot be revisited or altered later.

4. Efficient:

o Often, greedy algorithms have a time complexity lower than exhaustive search
techniques.

Steps in Designing a Greedy Algorithm

1. Define the Problem:

o Clearly specify the objective, constraints, and the type of solution required (e.g.,
maximum profit, shortest path).

2. Formulate the Greedy Choice:

o Identify the best local choice to make at each step.

3. Verify the Greedy Properties:

o Ensure that the problem has the greedy choice property and optimal substructure.
4. Implement the Algorithm:

o Start from an initial state and iteratively make greedy choices until the desired solution is
achieved.

Applications

1. Graph Algorithms:

o Dijkstra’s Algorithm: Finds the shortest path from a source vertex to all other vertices in
a weighted graph.

o Prim’s Algorithm: Finds the minimum spanning tree of a graph.

o Kruskal’s Algorithm: Finds the minimum spanning tree using edge sorting.

2. Scheduling Problems:

o Activity Selection Problem: Selects the maximum number of non-overlapping activities.

o Job Sequencing Problem: Assigns jobs to maximize profit.

3. Optimization Problems:

o Huffman Coding: Generates an optimal prefix code to compress data.

o Fractional Knapsack Problem: Maximizes value for a given weight capacity by taking
fractions of items.

4. Set Cover and Approximation:

o Finds a subset of sets that cover all elements of a universal set, often used in resource
allocation problems.

5. Other Applications:

o Coin Change Problem: Finds the minimum number of coins required for a given amount.

o Greedy Coloring: Assigns colors to vertices of a graph such that no two adjacent vertices
have the same color.

Advantages of Greedy Algorithms

1. Simplicity:

o Greedy algorithms are easy to understand and implement due to their straightforward
decision-making process.

2. Efficiency:
o They often run faster than other approaches because they focus only on the current
decision without exploring all possibilities.

3. Good for Certain Problems:

o They provide optimal solutions for problems that exhibit the greedy choice property and
optimal substructure.

4. Resource-Friendly:

o They use less memory compared to techniques like dynamic programming, which often
require additional storage for memoization.

Disadvantages of Greedy Algorithms

1. May Not Provide Optimal Solutions:

o For problems without the greedy choice property, the solution might be suboptimal.

2. Lack of Flexibility:

o Once a choice is made, it cannot be revisited, which might lead to poor decisions in the
long run.

3. Problem-Specific:

o Greedy algorithms are not universal; they only work for specific problems where their
properties hold.

4. Requires Careful Analysis:

o The greedy choice must be validated to ensure correctness, which can be non-trivial.
Assignment 5

Polynomial-Time Verification

Polynomial-time verification is a fundamental concept in computational complexity theory, particularly


in understanding the complexity of decision problems and the distinction between different complexity
classes such as P and NP. It refers to the ability to verify whether a given solution to a problem is correct
or valid within a time that grows polynomially with the size of the input.

A decision problem is said to have polynomial-time verification if:

1. There exists a verifier algorithm that can check whether a provided solution (also called a
"certificate" or "witness") is valid for the given problem.

2. The time taken by the verifier algorithm is bounded by a polynomial function of the input size.

Formally, if the input size is nnn, and the verifier runs in O(nk)O(n^k)O(nk) time for some constant kkk,
the problem is considered polynomial-time verifiable.

1. Input Instance:

o The actual problem instance or question for which a solution needs to be verified.

2. Certificate:

o A proposed solution or proof provided alongside the input instance. It acts as evidence
that the input satisfies the problem's requirements.

3. Verifier Algorithm:

o A deterministic algorithm that takes the input instance and certificate as inputs and
verifies whether the certificate correctly solves the problem.

4. Polynomial Bound:

o The verifier must complete its operation in polynomial time relative to the size of the
input, ensuring feasibility for practical computation.

Examples

Hamiltonian Cycle Problem:

o Problem: Does a graph contain a Hamiltonian cycle (a cycle visiting each vertex exactly
once)?

o Certificate: A sequence of vertices that represents a Hamiltonian cycle.

o Verification: The verifier checks if the sequence forms a valid cycle and visits all vertices
exactly once. This can be done in O(V2)O(V^2)O(V2), where VVV is the number of
vertices, which is polynomial.
2. Subset Sum Problem:

o Problem: Is there a subset of a given set of integers that sums to a specified target?

o Certificate: A subset of integers.

o Verification: The verifier checks if the sum of the subset equals the target. This can be
done in O(n)O(n)O(n), where nnn is the size of the subset, which is polynomial.

3. Boolean Satisfiability (SAT):

o Problem: Does a given Boolean formula have a satisfying assignment?

o Certificate: A truth assignment for the variables.

o Verification: The verifier evaluates the formula using the truth assignment and checks if
it evaluates to true. This takes linear time relative to the formula size, which is
polynomial.

Complexity Classes and Polynomial-Time Verification

1. Class P:

o Contains decision problems that can be solved in polynomial time.

o For problems in P, finding a solution and verifying a solution are both polynomial-time
operations.

2. Class NP:

o Stands for "Nondeterministic Polynomial Time."

o Contains decision problems for which a solution can be verified in polynomial time, even
if finding the solution itself may not be feasible in polynomial time.

3. P vs NP:

o The central question in complexity theory is whether every problem that can be verified
in polynomial time (NP) can also be solved in polynomial time (P). In other words, is
P=NPP = NPP=NP?

Applications

1. Cryptography:

o Verifying digital signatures or cryptographic proofs often involves polynomial-time


verification, ensuring secure and efficient authentication.

2. Optimization Problems:
o Problems like the traveling salesman problem or knapsack problem rely on verifying
solutions in practical scenarios.

3. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning:

o Verifying the feasibility of a given solution or model in tasks like constraint satisfaction.

4. Database Systems:

o Verifying the correctness of query results or transaction consistency.

Advantages

1. Feasibility:

o Allows quick validation of solutions, making it practical for real-world applications.

2. Scalability:

o Handles larger input sizes effectively compared to exponential-time approaches.

3. Insight into Problem Complexity:

o Provides a structured way to classify problems based on their computational difficulty.

Limitations

1. Finding Solutions May Still Be Hard:

o Even if verification is polynomial, finding the solution might still require non-polynomial
time.

2. Not Applicable to All Problems:

o Problems like those in class EXPTIME (exponential time) may not have polynomial-time
verification.

3. Assumes Availability of a Certificate:

o Verification requires the existence of a certificate, which might not always be provided in
practical situations.

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