ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

SANITARY
SEWERAGE &

ENGINEERING
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
INTRODUCTION

It is the branch of public health engineering healing with

collection, conveyance and disposal of wastage (garbage,
sullage, sewage). The main purpose of sanitary engineering
is to maintain such environment as well not affect the
public health in general:
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
INTRODUCTION
Following are he various aspects of sanitary engineering: -
Collection:
The solid and liquid works are collected in specially
installed lavatory blocks
Conveyance:
This includes provision of drainage line for the conveyance
of solid and liquid wastes, which are collected.
Disposal:
The conveyed refuse / wastes is treated as the disposed off.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Definition of Terms
Sewage:
It is the waste of foul water of the community conveyed
by the sewer. There are three types of sewage:-

Domestic or Sanitary Sewage:

The sewage from residential buildings business
centers, institutions, etc. this also contain human
body waste (feaces & urine) and also sullage water.
-
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Industrial Sewage:
The liquid wastes obtained from industrial process such as
dying, papermaking, etc, are called industrial sewage.

Storm Sewage:
It is that part of surface run off which is flowing in sewer
during the rainfall.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Sullage:
It is the waste water resulting from personal wasting,
bathing, laundry, food preparation and cleaning of
utensils. It does not include discharge from hospitals and
slaughter houses which has high content of organic
matters. Sullage is not very foul and can be disposed off
in open drain with out treatment.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Garbage
It is used for dry refuse of town containing organic,
inorganic solids, semisolids, combustible,
noncombustible, putrecible and non-putrecible substances.
It includes sweeping from houses, streets, markets, public
places, garden etc. work paper, leaves, grass, panning of
vegetable, decaying fruits etc. with small quantities of
sand, cinder, clay and gravel constitute garbage. It is
collected separately from sewage and sullage and dispose
off separately.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Infiltration & Ex-filtration:

infiltration is the water which has leaked into the sewer
from the ground while ex-filtration is leakage of water out
of the sewer to the ground.

Inflow:
It is the water entering the sewer from surface source
through manholes, open cleanouts, perforated manhole
cross, and root drain of basement sumps connected to the
sewers inflow occurs only during runoff.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Sewers.
Sewer is a pipe or conduit carrying sewage, sewage are
usually not flowing full (gravity flow). The full flowing
sewers are called fore main as the flow is under pressure.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Types of Sewers

Sewer has following types.

Sanitary Sewer:
It is a sewer carrying sanitary and industrial sewage
excluding storm sewage. It is also some time called
separate sewer.
-
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Types of Sewers

Storm Sewer:
It is the one which carried storm sewage including
surface runoff and street wash.

Continued Sewer:
It is the one carrying domestic, industrial and storm
sewage all together.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Sewerage.
It is the science and art of collecting, treating and
disposing of sewage. There are three systems of
sewerage.

✓ Separate System
✓ Combined System
✓ Partially Separate System
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Separate Sewerage System

In this system the sanitary sewerage and storm

water are carried separately in two sets of sewers.
The sewage is conveyed to wastewater treatment
plant and the storm water is discharge directly into
rivers without treatment. The separate system has
the following advantages & disadvantages.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Advantages
➢ The load on treatment plant is less as only sewage is
carried to the plant.
➢ The size of sewers are small thus economical.
➢ When pumping is required the system process to be
economical.
➢ Natural water is not unnecessarily polluted by
sewage.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Disadvantages
➢Cleaning of sewers is difficult due to their small size.
➢The maintenance costs are high.
➢ The self cleaning velocity is not easily achieved.
➢The storm sewers come in operation in rainy season only.
➢They may be chocked in during dry season by garbage.
➢The separate system is suitable when separate outlets for
storm water is available and the topography is such that
storm water can be dispose off in natural drains.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Combined Sewerage System

In this system the sewage and storm water are

carried all together in only one set of sewers to the
wastewater treatment plant before disposal. This
system has the following advantages and
disadvantages:
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Advantages
➢ It is easy to clean combine sewers because of large size.
➢ The maintenance cost is reasonable.
➢ It reduces strength of sewage by mixing storm water with
sewer.
➢ The system requires one sewer making it economical.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Disadvantages
➢ In storm seasons water may overflow and the sewer may
damage causing serious health risks.
➢ The combine sewer gets silted and becomes foul in dry
days.
➢ The load on treatment plant is high because storm water is
also carried there.
➢ The storm water gets polluted unnecessarily.
➢ The system is uneconomical when pumping is need.
The system is suitable when space available for laying two
sets of sewers is less and when pumping is not required.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Partially Separate Sewerage System

This system is the comprise between separate and

combine system taking advantages of both systems. In this
case the sewage and storm water of building are carried
by one set of sewers while storm water from roads,
streets, pavements, etc are carried by other system of
sewers usually open drains. This system has the following
advantage and disadvantages.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Advantages
➢ It combines the good features of both systems.
➢ The setting is avoided due to entry of storm water.
➢ The storm water from houses is easily disposed off.
➢ The sewers are of reasonable size.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Method of Disposal of Sewage

There are two methods collecting and disposing sewage.

