CHAPTER

ELEVEN
COMPRESSORS

11-1 Types of compressors Each of the four components of a vapor-compression

system-the compressor, the condenser, the expansion device, and the evaporator-
has its own peculiar behavior. At the same time, each component is influenced by
conditions imposed by the other members of the quartet. A change in -condenser-
water temperature, for example, may change the rate of refrigerant the compressor
pumps, which in turn may require the expansion valve to readjust and the refrigerant
in the evaporator to change pressure. We shall first study the components of the vapor-
compression cycle singly, analyzing their performance as individuals, and then observe
how they interact with each other as a system. The compressor is the first component
to be analyzed.
The heart of the vapor-compression system is the compressor. The four most
common types of refrigeration compressors are the reciprocating, screw, centrifugal,
and vane. The reciprocating compressor consists of a piston moving back and forth in
a cylinder with suction and discharge valves arranged to allow pumping to take place.
The screw, centrifugal, and vane compressors all use rotating elements, the screw and
vane compressors are positive-displacement machines, and the centrifugal compressor
operates by virtue of centrifugal force. The four parts of this chapter examine each of
these types of compressors. ·

PART I: RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

The workhorse of the refrigeration industry is the reciprocating compressor, built in

sizes ranging from fractional-kilowatt to hundreds of kilowatts refrigeration capacity.
Modern compressors are single-acting and may be single-cylinder or multicylinder.
In multicylinder compressors the cylinders are in V, W, radial, or in-line arrangements.

205
 206 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

t
t

Figure 11-1 A 16-cylinder reciprocating compressor for ammonia. (Vilter Manufacturing

Corporation.)

The compressor in Fig. 11-1 has 16 cylinders, 2 in each of the heads. During the
suction stroke of the piston, low-pressure refrigerant gas is drawn in through the
suction valve, which may be located in the piston or in the head. During the discharge
stroke the piston compresses the refrigerant and then pushes it out through the dis-
charge valve, which is usually located in the cylinder head.
Following the trend of most rotative machinery, the operating speed of com-
pressors has generally increased in the past 20 years. From the slow speeds of early
compressors of about 2 or 3 r/s, the speeds have increased until compressors today
operate at speeds as high as 60 r/s.

11-2 Hermetically sealed compressors A compressor whose crankshaft extends

through the compressor housing so that a motor can be externally coupled to the shaft
is called an open-type compressor. A seal must be used where the shaft comes through
the compressor housing to prevent refrigerant gas from leaking out or air from leaking
in if the crankcase pressure is lower than atmospheric. Even though designers have con-
tinually developed hetter seals, piercing of the housing always represents a source of
leakage. To avoid leakage at the seal, the motor and compressor are often enclosed in
the same housing, as shown in the cutaway view in Fig. 11-2.
Improved techniques for insulating the motor electrically have allowed motors to
operate even though they are in contact with the refrigerant. In many designs the cold
suction gas is drawn across the motor to keep the motor cool. Almost all small motor-
compressor combinations used in refrigerators, freezers, and residential air conditioners
are of the hermetic type. The only connections to the compressor housing are the
 COMPRESSORS 207

Figure 11-2 Cutaway view of a hermetically sealed compressor. (Carlyle Compressor Company,
Carrier Corporation.)

suction and discharge fittings and electric terminals. Moisture in the system can be
damaging to the motor; therefore dehydration of hermetic units before charging is
essential. On larger hermetically sealed units the cylinder heads are usually removable
'--· .
so that the valves and pistons can be serviced. This type of unit is called semihermetic.

11-3 Condensing units The compressor and the condenser of a system are conve-
niently combined into a condensing unit (Fig. 11-3). The motor, compressor, and con-
denser may be compactly mounted on the same frame and located remotely from the
expansion valve and evaporator.

114 Performance Two of the most important performance characteristics of a

compressor are its refrigeration capacity and its power requirement. These two char-
acteristics of a compressor operating at constant speed are controlled largely by
the suction and discharge pressures. An analysis will be made first of an ideal re-
ciprocating compressor because it affords a clearer understanding of the effects of
these two pressures. Trends established from a study of the ideal compressor hold true
for the actual compressor, although adjustments must be made in the numerical quan-
tities. These adjustments will be examined in the discussion of the actual compressor.

11-5 Volumetric efficiency Volumetric efficiencies are the bases for predicting per-
formance of reciprocating compressors. Two types of volumetric efficiencies will be
 208 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Figure 11-3 Compressor and condenser combined into a condensing unit. (The Trane Company.)

considered in this chapter, actual and clearance. The actual volumetric efficiency
11va is defined by
volume flow rate entering compressor, m 3 /s
11 = X 100 (11-1)
va displacement rate of compressor, m3 /s
where the displacement rate is the volume swept through by the pistons in their suction
strokes per unit time.
Clearance volumetric efficiency depends on the reexpansion of gas trapped in the
clearance volume and can be best explained by showing a pressure-volume diagram of a
compressor, as in Fig. 11-4. The maximum volume in the cylinder, which occurs when
the piston is at one end of its stroke, is V 3 . The minimum volume, or clearance volume,
is Ve, which occurs at the other end of the piston stroke. The discharge pressure is Pd·
In the first instance, assume that the suction pressure is p 1 . Gas trapped in the
clearance volume must first expand to volume V 1 before the pressure in the cylinder is
low enough for the suction valves to open and draw in more gas. The volume of gas
drawn into the cylinder will be V 3 - V 1 , and the clearance volumetric efficiency 11vc
for this case is (V3 - V1 ) {100)/(V3 - Ve). When the suction pressure isp 2 , the intake
portion of the stroke is reduced to V 3 - V 2 . In the extreme case where the suction
pressure has dropped to p 3 , the piston uses its entire stroke to reexpand the gas in the
clearance volume and the clearance volumetric efficiency is O percent.
The clearance volumetric efficiency can be expressed in another way, illustrated in
Fig. 11-4 using p 1 as the suction pressure. The percent clearance m, which is constant
for a given compressor, is defined as

m= Ve 100 (11-2)
V3 -VC
 COMPRESSORS 209

~.

a..
Q)

---
I-<
;:j
en
en
' (I)
I-< P,
a..

