Cambridge O Level Biology Your notes

11.1 Circulatory System

Contents
Circulatory System
 Circulatory System
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Circulatory System
The circulatory system is a system of blood vessels with a pump and valves to ensure one-way flow
of blood
Circulatory System Diagram
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An example of a double circulatory system

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Double Circulation
Circulatory Systems in Fish Your notes
Fish have a two-chambered heart and a single circulation
This means that for each circuit of the body, the blood passes through the heart once
Single Circulation Diagram
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The single circulatory system in sh

Circulatory systems in Mammals

Mammals have a four-chambered heart and a double circulation
This means that for each circuit of the body, the blood passes through the heart twice
The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs (the
pulmonary circulation)
The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body (the
systemic circulation)
Double Circulation Diagram
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 The double circulatory system in mammals

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Advantages of Double Circulation
Blood travelling through the small capillaries in the lungs loses a lot of pressure that was given to it by
the pumping of the heart, meaning it cannot travel as fast
By returning the blood to the heart after going through the lungs its pressure can be raised again
before sending it to the body, meaning cells can be supplied with the oxygen and glucose they need
for respiration faster and more frequently
Because the left side of the heart has to pump the blood much further and, in some cases, against
gravity (e.g. to the human brain), it is advantageous to increase its pressure in order to reach those
areas with su cient ow and supply of oxygen and nutrients
 Cambridge O Level Biology Your notes

11.2 The Heart

Contents
The Mammalian Heart
Functioning of the Heart
Monitoring Activity of the Heart
Investigating Effect of Physical Activity on Heart Rate
Coronary Heart Disease
 The Mammalian Heart
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The Mammalian Heart
The heart is labelled as if it was in the chest so what is your left on a diagram is actually the right-hand
side and vice versa
The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs
The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the
body
Blood is pumped into the heart in veins and away from the heart in arteries
The two sides of the heart are separated by a muscle wall called the septum
The heart is made of muscle tissue which is supplied with blood by the coronary arteries

Exterior heart structure diagram

The exterior view of the heart shows coronary arteries across the surface; these supply blood to the
heart muscle itself

Interior heart structure diagram

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The interior view of the heart allows the four chambers to be seen clearly
Identifying Structures in the Heart
The ventricles have thicker muscle walls than the atria as they pump blood out of the heart and so need Your notes
to generate a higher pressure
The left ventricle has a thicker muscle wall than the right ventricle as it has to pump blood at high
pressure around the entire body, whereas the right ventricle pumps blood at lower pressure to the
lungs
The septum separates the two sides of the heart and prevents the mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood

The structure of the heart shows the di erent valves

The function of valves

The basic function of all valves is to prevent blood from flowing backwards
There are two sets of valves in the heart:
The atrioventricular valves separate the atria from the ventricles
These valves are pushed open when the atria contract but when the ventricles contract they are Your notes
pushed shut to prevent blood from owing back into the atria
The semi-lunar valves are found in the two blood arteries that come out of the top of the heart
They are unusual in that they are the only two arteries in the body that contain valves
These valves open when the ventricles contract so blood squeezes past them out of the heart,
but then close to avoid blood owing back into the heart
 Functioning of the Heart
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Functioning of the Heart
Deoxygenated blood coming from the body f l ows into the right atrium via the vena cava
Once the right atrium has lled with blood, the heart gives a little beat and the blood is pushed through
the atrioventricular valve into the right ventricle
The walls of the ventricle contract and the blood is pushed into the pulmonary artery through the
semilunar valve, which prevents blood from owing backwards into the heart
The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the capillaries past the alveoli where gas exchange
takes place
This is why there has to be low pressure on this side of the heart – blood is going directly to
capillaries which would burst under higher pressure
Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein
It passes through the atrioventricular valve into the left ventricle
The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract to push the blood forcefully into the aorta and all the
way around the body
The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood from owing back down into the heart
 Monitoring Activity of the Heart
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Monitoring Activity of the Heart
Heart activity can be monitored by using an ECG, measuring pulse rate or listening to the sounds of
valves closing using a stethoscope
Heart rate (and pulse rate) is measured in beats per minute (bpm)
Measuring pulse diagram

Pulse can be detected where an artery passes over a bone, such as the radial artery (in the wrist) and the
carotid artery (in the neck)

CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

A stethoscope can be used to listen for heartbeats in order to calculate pulse rate
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Many wearable devices, such as this f i tness watch, can record pulse rate

To investigate the effects of exercise on heart rate, record the pulse rate at rest for a minute
Immediately after exercise, record the pulse rate every minute until it returns to the resting rate
This experiment will show that during exercise the heart rate increases and may take several minutes to
return to normal
 Investigating Effect of Physical Activity on Heart Rate
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Investigating Effect of Physical Activity on Heart Rate
It is relatively simple to investigate the effects of exercise on the body in the
classroom Breathing rate can be measured by counting the number of breaths per
minute,
1 inhalation + 1 exhalation = 1 complete breath
Heart rate can be measured by taking a pulse
Either can be measured before and after an activity is performed and the results plotted on a bar chart
It is important that the time over which breathing rate and pulse rate are measured is consistent,
and that individuals fully recover (rest) before starting a new activity
Increased physical activity results in an increased heart rate and breathing rate
Heart rate remains high for a period of time after the physical activity has stopped, there is a
gradual return to the resting heart rate