✓ Conservancy System / Method or (dry system)

✓ Water Carriage System / method
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Conservancy System

This system also called dry system. Different types of

wastes / refuses are collected separately and disposed off.

Garbage is collected separately in dustbins and conveyed

covered carts to suitable place. The combustible and non-
combustible garbage are sorted out.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

The human and animal wastes (feaces & urine) are

collected in panes from lavatories and is then carried by
labors in carts of lorries for disposal outside the city
where it is buried for manure. The human and animal
waste are also called night soil.

The sludge & storm water are conveyed separately by

close and open channel and discharge into natural streams.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

This system is obsolete now and can be used in rural areas

where there is scarcity of water. It is not used now a days
because of the following reasons.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Cost.
The system has less initial cost but the operation cost is
very high because of working labors.

Design of building.
The lavatory has to be build separate from residential
building which cause inconvenience.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Reasons why we are not using dry system

In sanitary Condition.
The sewage is carried once in 24 hours while sewage
becomes unsanitary after 5 – 6 hours.

Labor problems.
If the labor goes on strike the system totally fails.

Land requirement.
It requires large area for disposal of sewage thus
becoming inconvenient.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Foul Appearance.

It is highly undesirable to allow night soil carts to pass

through roads of city.

Open drain.

Storm water and sullage flowing in open drains cause

unhygienic condition in the area.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Pollution of Water.

The liquid wastes from lavatories may seeps into the

ground thus polluting the ground water.

Risk of Epidemic.

The sewage is conveyed openly and is not properly

disposed off causing risk of epidemic
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Water Carriage System.

In this system water is used as a medium to carry wastes

to the point of final disposal. The quantity of water is so
large (99.9%) that the waste becomes a liquid which is
carried by sewers. The garbage is collected as separately
as in conserver with sanitary sewage. This is absolute
system and is used now a days universally because of
following reasons: -
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Reasons why we are using water carriage system

Cost.

Through the initial cost of the system is high but he

operation cost is very low.

Compact Design.
The lavatories can be accommodated inside the building
which cause compact design of house and convenience.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Hygienic System.
The sewage is carried in covered drains thus the risk of
and break of epidemic is reduced.

Land Requirement.
The land requirement is very low which make the system
economical. (for treatment & disposal)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Treatment.
Proper treatment of sewage is possible to make the
sewage suitable for disposal.

The system has only disadvantage of wastage of water,

which is used for making the sewage in liquid form (about
99.9% of sewage is water).
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SOURCES OF WASTEWATER

• Domestic: It is wastewater from residential buildings,

offices, other buildings and institutions etc.

• Industrial: It is liquid waste from industrial processes

like dying, paper making, fertilizers, chemicals, leather etc.

• Storm water: It include surface run off generated by

rainfalls and street wash.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
TYPES OF SEWERS
Sanitary Sewer

Sewer which carried sanitary sewage i.e. W.W originating

from a municipality including DOMESTIC and
INDUSTRIAL wastewater.

Storm Sewer

It carries storm sewage including surface run off and

street washes.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
TYPES OF SEWERS

Combined Sewer

It carries domestic, industrial and storm sewage.

House Sewer

Pipe conveying sewage from plumbing system of a

building to common / municipal sewer.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
TYPES OF SEWERS

Lateral Sewer

It receive discharge from house sewers.

Sub main sewer

It receive discharge from one or more laterals

Main / Trunk Sewer

Receive discharge from two or more sub mains.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
TYPES OF SEWERS

Outfall Sewer

Receive discharge from all collecting system and

convey it to the point of final disposal (e.g a water
body etc.)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Problem

The residential area of a city has a population density of

15000 per / km2 and area of 120000 m2. if the average water
consumption in 400 lpcd find the average sewage flow and
the maximum sewage flow that can be excepted in m3/day.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Solution

Total Population = 15000x120000/1000 x 1000

= 18000 persons
Per capita sewage flow = 0.8 x 400 = 320 lpcd
Avg. Sewage flow = 18000 x 320 = 576 m3/d
M = 1 + 14 /( 4 +P)
= 1 + 14 / (4 + 18)
= 1.74
Max / Peak Sewage Flow = 576 x 1.74
= 1007.3 m3/d
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
DESIGN PERIODS

Collection Works:
Period of design is “Indefinite” as the system is designed to
cater for the maximum development of the area.
Disposal works:
Design period is usually 10 years. Rates of flow required
are: average daily, peak and maximum flow rated, including
infiltration.
Treatment Works:
Design period is 15 to 20 years. Flow rate required are
average and peak rates both including infiltration.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
INVERT LEVEL

It is the level of the INVERT of the sewer pipe.