P2

VC
Volume in cylinder, m 3

J 11 llfiii!! Ill Figure 11-4 Pressure-volume

:.:.·-·-:-:.:-:-:-:.:-:-··.< ....... .
diagram of an ideal compressor.

Adding Ve - Ve to the numerator of the expression for Tlve gives

V-V+V-V
3 V-V
rJ = e e l 100 = 100 + e l 100 (11-3)
ve V - V V - V
3 e 3 C

and

f'/
VC
= 100 - V l - VC 100 = 100 -
V - V
VC
V - V V
_l - 1 100 (V
3 C 3 C C

Therefore Tl
VC
= 100 - m (V V
1- ,
{11-4)
C

If an isentropic expansion is assumed between Ve and V 1 ,

V
_1 = sue
V
{11-5)
Ve vdis
where vsue = specific volume of vapor entering compressor
v dis= specific volume of vapor after isentropic compression to pd
Values of the specific volumes are available from the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the
refrigerant or from tables of properties of superheated vapor.
 210 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

90

80
>-
u
C: 70 f
·c:;
-
Cl)

t.;:
Vl
"
4--,
Cl) 60 00

u
·c
...... 0
i r
Cl)
50 C:
E c...
::i 0
0
>
Cl)
u
C:
40 -""'
er.
V)
Ii

ti:

cO :';I

""' 30 2
,:)

u
20

IO

-60 -40 -20 0 20 40

Evaporating temperature, °C

Figure 11-5 Clearance volumetric efficiency and mass rate of flow of ideal compressor, Refrigerant
22, 4.5 percent clearance, 50 L/s rate of displacement, and 35°C condensing temperature.

Substituting Eq. {11-5) into Eq. (114) gives

11
vc
= 100 - m(vsuc
V
- 1~ (I 1-6)
dis

11-6 Performance of the ideal compressor In the ideal compressor, the compression of
the gas and the reexpansion of gas trapped in the clearance volume are both isentropic.
The reexpansion of the trapped gas is the only factor which influences volumetric ef-
fiency in the ideal compressor.
In the next few pages the effect of suction pressure on the performance of an
ideal compressor will be studied. Figure 11-5 shows the effect of evaporating tempera-
ture on clearance volumetric efficiency. The volumetric efficiencies are calculated from
Eq. (11-6) and apply to a refrigerant 22 compressor with a clearance of 4.5 percent
operating with a condensing temperature of 35°C. The clearance volumetric efficiency
is zero when the evaporating temperature is -61 °C, at which temperature the satura-
tion pressure corresponds to p 3 in Fig. 114. When the suction pressure and discharge
pressure are the same (same evaporating and condensing pressure), the volumetric
efficiency is 100 percent.
The mass rate of flow controls the capacity and power requirement more directly
than the volume rate of flow. The mass rate of flow, w kg/s, through a compressor is
proportional to the displacement rate in liters per second and the volumetric efficiency
and inversely proportional to the specific volume of gas entering the compressor. In
 COMPRESSORS 211
'
-
- --·
equation form
- 11 /100
w = displacement rate X _vc_ _ (11-7)
vsuc
Using Eq. {11-7) and an assumed rate of displacement of 50 L/s, the mass rate of
flow can be calculated and plotted as done in Fig. 11-5. As the suction pressure drops,
the specific volume entering the compressor increases, which, together with the·
volumetric efficiency, reduces the mass rate of flow at low evaporating temperatures.

11-7 Power requirement The power required by the ideal compressor is the product
of the mass rate of flow and the increase in enthalpy during the isentropic compression,
P= w !lh.l (11-8)
where P = power, kW
w = mass rate of flow, kg/s
b,.hi = isentropic work of compression, kJ/kg
Figure 11-6 shows the variation in t:Jzi as the evaporating temperature changes. The

20 80

-bl)

...,
cf
0
·-·--J
15 60 ·;;;
Cll

.... I-<
0.
E
0
0 (.)
t.-.
0

10 40 I-<
0

5 20

O'--~L-~..J-~_...~--.~__.~----~--~....._~--~_._--......
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40
Evaporating temperature, °C

Figure 11-6 Work of compression and power required by an ideal compressor, Refrigerant 22, 4.5
percent clearance, 50 L/s displacement rate, and 35°C condensing temperature.
 212 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

value of ~h; is large at low evaporating temperatures and drops to zero when the
suction pressure equals the discharge pressure_ (when the evaporating temperature
equals the condensing pressure). The curve of the power requirement in Fig. 11-6
therefore shows a zero value at two points, where the evaporating temperature equals
the cor.densing tel1' .i:Jerature and where the mass ra~e of flou, is zero. Between the two
extremes the power requirement reaches a peak.
The power curve merits close attention because it has important implications. •
Most refrigeration systems operate on the left side of the peak of the power curve.
During the period of pulldown of temperature following start-up with a warm evapo-
rator, however, the power requirement passes through its peak and may demand more
power than the motor, which is selected for design conditions, is capable of supplying
steadily. Sometimes motors have to be oversized just-to take the system down through
the peak in the power curve. To avoid oversizing the motor, the suction pressure is
sometimes reduced artificially by throttling the suction gas until the evaporator pres-
sure drops below the peak in the power curve.
During regular operation heavy refrigeration loads raise the evaporating tempera-
ture, which increases the power requirement of the compressor and may overload the
motor.
b

"
400 200 i/f,

ii'

M-

OJ) •
.....>-
·c:; 300 150
---
,_, •
,ii
.._."
CIS (.)
0.
CIS
(.) t.-.
Q)
OJ)

.s
.....
OJ)

.s
CIS .....
i...
Q)
OJ)
CIS
i...
Q)
..
;E 200 100 OJ)

;E .
,.
Q)
Q)

Refrigerating capacity

100 50

Evaporating temperature, °C

Figure 11-7 Refrigerating effect and capacity of ideal compressor, Refrigerant 22, 4.5 percent
clearance, 50 L/s rate of displacement, and 35°C condensing temperature.
 COMPRESSORS 213

11-8 Refrigeration capacity The refrigeration capacity q is

kW (11-9)
where h 1 and h 4 are the enthalpies in kilojoules per kilogram of the refrigerant leaving
and entering the "'vaporator, respectively. The refrigerating effect; h 1 - h 4 , increases
slightly with an increase in suction pressure, as Fig. 11-7 shows, provided that the
enthalpy entering the expansion valve remains constant. The increase is due to tlfe
slightly higher enthalpy of saturated vapor at higher evaporating temperatures.
Figure 11-7 also shows the refrigeration capacity calculated with Eq. (11-9). The
capacity is zero at the point where the mass rate of flow is zero. The refrigerating ca-
pacity can be doubled, for example, by increasing the evaporating temperature from 0
to 20°C.