Explaining the Effect of Physical Activity on the Heart Rate

So that sufficient blood is taken to the working muscles to provide them with enough nutrients and
oxygen for increased respiration
An increase in heart rate also allows for waste products to be removed at a faster rate
Following exercise, the heart continues to beat faster for a while to ensure that all excess waste
products are removed from muscle cells
It is also likely that muscle cells have been respiring anaerobically during exercise and so have built up
an oxygen debt
This needs to be ‘repaid’ following exercise so the heart continues to beat faster to ensure that extra
oxygen is still being delivered to muscle cells
The extra oxygen is used to break down the lactic acid that has been built up in cells as a result of
anaerobic respiration
 Coronary Heart Disease
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Coronary Heart Disease
The heart is made of muscle cells that need their own supply of blood to deliver oxygen, glucose and
other nutrients and remove carbon dioxide and other waste products
The blood is supplied by the coronary arteries
A coronary artery can become partially or completely blocked by fatty deposits called ‘plaques’
(mainly formed from saturated fat and cholesterol)
The coronary arteries lose elasticity, meaning they cannot stretch to accommodate the blood
which is being forced through them; this leads to coronary heart disease, or CHD
Partial blockage of the coronary arteries creates a restricted blood ow to the cardiac muscle cells
and results in severe chest pains called angina
Complete blockage means cells in that area of the heart will not be able to respire and can no longer
contract, leading to a heart attack
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Plaque can build up in the coronary arteries, reducing the supply of blood to the heart muscle

The e ect of CHD on the coronary arteries diagram

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CHD can lead to a heart attack

Risk factors for CHD table

Factor Explanation

Eating more saturated fat increases cholesterol levels, increasing the

Poor diet
chance of the buildup of fatty plaques.
 When under stress, hormones produced can increase blood pressure,
Stress
increasing the chance of a blockage in the coronary arteries.
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Nicotine in cigarettes will cause blood vessels to become narrower,
Smoking increasing blood pressure which will cause the buildup of fat globules. If
this occurs in the coronary artery, this will cause coronary heart disease.

Studies show that people with a family history of coronary heart disease
Genetic
are more likely to develop it themselves, suggesting it partly has a genetic
predisposition
basis.
The risk of developing coronary heart disease increases as a person gets
Age
older.

Gender Males are more likely to develop coronary heart disease than females.

Diet, Exercise & Coronary Heart Disease

Reducing the risks of developing coronary heart disease
Quit smoking
Diet - reduce animal fats and eat more fruits and vegetables - this will reduce cholesterol levels in the
blood and help with weight loss if overweight
Exercise regularly - again, this will help with weight loss, decrease blood pressure and cholesterol
levels and help reduce stress
 Cambridge O Level Biology Your notes

11.3 Blood Vessels

Contents
Blood Vessels
Circulation Around the Body
Structure & Function of Blood Vessels
 Blood Vessels
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Arteries, Veins & Capillaries
Arteries
Carry blood at high pressure away from the heart
Carry oxygenated blood (other than the pulmonary artery)
Have thick muscular walls containing elastic fibres
Have a narrow lumen
The speed of flow is fast
Veins
Carry blood at low pressure towards the heart
Carry deoxygenated blood (other than the pulmonary vein)
Have thin walls
Have a large lumen
Contain valves (to prevent the back ow of blood)
The speed of flow is slow
Comparison of Arteries and Veins Diagram
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Comparing arteries and veins

Capillaries
Carry blood at low pressure within tissues
Carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
Have walls that are one cell thick
Have ‘leaky’ walls
In some capillaries, the lumen is only wide enough for red blood cells to pass through in single- le
The speed of flow is slow
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Structure of a capillary
 Circulation Around the Body
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Main Blood Vessels in the Body
Blood is carried away from the heart and towards organs in arteries
These narrow to arterioles and then capillaries as they pass through the organ
The capillaries widen to venules and finally veins as they move away from the
organs Veins carry blood back toward the heart
Circulatory System Diagram
 The circulatory system