Invert Level = G.L – Cover over pipe – thickness of pipe

– dia of pipe
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
STEPS FOR DESIGN OF SEWER

1. Preliminary investigation

2. Design consideration / formulation of design criteria

3. Actual design

4. Preparation of drawings and BOQ

5. Subsequent modifications
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
If the map of the area is not already available, the first step is
to carry out survey to draw a map of the project area.
Different details are marked on the map like:
• Streets
• Railway lines
• Streams
• Location of under utilities like gas, water mains etc
•Establish BENCH MARKS throughout the area and make
contour profiles
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

• Soil conditions should be investigated for the type of

strata, location of water table, presence of any

underground rock etc.

• Collection of rainfall and sum off data

• Study of natural slopes of the area and selection of a

suitable disposal point

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS /
FORMULATION OF DESIGN CRITERIA

Design Flow
• Sanitary sewer = Peak sewage flow + infil+Industrial flow
• Partially Combined = 2 x peak sewage flow + infil +
Industrial flow (WASA Criteria)

Design Equation
• Sewers are required on the basis of open channel flow
• V = 1/n R2/3 S ½ (Manning's Formula)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS /
FORMULATION OF DESIGN CRITERIA

Where
V = Velocity, m/sec
R = Hydraulic mean depth = Area / wetted perimeter
= D/4, when pipe is flowing full or ½ full
S = slope of sewer
N= Co-efficient of roughness for pipe (0.013 for R.C.C
pipes)

(see table 15.1 E.W Steel for more n values)

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Minimum Velocities

Minimum velocities also called self cleansing velocities

must be maintained in sewers to avoid deposition of
suspended solids and subsequent choking of sewers
Sanitary Sewers = 0.6 m/sec
(organic particle specific gravity = 1.61)
Storm Sewers = 1 m/sec
(Inorganic specific gravity = 2.65)
Partially Combined = 0.7 m/sec
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Maximum Velocities

Maximum velocity should be less than 2.4 m/sec (E.W

Steel). A limit on higher velocities is imposed due to
abrasive character of solids in wastewater.
(Scraping or wearing away )

Minimum Sewer Size:

225 mm is taken as min sewer size (WASA, PHED in
Pakistan).

Minimum Cover:
1m is taken as minimum cover over sewers to avoid damage
from live loads coming on sewers.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Manholes
Purpose:
1. Cleaning
2. Inspection
3. House connections

Where Provided
1. At every change in dia of pipes
2. Where two different dia of pipes are to be
connected
Spacing:
225mm – 380mm Spacing ≤ 100m
460mm – 760mm Spacing ≤ 120m
> 760mm Spacing ≤ 150m
Note: for plots, one manhole be provided for 2 plots
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Qd/Qf ratios

WASA (Pakistan) recommended the Qd/Qf ratios in order

to provide air space in the upper portion of sewers for
ventilation purpose. Qd represent design flow and Qf is
flow where sewer is flowing full

Sewer Size Ratio (Qd/Qf)

225 – 380mm 0.7
460 – 1220mm 0.75
1370 mm and larger 0.8
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
DESIGN OF SEWER

By design of sewer, we mean the following two things:

1. To find Size of sewer:

Q = AV (is used to find size)

2. To find required SLOPE to maintain a minimum velocity in

sewers :

V = 1/n R 2/3 S ½ (is used to find slope)

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
PREPARATION OF DRAWING AND BOQ

Typical drawings include:

• Sewer joints

• Manholes

• Disposal station

• Sewer Profiles or L-Sections

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SEWERS FLOWING PARTIALLY FULL
It is necessary to determine velocity and depth of sewage in
a pipe when it is flowing only partially full. For this, use of
the GRAPH will allow quick computation of the hydraulic
elements of partially filled circular sewer.

For using this graph, it is necessary to find first the

conditions when a sewer is flowing full. Then by
calculating the ration of any two known hydraulic elements,
the others can be found significance of partial flow study.