11-9 Coefficient of performance and volume flow rate per kilowatt of refrigeration
The coefficient of performance can be derived from the refrigerating capacity of Fig.
11-7 and the power from Fig. 11-6. The result, displayed in Fig.· 11-8, shows a progres-
sive increase as the evaporating temperature increases. The volume flow rate per unit
refrigeration capacity is an indication of the physical size or speed of the compressor

20 4
Volume flow per unit capacity
a:
(I)
u
c::
ro
-"'
,-...l

E .....
·c:;
I-<
0 15 3
'I-<
- ro
0..
---· (I) ro
0.. u
'- .....
0
.....
·2
:l
c::
(I) I-<

·u
;;:: Coefficient of performance
(I)
0..
'- 10 2
(I)
0
0 C
u (I)

E
.2
0
>
5 I.

._____..._____.___~---------'-----...-----------.._-------------0
-60 --40 -20 0 20 40
Evaporating temperature, °C

Figure 11-8 Coefficient of performance and volume flow per kilowatt of refrigeration for ideal
compressor, Refrigerant 22, 4.5 percent clearance, 50 L/s displacement rate, and 35°C condensing
tern per a ture.
 214 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDI'fIONING

100

90

80

-
>,
u
c::
C1)
70 VJ
·c:; 00
e 60
C1)
u 'i
0
·t:
..... c::
E
(1)
so 0

0
::s ....ro
C1)
,
> 40 I-<
C1) en f
u en
c:: ro
ro
I-<
ro 30
v
20 0.2

IO

0 80 0.1
-20 0 20 40 60
Condensing temperature, °C

Figure 11-9 Volumetric efficiency and mass rate of flow of refrigerant for an ideal Refrigerant 22
compressor, 4.5 percent clearance, 50 L/s displacement rate, and -20°C evaporating temperature.

100 200

>,
.-=!
'J
C'l
c..
:':I
75 150
- 00

......
.....
u
OJ) <+-,
.5
_,
(1)

:-::1 00
I,..
:':)
.5
.....ro
-~ 50 100
...::
(lJ
I-<
(1)
00
0::: J:C1)
0:::

25 50

o--~--~~.__~. . . . ~--.__~--~----..__~--~-----~--~--~---
-20 0 20 40 60 80
Condensing temperature, °C

Figure 11-10 Refrigeration effect and refrigerating capacity for an ideal Refrigerant 22 compres-
sor, 4.5 percent clearance, 50 L/s displacement rate, and -20°C evaporating temperature.
 COMPRESSORS 215

necessary to develop 1 kW of refrigeration. A large volume flow must be pumped for

a given capacity at low evaporating temperatures because of the high specific volume.

11-10 Effect of condensing temperature Most refrigerating systems reject heat to the
atmosphere, and the ambient conditions change throughout the year. Process re-
frigeration plants that operate year round are particularly subject to a wide range of
condensing temperatures. The response of a reciprocating compressor to changes in
condensing temperature can be analyzed similarly to the evaporating temperature.
Figure 11-9 shows the clearance volumetric efficiency as calculated from Eq. (11-6)
for a compressor with an evaporating temperature of -20°C. As the condensing tem-
perature increases, the volumetric efficiency drops off. Because the specific volume
of the refrigerant at the compressor suction remains constant, only the volumetric
efficiency affects the mass rate of flow, which shows a corresponding decrease as the
condensing temperature increases. Figure 11-10 shows such a progressive decrease.
The refrigerating capacity is the product of the refrigerating effect and the mass rate
of flow, both of which decrease with increasing condensing temperature. The result
is that the refrigerating capacity drops rather rapidly on an increase in condensing
temperature.
The remaining important characteristic is the power, shown on Fig. 11-11. The

100 20

-
00

...... 80 16
' - i::
·enen0
(1)
s-
0..
E 60 12 ..:
0 (1)
u
0
0 p..
s-
0
40 8
Work of compression

20 4

0
-20 0 20 40 60

Condensing temperature, °C

Figure 11-11 Work of compression and compressor power for an ideal Refrigerant 22 compressor,
4.5 percent clearance, 50 L/s displacement rate, and -20°C evaporating temperature.
216 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDl110NING __ ,

compressor power is the product of the work of compression in kilojoules per kilo-
gram and the mass rate of flow. The work of compression in kilojoules per kilogram
increases and the mass rate of flow decreases as the condensing temperature increases,
so that the power increases to a peak and then begins to drop off, a trend similar to
~he pow~r as a functbn of the evaporating temperat"Jre shown in Fig. 11-6.
A few comments on the significance of the trends in Figs. 11-9 to 11-11 follow.
The peaking of the power can occur in real compressors as well as the ideal ones, but •
only when pumping from low evaporating temperatures. Single-stage compression
from -20°C evaporating temperature to a 60°C condensing temperature, which resulted
in the peak in Fig. 11-11, is not common. With more moderate differences between
the condensing and evaporating temperatures the expectation is that the power re-
quired by the compressor will increase with an increase in condensing temperature,
although the increase may be slight. The refrigerating capacity always decreases with
an increase in condensing temperature. Another important characteristic, not shown
on the graphs, is the coefficient of performance, which decreases monotonically as the
condensing temperature increases.
From the standpoint of power and efficiency, a low condensing temperature is
desirable; thus the condenser should use the coldest air or water available, should
operate with the maximum airflow or water flow that is economical, and should have
its surfaces kept clean. Air or noncondensable gases in the condenser also cause high
condenser pressures.
All the calculations in Figs. 11-9 to 11-11 are based on a clearance volume of
4.5 percent. McGrath 1 pointed out that increasing the percent clearance from about
4 percent, which is customary, to about 15 percent will give a nearly constant power (Ii

requirement regardless of the discharge pressure for air-conditioning applications. This ..