Important blood vessels table Your notes

Organ Towards organ Away from organ

Heart Vena cava, pulmonary

Aorta, pulmonary artery
vein

Lung Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein

Kidney Renal artery Renal vein

Hepatic artery
Liver Hepatic portal vein (from Hepatic vein
the intestines)
 Structure & Function of Blood Vessels
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How Structure of Blood Vessels is Adapted to their Function
Arteries
Have thick, muscular walls containing elastic fibres to withstand the high pressure of blood and
maintain the blood pressure as it recoils after the blood has passed through
Have a narrow lumen to maintain high pressure
Veins
Have a wide lumen as blood pressure is low
Contain valves to prevent the back ow of blood as it is under low pressure
Capillaries
Have walls that are one cell thick so that substances can easily di use in and out of them
Have ‘leaky’ walls so that blood plasma can leak out and form tissue uid surrounding the
neighbouring cells
Are narrow so that red blood cells have to touch the sides as they pass through in single- l
This reduces the di usion distance for gas exchange as the cells bind/release oxygen molecules

Adaptations of Blood Vessels Diagram

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Adaptations of blood vessels

Arterioles and venules

As arteries divide more as they get further away from the heart, they get narrower
The narrow vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called arterioles
Veins also get narrower the further away they are from the heart
The narrow vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called venules
The Blood Vessel Network Diagram
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The blood vessel network

 Cambridge O Level Biology Your notes

11.4 Blood
Contents
Components of Blood
Tissue Fluid
 Components of Blood
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Components of Blood
Blood consists of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma
Blood composition diagrams
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Human blood contains red and white blood cells, platelets, and plasma

Components of the blood table

Component Structure
Red blood cells Biconcave discs containing no nucleus to maximise the
available capacity to carry the protein haemoglobin

White blood cells Large cells containing a large nucleus; different types have
slightly different structures and functions

Platelets Fragments of cells

Plasma Clear, straw-coloured aqueous solution
Identifying Red & White Blood Cells
You need to be able to identify red and white blood cells in photomicrographs and diagrams Your notes
Red blood cells have a concave disc shape with no nucleus
White blood cells are usually round in shape with a nucleus
There are different types of white blood cell, including lymphocytes and phagocytes
Blood micrograph diagram

Blood cells can be seen using a microscope. The white blood cells labelled here can be identi ed as a
lymphocyte (top) and a phagocyte (bottom)

Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes produce antibodies
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins with a shape that is complementary to the antigens on the
surface of the pathogen
This is a specific immune response as the antibodies produced will only t one type of antigen
Lymphocytes can easily be recognised under the microscope by their large, round nucleus which
takes up nearly the whole cell and their clear, non-granular cytoplasm
Lymphocyte diagram
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Lymphocytes can be recognised under a microscope by their large, round nucleus

Phagocytes
Phagocytes carry out phagocytosis by engulfing and digesting pathogens
Phagocytes have a sensitive cell surface membrane that can detect chemicals produced by
pathogenic cells
Once they encounter the pathogenic cell, they will engulf it and release digestive enzymes to
digest it
This is a non-specific immune response
Phagocytes can be easily recognised under the microscope by their multi-lobed nucleus and their
granular cytoplasm
Phagocyte diagram
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Phagocytes have a multilobed nucleus; this gives the cell exibility for engulfing pathogens in
phagocytosis
Components of Blood: Function
Plasma is important for the transport of blood cells, carbon dioxide, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, Your notes
mineral ions, hormones, plasma proteins and urea
Red blood cells transport oxygen around the body from the lungs to cells which require it for aerobic
respiration
They carry oxygen in the form of oxyhaemoglobin
White blood cells defend the body against infection by pathogens
Lymphocytes produce antibodies
Phagocytes engulf and digest pathogens
Platelets are involved in helping the blood clot

Platelet function
Platelets are fragments of cells that are involved in blood clotting where the skin has been cut or
punctured
When the skin is broken, platelets arrive to stop the bleeding
A series of reactions occur within the blood plasma
Platelets release chemicals that cause soluble fibrinogen proteins to convert into insoluble fibrin and
form an insoluble mesh across the wound, trapping red blood cells and therefore forming a clot
The clot eventually dries and develops into a scab; this prevents further blood loss and acts as a
barrier to pathogens
Platelet function diagram
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Soluble brinogen is converted into insoluble brin to form a blood clot

 Tissue Fluid
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Tissue Fluid
Plasma is a straw-coloured liquid that constitutes around 55% of the blood
Plasma is largely composed of water (95%) and because water is a good solvent, many substances
can dissolve in it, allowing them to be transported around the body
As blood passes through capillaries, some plasma is forced out (under pressure) through gaps in the
walls of the capillary to surround the cells of the body
This results in the formation of tissue fluid

The composition of plasma and tissue fluid are virtually the same, although tissue fluid contains far
fewer proteins
Proteins are too large to cross through gaps in the capillary walls and so remain in the blood

Tissue fluid bathes almost all the cells of the body outside of the circulatory system
The exchange of substances between cells and the blood occurs via the tissue uid
For example, carbon dioxide produced in aerobic respiration will leave a cell, dissolve into the
tissue fluid surrounding it, and then diffuse into the capillary
This is how all substances are exchanged between cells and their surroundings in large,
multicellular organisms

Formation of Tissue Fluid Diagram

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Formation of tissue uid