design feature could be used to prevent overloading the compressor motor during hot ,,,
weather, when the condensing temperature rises. This benefit would be achieved, ...
however, at the expense of reduced capacity for a given compressor displacement due ..
to the reduced volumetric efficiency. '----- ----.
- ..
11-11 Performance of actual reciprocating compressors The trends in perfonnance of
reciprocating compressors developed analytically and shown in Figs. 11-5 to 11-11 are
recognizable in the performance of real compressors. Actual performance data are used
later in the analysis of the complete vapor compression system. Figure 14-1 is a graph ..
from catalog data and shows refrigerating capacity and power requirements as a func-
tion of evaporating and condensing temperatures. The refrigerating capacity increases
with an increase in evaporating temperature and decreases with an increase in con-
densing temperature. The power required by the compressor in general increases with
an increase in evaporating temperature, except at lower condensing temperatures,
where the peak that was first shown in Fig. 11-6 is evident. Increasing the evaporating
temperature above 0°C with a condensing temperature of 25°C, as in Fig. 14-1, re-
sults in a continued decrease in power requirement. Figure 11-11 shows a peak power
requirement reached at high condensing temperatures. The corresponding range in
Fig. 14-1 is to the left of the graph, where at very low evaporating temperatures the
curves for power at the various condensing temperatures are pulling together and could
even cross over each other.
 -·- ... COMPRESSORS 217
r:......
,-..:
,--:{>···.
-. .
100

90

80

70
»
0
c:: Actual volumetric efficiency
T,
C
G.> 60
<-.-
J V
50
') -~.........
s
V
40
-" ;::::s
0
--o.,,..:

> 30

20

10

0
2 3 4 5 6 7
Discharge-to-suction pressure ratio

Figure 11-12 Clearance and actual volumetric efficiency of a Refrigerant 22 high-speed compres-
sor. The clearance volume assumed for calculating the clearance volumetric efficiency is 4.5 percent.

11-12 Actual volumetric efficiency The prediction of volumetric efficiency on the

basis of re expansion of vapor in the clearance volume is a good start toward predicting
the actual volumetric efficiency. Other factors that influence the volumetric efficiency
are the pressure drop across the suction and discharge valves, leakage past the rings of
the piston, and leakage back through the discharge and suction valves. Also cylinder
heating of the suction gas reduces the volumetric efficiency, since immediately upon
entering the cylinder the gas is warmed and expanded. The specific volume of the gas
inside the cylinder is consequently higher than when entering the compressor, which is
the position on which the volumetric efficiency is based. All the above-mentioned
factors result in a lower actual volumetric efficiency than that predicted by the re-
expansion of clearance gas alone. Figure 11-12 shows the actual volumetric efficiency 2
compared with the clearance volumetric efficiency.
The abscissa in Fig. 11-12 is the discharge-to-suction pressure ratio, a convenient
parameter on which to base the volumetric performance of the compressor. The curve
for the actual volumetric efficiency as a function of the pressure ratio applies to a wide
variety of evaporating and condensing temperatures. When this curve is available,
along with the knowledge of the displacement rate of the compressor, the refrigerating
capacity of the compressor can be calculated over a wide variety of conditions.

11-13 Compression efficiency The compression efficiency 'Tlc in percent is

isentropic work of compression, kJ /kg
11 = X 100
c actual work of compression, kJ /kg
218 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

where the works of compression are referred to the same suction and discharge pres-
sures. The compression efficiencies for open-type reciprocating compressors are usually
in the range of 65 to 70 percent. Some of the processes that reduce the compression
efficiency from its ideal value of I 00 percent are friction of rubbing surfaces and
pressure drop through valves.

Example 11-1 Catalog data for a six-cylinder refrigerant 22 compressor operating

at 29 r/s indicate a refrigerating capacity of 96.4 kW and a power requirement of
28.9 kW at an evaporating temperature of 5°C and condensing temperature of
50°C. The performance data are based on 3°C liquid subcooling and 8°C super-
heating of the suction gas entering the compressor. The cylinder bore is 67 mm
and the piston stroke is 57 mm. Compute (a) the clearance volumetric efficiency
if the clearance volume is 4.8 percent, (b) the actual volumetric efficiency, and
(c) the compression efficiency.

Solution The state of the refrigerant leaving the evaporator and entering the com-
pressor is 5°C saturation temperature (pressure of 584 kPa) and a temperature of
13°C. At this state the following properties prevail: h = 413.l kJ/kg; v = 43.2
L/kg; and s = 1.7656 kJ /kg • K. Following an isentropic compression to a satura-
tion temperature of 50°C (pressure = 1942 kPa) the properties of the refrigerant
are h = 444.5 kl /kg and v = 14.13 L/kg. The enthalpy of the liquid leaving the
condenser and entering the evaporator is the enthalpy of liquid at 47°C = 259.1
kl/kg.
(a) The clearance volumetric efficiency is

43.2
100 - 4.8 ( - - - 1 = 90.1%
14.13
(b) The compressor displacement rate is
0.067 2 1T
(6 cyl) (29 r/s) (
4
m 3 /cyl • 'l (0.057) = 0.03497 m 3/s = 34.97 L/s
\

The actual rate of refrigerant flow is

96.4 kW
- = 0.6260 kg/s
413.1 - 259.1 kJ/kg
The actual volumetric flow rate of the refrigerant measured at the compressor
suction is
(0.6260 kg/s) (43.2 L/kg) = 27.04 L/s
The actual volumetric efficiency is, then,
27.04 L/s
- - - X 100 = 77.3%
34.97 L/s
(c) The compression efficiency is the isentropic work of compression divided
 \

) I
)
COMPRESSORS 219 I
12. Ii
'-~ by the actual work of compression. The latter is
28.9 kW -
- - - = 46.2 kJ/kg
0.6260 kg/s
so that
444.5 - 413.1 kJ/kg
r,c= X 100=68%
46.2 kJ/kg

11-14 Compressor discharge temperatures If the discharge temperature of the refrig-

erant from the compressor becomes too high, it may result in breakdown of the oil,
causing excessive wear or reduced life of the valves, particularly the discharge valves.
In general the higher the pressure ratio, the higher the discharge temperature, but the
properties of the refrigerant are also crucial. Figure 11-13 shows the discharge tem-
peratures for four refrigerants following isentropic compression from saturated vapor
at 0°C to various condensing temperatures. Refrigerants 12 and 502 have low dis-
charge temperatures while refrigerant 22 experiences higher temperatures. Since the
highest temperatures of the four refrigerants shown is ammonia, ammonia compres-
sors are equipped with water-cooled heads. The water lines are visible on the com-
pressor shown in Fig. 11-1.

11-15 Capacity control If a refrigeration system is operating in a steady-state mode

and the refrigeration load decreases, the inherent response of the system is to decrease

120

110

100
~-:::::....
u
0 90
....(I)
-e ::s
Q)
0..
80
70

- E
Q)

Q)

....tlO
ro
60

..c: 50
u {/)

0 40
30
20
10

0 10 20 30 40 50
Condensing temperature, °C

Figure 11-13 Discharge temperatures following isentropic compression from saturated vapor at
0°C.
220 REFRIGERATION AND AIR COND1r10NING

the evaporating temperature and pressure. This change in the evaporator condition re-
sults in reduced compressor capacity, which ultlmately matches the reduced refrigera-
tion load. The reduction in evaporator temperature may be undesirable for several
reasons. In air conditioning, the coil may collect frost and block the airflow, further
reducing the evapor..ltor pressure. Stored fresh food and many other products may be
damaged by low temperatures. If the evaporator chills a liquid, the liquid may freeze
and burst a tube in the evaporator.
Several methods are commonly used to reduce the compressor capacity:

I. In cycling the compressor stops and starts as needed. The method works well in
small systems.
2. Back-pressure regulation throttles the suction gas between the evaporato_r and the
compressor to keep the evaporator pressure constant. This method gives good
control of the evaporator temperature but is inefficient.
3. Bypassing the discharge gas back to the suction line usually affords precise ca-
pacity reduction, but the method is inefficient and the compressor often runs
hot. A preferred bypass circuit delivers the discharge gas that is bypassed back to
the entrance of the evaporator.
4. Another method is cylinder unloading on a multicylinder compressor by au to-
matically holding the suction valve open or diverting the discharge gas from a
cylinder back to the suction line before compression. In the compressor of Fig.
11-1 there are two horizontal lines carrying high-pressure oil from the oil pump
at the right end of the compressor to hold the suction valves open when the un-
loaders are activated. The loss in efficiency with cylinder unloading is moderate.
A step control may be provided which unloads more and more cylinders as the
suction pressure drops.

PART II: ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSORS

11-16 How the screw compressor functions A cross-sectional view of the two prin-
cipal rotating elements of the screw compressor is shown in Fig. 11-14. The male
rotor with four lobes, shown on the right, drives the female rotor in a stationary
housing. Figure 11-15 shows an exploded view of the major parts of the complete

Figure 11-14 Cross section of the ...

two rotors of a screw compressor. 1w
 COMPRESSORS 221
~:._
...
?
0
0
g

0
Q
0
Figure 11-15 Exploded view of main elements of a screw compressor. (Sullair Refrigeration, Inc.)

compressor. The refrigerant vapor enters one end of the compressor at the top and
leaves the other end at the bottom. At the suction position of the compressor a void
is created into which the inlet vapor flows. Just before the point where the interlobe
space leaves the inlet port, the entire length of the cavity or gully is filled with gas. As
the rotation continues, the trapped gas is moved circumferentially around the housing
of the compressor. Further rotation results in meshing of the male lobe with the fe-
male gully, decreasing the volume in the cavity and compressing the gas. At a certain
point into the compression process the discharge port is uncovered and the com-
pressed gas is discharged by further meshing of the lobe and the gully.
The screw compressor was developed in the 1930s and first became popular for
refrigeration .service in Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. On some early compressors the
two rotors were geared to each other and no lubrication was provided between the ro-
tors. Current practice is to drive the female rotor with the male rotor and inject oil
between the two rotors for lubrication and sealing. In the package water chiller shown
in Fig. 11-16 the screw compressor is just to the right of the control panel, showing its

Figure 11-16 A water-chilling package that uses a screw compressor. (Dunham-Bush, Inc.)
 222 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

100

90

80
>-
0
c:: 70
<U
·u
......
I.;: 60
(I.\

c::
0 50
·;;;
en
G)

'"'
0.
40
E
u
0 30

20
10
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Pressure ratio

Figure 11-17 Compression efficiencies of screw compressors of various built-in volume and pres-
sure ratios.

relatively small size compared with the condenser (in back) and the water-chilling
evaporator at the bottom. The vessel below the control panel is the oil separator, a
standard component in a screw-compressor system.

11-17 Performance characteristics of screw compressors The explanation in Section

11-16 stated that at a certain point in the compression process the discharge port is
uncovered. This point is a function of the design of the compressor and establishes
a built-in volume ratio of the compressor. This ratio has a corresponding built-in pres-
sure ratio associated with it, and any compressor has its best performance at a certain
pressure ratio. Figure 11-17 shows curves 3 of compression efficiency for several com-
pressors of different built-in pressure ratios. Normal operation of most refrigeration
systems occurs over a range of pressure ratios as the condenser and evaporator condi-
tions change, so that a screw compressor does not always operate at peak efficiency.
The peak efficiencies are quite high, however, and there is little sacrifice of efficiency if
the pressure ratio does not change radically.

11-18 Capacity control Many screw compressors are equipped with a sliding valve for
capacity control. It is in the housing of the compressor and can be moved axially. As
the valve is opened, it delays the position at which compression begins. The capacity
can be modulated down to about 10 percent of full capacity, although there is loss of
efficiency in the capacity reduction.

PART III: VANE COMPRESSORS

11-19 Vane compressors The lwo basic-types-of vane -compressors are the roller or
single-vane type and the multiple-vane type. Vane compressors are used mostly in do-
 ,_:,/

:-)

? COMPRESSORS 223
?---
) ..

Figure 11-18 Roller-type vane compressor.

mestic refrigerators, freezers, and air conditioners, although they can also be used as
booster compressors in the low-pressure portion of large multistage compression sys-
tems. In the roller type (Figs. 11-18 and 11-19) the centerline of the shaft is the same
as the centerline of the cylinder. The centerline of the shaft, however, is located ec-
centrically on the rotor, so that as the rotor revolves it makes contact with the cylin-
der. The roller-type compressor has a spring-loaded divider which separates the suction
and discharge chambers.

Figure 11-19 A roller-type vane com-

pressor. (General Electric Company.)
 224 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

(b)
(a)

Figure 11-20 Multiple-vane compressors: (a) two-vane and {b) four-vane.

The formula for the displacement rate D of the roller-type compressor is

1f
D = -(A 2 - B 2 )L(rotative speed) m 3 /s (11-10)
4
where A = cylinder diameter, m
B = roller diameter, m
L = cylinder length, m
and the rotative speed is in revolutions per second.
In the multiple-vane compressor (Fig. 11-20) the rotor revolves about its own
centerline, but the centerlines of the cylinder and the rotor do not coincide. The rotor
has two or more sliding vanes, which are held against the cylinder by centrifugal force.
For the two-vane compressor in Fig. 11-20 the displacement per revolution is pro-
portional to twice the crosshatched area. For the four-vane compressor the displace-
ment per revolution is proportional to 4 times the crosshatched area. Up to a certain
point, then, the displacement is greatest on the compressor with the largest number
of vanes.
In the two types of rotary compressors shown here no suction valves are needed,
and since the suction gas enters the compressor continuously, gas pulsation is at a
minimum.

PART IV: CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

11-20 Role of centrifugal compressors The first commercial centrifugal compres-

sor used in refrigeration service was promoted by Willi, Carrier in 1920. Since then
the centrifugal compressor has become the dominant :type of compressor in large
installations.
Centrifugal compressors serve refrigeration systems in the range of 200 to 10,000
kW of refrigerating capacity. Evaporating temperatures in multistage machines may
extend down to the -50 to -100°C range, although one of the largest uses of the
 COMPRESSORS 225
;+-
T
,)
..

:).
.:J
::)
0

Figure 11-21 A centrifugal compressor system. The condenser is the top vessel, and the water-
cooling evaporator is at the bottom. The two impellers of the two-stage compressor are driven by
an electric motor in the rear. (The Trane Company.)

compressor is for chilling water to about 6 to 8°C in air-conditioning systems. A cut-

away view of a complete refrigeration system using a centrifugal compressor is shown
in Fig. 11-21.

11-21 Operation Centrifugal compressors are similar in construction to centrifugal

pumps in that the incoming fluid enters the eye of the spinning impeller and is thrown
by centrifugal force to the periphery of the impeller. Thus the blades of the impeller
impart a high velocity to the gas and also build up the pressure. From the impeller the
gas flows either into diffuser blades or into a volut~, where some of the kinetic energy
is converted into pressure. The centrifugal compressor may be manufactured with only
one wheel if the pressure ratio is low, although the machines are generally multistage.
Centrifugal compressors operate with adiabatic compression efficiencies of 70 to 80
percent.

11-22 Flash-gas removal A centrifugal compressor with two or more stages invites the
use of flash-gas removal. Flash gas can be removed by partially expanding the liquid
from the condenser, separating the flash gas, and then recompressing the gas instead of
dropping its pressure further. Flash-gas removal, discussed further in Sec. 16-2, in-
creases the efficiency of the cycle and is conveniently achieved when two or more
stages of compression are available.

11-23 Performance characteristics Impellers in centrifugal compressors are equipped

with backward-curved blades. Section 6-16 on fans mentioned backward-curved blades
and showed performance characteristics of a fan with forward-curved blades. Admit-
 226 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

High
speed

I
High efficiency

Low speed

0 Figure 11-22 Performance of

Flow rate a centrifugal compressor.

tedly the air flowing through a fan was treated as an incompressible fluid while in the
centrifugal compre·ssor the refrigerant vapor is clearly compressed. The predominant
characteristic prevails in both machines, however, in that for a constant-speed com-
pressor as the flow rate starts at zero and increases, the pressure buildup developed by
the compressor starts at some nonzero value, increases for a time, and then progres-
sively drops off.
One choice of coordinates for presenting the characteristics is shown in Fig.
11-22: the discharge-to-suction-pressure ratio versus the flow rate. The graph shows ·•
the performance for several different compressor speeds and isoefficiency lines (lines
of constant efficiency). No performance curves are shown to the left of the surge line;
this surge phenomenon will be discussed in Sec. 11-26.

11-24 Tip speed to develop pressure A rough estimate of the tip speed of the impeller
can be made by using several fundamental relationships for turbomachinery. The
torque the impeller ideally imparts to the gas is
(11-11)
where T = torque, N • m
w = mass rate of flow, kg/s
V 2 t = tangential velocity of refrigerant leaving impeller, m/s
=
r 2 radius of exit of impeller, m
Vlt = tangential velocity of refrigerant entering impeller, m/s
r 1 = radius of inlet of impeller, m
If the refrigerant enters the impeller in an essentially radial direction, the tangential
 COMPRESSORS 227

component of the velocity V 1t = 0, and so

T= wVil2 (11-12)
:::- The power required at the shaft is the product of the torque and the rotative speed
(11-13)_
where P = power, W
. w = rotative speed, rad/s
At least at very low refrigerant flow rates the tip speed of the impeller and the tangen-
tial velocity of the refrigerant are nearly identical; therefore

r2w = v2t

and 2
P=wV2t (11-14)
Another expression for ideal power is the product of the mass rate of flow and the
isentropic work of compression,
P = w t::.\ (1 000 J /kJ) (11-15)
Equating the two expressions for power, Eqs. (11-14) and {11-15), yields
V~t = 1OOOt::.hi (11-16)
Although Eq. (11-16) is based on some idealizations, it can provide an order-of-
magnitude estimate of the tip speed and can also show important comparisons, as in
Example 11-2.

Example 11-2 Calculate the speed of the impeller tip in order to compress the
following refrigerants from saturated vapor at 10°C to a pressure corresponding
to a condensing temperature of 30°C when the refrigerant is (a) refrigerant 11 and
(b) ammonia.

Solution (a) In the isentropic compression of refrigerant 11 from saturated vapor

at 10°C to a saturated condensing temperature of 30°C
Mzi = 406.7 - 393 .9 = 12.8 kJ /kg
The tip speed is
v2t = v'1000(12.8) = 113.1 m/s
(b) For ammonia
t::.h.=
1
1560-1472=88kJ/kg
The tip speed is
V 2t = v'l 000(88) = 297 m/s

11-25 Choice of impeller and refrigerant Two crucial impeller dimensions are the
wheel diameter and the width between impeller faces. The designer of a centrifugal
 228 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

compressor system must select a combination of these dimensions along with a choice
of refrigerant. The magnitude of the wheel diameter is heavily dictated by the dis-
charge pressure that must be achieved, because for a given rotative speed a large wheel
Jiameter will provide a higher tip speed, which results in a higher pressure ratio. The
results of Example 11-2 provide some insight into the influence of the refrigerant
choice on required tip speed. If a centrifugal compressor is driven by an electric motor
operating at 60 r/s, the wheel diameter needed for the 113.1 m/s tip speed (refrigerant •
11) is 0.6 m, while for the tip speed of 297 m/s with ammonia the wheel diameter
must be 1.58 m. The required wheel diameter for ammonia would probably be imprac-
tical. Furthermore, from the standpoint of strength of the wheel, the tip speed for
ammonia is nearing the usual limitation 3 of 300 m/s. E
The initial conclusion is to choose a refrigerant with properties similar to refriger- h
L
ant 11 in preference to ammonia. Centrifugal compressors could and do handle am- I
monia, but additional stages of compression might be required. For example, if the
compression in Example 11-2 were executed in two stages, the t::..hi could be cut in half
and the tip speeds of both wheels would be 210 m/s.
Another decision of the designer is the width of passage in the impeller. To in-
crease the capacity, increase the width between the faces of the impeller, which, of
course, also increases the power requirement. Centrifugal-compressor designers con- A
stantly struggle to maintain high efficiencies with machines of small capacity. One ,l
reason for the dropoff of efficiency with low capacities is that the impeller width !
1
becomes narrow and the friction of the gas on the impeller faces becomes large relative l
to the flow rate through the impeller. The choice of a low-density refrigerant allows
one to maintain a wide impeller width for a given capacity.

,3
Refrigerants 11 and 113 especially meet the requirements described above and are

1
the popular refrigerants used in water-chilling systems with centrifugal compressors.
But ammonia, refrigerant 12, and other refrigerants are used successfully with cen- t

trifugal compressors. €it

- .
-~
' -,~

_f'c•\
,:-

11-26 Surging Figure 11-22 shows no performance data to the left of the surge
envelope, although the classic performance of a backward-curved-blade pump, fan, and
compressor would be shown by the dashed line in Fig. 11-23. As the refrigeration load
drops off and the flow rate decreases from point A, the performance rides up the
pressure-flow characteristic to point B. Further decrease in flow rate sends the opera-
tion to point C where the pressure-ratio capability of the compressor drops. The drop
in pressure ratio is due both to the inherent characteristics of backward.-curved-blade
turbomachines and to the fact that flow separation begins occurring at the blades.
Although the compressor capacity drops significantly when operation moves to
point C the heat load on the evaporator continues to boil off refrigerant, building up
the evaporator pressure and decreasing the pressure ratio. The compressor is then
momentarily able to shift operation back to point A where the cycle begins to repeat
'··
itself. This sequence, called surging, is characterized by objectionable noise and wide
fluctuations_ of load on the compressor and motor. The period of the cycle is usually
2 to 5 s, depending upon the size of the installation.
One reason for not showing data to the left of the surge envelope is that steady-
<'t~tp readings cannot be obtained. Centrifugal fans (Chap. 6) have the same pressure-
--~

COMPRESSORS 229

-.

-..
.

Figure 11-23 Surging in a centrifugal

Flow rate compressor.

flow characteristics as the compressor shown in Fig. 11-23 and are thus subject to the
same surge phenomenon. Many fans operate from time to time in the surge region,
however, and the only undesirable result is a low rumbling sound. In the case of cen-
trifugal compressors, however, operating in the surge region is definitely objectionable
and should be avoided. Some compressors are equipped with a discharge-gas bypass
that at low refrigeration loads throttles discharge gas back to the suction line in order
to provide a false load on the compressor.

11-27 Capacity control The two most efficient and most widely used methods of
capacity control are (1) adjusting prerotation vanes at the impeller inlet and (2) vary-
ing the speed. Two methods that are not efficient and not widely used are varying
the condenser pressure and bypassing the discharge gas. The latter was mentioned as
a means of preventing surge and is sometimes combined with prerotation vanes.
Equation (11-11) for the torque indicates that if a positive component is provided
.. for Vlt, the torque will be reduced, which also translates into reduced pumping capa-
bility. Pre rotation vanes provide a swirl to the gas entering the impeller so that the
i~let gas has a tangential velocity in the direction the impeller is rotating. Figure 11-24
shows how the position of the prerotation vanes influences the compressor character-

...
.s
ro
....
(I)
....
;:l
en
en
(I)
....
p..
t
s::: Open
...
.s
0
;:l 50°
...
en
0
t
oo 30°
15°
Closed
I
(I)

ro
..c:
0
en
a Figure 11-24 Centrifugal-compressor character-
istics at various settings of the prerotation
Flow rate vanes.
 230 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CO~DITIONING

istics. The use of prerotation vanes is an efficient method of control when the vanes
are near their fully open position, but the va11es behave more like a throttling valve as
they approach their nearly closed position. The vanes are visible at the inlet of the im-
peller in the compressor shown in Fig. 11-21.
When a centrifugal compressor is driven by a steam or gas turbine, varying the
speed for capacity control can be achieved readily. Figure 11-22 shows that the ca-
pacity drops off at a given pressure ratio as the speed decreases.

11-28 How the various types of compressors share the field The four types of com-
pressors studied in this chapter, reciprocating, screw, vane, and centrifugal, all have
somewhat different qualities, so that each type has found a sphere of application
where it has advantages over the others. A reasonably accurate statement of where the
compressors are used can be based on their refrigerating capacity. Reciprocating com-
pressors dominate from very small refrigerating capacities to about 300 kW. Centrif-
ugal compressors are most widely used for units having refrigerating capacities of 500
kW and above. The screw compressor has found a niche in the 300-to-500-kW capaci-
ties and competes against large reciprocating compressors and against small centrifugal
compressors. The vane compressor competes against the reciprocating compressor
primarily in the market for domestic refrigerators and air conditioners.
Probably more reciprocating compressors are manufactured than any other type
because they are the choice for smaller refrigeration units in high production. For
high-capacity refrigeration systems, the large physical size ?f the reciprocating com-
pressor shifts the choice in favor of the more compact screw and centrifugal compres-
sors, which battle for the market in the 300- to 500-kW capacities. An uneasy truce
sometimes is arrived at in industrial refrigeration plants, where a combination of screw
and reciprocating compressors is used. The operating strategy is to use the screw com-
pressor for the base load and bring on reciprocating compressors to accommodate the
variations above the base. The reason for this distribution of load is that the screw
compressor is efficient when operating near full load, it has fewer moving parts than
the reciprocating compressor, and is developing a reputation for long operating life.
The reciprocating compressor seems to have better efficiencies at part-load operation
than the screw compressor and can accommodate the varying portion of the load
more efficiently.
The centrifugal compressor is the choice for large-capacity units, particularly
for water-chilling plants used for large air-conditioning installations. A feature of
most such installations is that air is cooled at a large number of locations remote from
the compressor room. Since using water as the heat-conveying agent in these cooling
coils is preferable to the complexities of delivering refrigerant, the .refrigeration unit
for most large air-conditioning plants is a water chiller. This concept coincides with
the characteristics of a centrifugal unit which uses low-density refrigerants. The suc-
tion and discharge pipes needed for the low-density refrigerant are of large diameter,
and it is impractical to run them large distances. Instead, they are closely coupled to
the water-chilling evaporator and the water-cooled condenser.
While it may seem that the market distribution of compressors may now be stable,
engineers should be alert to the potential for new compressor developments. The screw
compressor, for example, which was not a factor in the industry a few decades ago, has
now established itself.
 COMPRESSORS 231

PROBLEMS

11-1 An ammonia compressor has a 5 percent clearance volume and a displacement

rate of 80 L/s and pumps against a condensing temperature of 40~C. For the two dif-
ferent evaporating temperatures of -10 and 10°C, compute the refrigerant flow rate
assuming that the clearance volumetric efficiency applies. Ans. 0.37 kg/sat 10°C
11-2 A refrigerant 22 compressor with a displacement rate of 60 L/s operates in a re- ..
frigeration system that maintains a constant condensing temperature of 30°C. Com-
pute and plot the power requirement of this compressor at evaporating temperatures
of -20, -10, 0, 10, and 20°C. Use the actual volumetric efficiencies from Fig. 11-12
and the following isentropic works of compression for the five evaporating tempera-
tures, respectively, 39.9, 30.2, 21.5, 13.7, and 6.5 kJ/kg.
11-3 The catalog for a refrigerant 22, four-cylinder, hermetic compressor operating at
29 r/s, a condensing temperature of 40°C, and an evaporating temperature of -4°C
shows a refrigerating capacity of 115 kW. At this operating point the motor (whose
efficiency is 90 percent) draws 34.5 kW. The bore of the cyclinders is 87 mm and the
piston stroke is 70 mm. The performance data are based on 8°C of subcooling of
the liquid leaving the condenser. Compute (a) the actual volumetric efficiency and
(b) the compression efficiency.Ans. (a) 77.4%; (b) 71%
11-4 An automotive air conditioner using refrigerant 12 experiences a complete block-
age of the airflow over the condenser, so that the condenser pressure rises until the
volumetric efficiency drops to zero. Extrapolate the actual volumetric-efficiency curve
of Fig. 11-12 to zero and estimate the maximum discharge pressure, assuming an evap-
orating temperature of 0°C. Ans. 5300 kPa
11-5 Compute the maximum displacement rate of a two-vane compressor having a
cylinder diameter of 190 mm and a rotor 80 mm long with a diameter of 170 mm. The
compressor operates at 29 r/s. Ans. 22 L/s
11-6 A two-stage centrifugal compressor operating at 60 r/s is to compress refrigerant
11 from an evaporating temperature of 4°C to a condensing temperature of 35°C. If
both wheels are to be of the same diameter, what is this diameter? Ans. 0.53 m

REFERENCES

1. W. L. McGrath: New Refrigeration System Reduces Electrical Demand of Air Conditioning

Equipment,Refrig. Eng., vol. 65, no. 2, p. 52, February 1957.
2. "Trane Reciprocating Refrigeration," The Trane Company, La Crosse, Wis., 1977.
3. "Handbook and Product Director, Equipment Volume," chap. 12, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Ga., 1979.

ADDITIONAL READINGS ON COMPRESSORS

Methods of Testing for Rating Positive Displacement Refrigerant Compressors, Standard 23-78,
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Ga.,
1978.
W. D. Cooper: Refrigeration Compressor Performance as Affected by Suction Vapor Superheating,
ASHRAE Trans., vol. 80, pt. 1, pp.195-204, 1974.
J. Brown and S. F. Pearson: Piston Leakage in Refrigeration Compressors, J. Refrig., vol. 6, no. 5,
p. 104, September-October 1963.
232 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

E. H. Jensen: Effect of Compressor Characteristics on Motor Performance, ASHRAE Trans., vol.

66,pp.194-201,1960.
O. Jensen: Heat Transfer in a Refrigeration Compressor, Kulde, vol. 20, no. 1, p. 1, February 1966.
G. Lorentzen: Influence of Speed on Compressor Volumetric Efficiency, Re/rig. Eng., vol. 60, no.
3, p. 272, Marc'1 1952.
J. F. T. MacLaren and S. V. Kerr: Analysis of Valve Behavior in Reciprocating Compressors, 12th
Int. Cong. Refrig.,Madrid, 1967, pap. 3.39.
U. Ritter, G. Schoberth, and E. Emblik: Development of Oil-Free Compressors, J. Refrig., vol. 2;
no. 2., March-April 1959.
D. N. Shaw: Helical Rotary Screw Compressor Heating/Cooling Systems, ASHRAE Trans., vol. 83,
Pt. l,pp. 177-184,1977.
T. Stillson: Helical Rotary Screw Compressor Applications for Energy Conservation, ASHRAE
Trans., vol. 83, pt. l, pp. 185-201, 1977.