Conditions during partial flow, must frequently be

determine in combined / partially combined sewers due to
the following reasons
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

To investigate velocities during dry weather flow to

eliminate possibilities of deposits accruing in pipes

Knowledge of depth of flow is of value in designing

sewer interactions. Large sewers should be brought
together at elevation so that water may not back up into
the other.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Problem

A 915mm circular combined sewer is laid on a slope of

0.003 and it is flowing full with n=0.013. What will be the
velocity and depth of flow when the sewer is carrying 8.5
m3/min (0.1416 m3/sec) discharge.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Solution

Q when flowing full = V = 1/n R 2/3 S1/2

= 1/0.013 x (D/4)2/3 (0.003) ½
= 1.57 m/sec
Q =Ax V
= 3.142 / 4 x (0.915)2 x 1.57
= 1.036 m3/sec
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Qd/Qf = 0.1416 / 1.036

= 0.14
d/D = 0.3 (from discharge line)

d= 0.3 x 0.915 = 0.275

= 275 mm at 0.1416 m3/sec

Find velocity at actual depth of flow:

Va/Vf = 0.6
Va = 0.6 x 1.57
= 0.94 m/sec
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
CARRY OVER OF INVERT LEVELS

Case No. 1: Equal diameter pipes

M1

225 mm

I.L - 198
I.L = 199
M2 M3
225m I.L =

225mm

M4
N.B: Lower I.L is carried forward to maintain GRAVITY FLOW
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Case No. 2: Different dia of pipes

M1

225 mm

I.L - 198
I.L = 199
M2 M3
225m I.L =

460mm

M4
I.L = 198 – difference of dia
= 198 – 0.235 = 197.765m
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SEWER CONSTRUCTION

Following are the steps:

1. Marking of sewer lines (done with chalk powder to
demarcate the correct alignment of sewers)
2. Excavation of Trenches
1. Min width of trenches = 1.5D + 300
2. D = dia in mm
3. Bracing of Trenches (Optional)
1. Usually done when the trench become very deep on
strata is very loose. Bracing avoid caving in of trench
walls thus preventing accidents etc.
4. Dewatering (optional)
1. Done when sewer is to be laid under water table.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

5. Shifting of Levels:
Done by using levels, staff rod. Threads, pegs etc.
6. Laying and Jointing of Pipes
Joints: (1) Bell & Spigot 225mm – 610mm
(2) Tongue and Groove > 610mm
7. Backfilling
Manual backfilling up to 2 feet. Afterwards with tractor
8. Construction of Appurtenances (Accessories)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
APPURTENANCES

Appurtenances are structures in addition to the pipes

and conduits that are essential for the operation of a
sewerage system. They include
- Manholes
- Inlets
- Oil and Grease traps
- Flush Tanks
- Pumping Stations
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
MANHOLES CONSTRUCTION

Manholes may be circular or square depending upon the

depth of manhole
Square up to 4 feet depth
Circular > 4 feet depth

Wall thickness for manhole = 9 inch up to 8 feet

depth

For every additional 4 feet depth increase wall thickness

by 4 ½ inches.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

C.I cover (2’ dia)

4’ Brick work 9”
Thick

Variable

6”

6”

4’ dia
(Int) PCC(1:2:4)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DROP MANHOLES

Where laterals or sub mains join a deeper sewer,

excavation will be saved by keeping the upper sewer at a
reasonable grade and making a vertical drop at the manhole.
This is known as DROP MANHOLE. Usually provided
when level difference > 0.6m

(So that no splashing happens)

Drop
Manhole
Benching
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
INLETS

An inlet is an opening in the street surface or manhole,

designed to permit the entrance of water from the
street / road surface into the sewer. They are usually of
two types
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Footpath
CURB INLET
Vertical
Inlet
Road

Sewer

Horizontal
GUTTER INLET Water Grating Footpath

SEWER
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SEWER PROFILES / L-SECTIONS

After design, a vertical profile is drawn for each sewer line.

The profile shows the ground surface, tentative manhole
locations, rock indicated by boring, all underground
structures, pipe sizes, lengths, invert levels etc.
Purpose: 1. It provide basis for construction drawings
2. Helps site engineer to monitor construction
3. Helps in estimating construction costs
For a sewer profile, distances are plotted along x-axis and
elevators along y-axis
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Typical sewer profile

• A typical sewer profile is shown below

NSL

MH

NSL
I.L
Pipe Dia (mm)
Slope
M.H

Length (m)
Trench Bed (m)

Note: Select a suitable scale along with x and y-axis

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SEWER PIPES
( Please consult Ch 14 E.W. Steel)

Types of pipes:
PVC
AC
P.C.C
R.C.C

C.I & Steel pipes are used under unusual loading condition
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
P.C.C Pipes
Normally used for small storm desires and sanitary sewers.
Specifications used are ASTM.

Size: 100mm – 610mm (E.W. Steel)

4” 24”

Class: I II III
Weakest →Strongest
Wall Thickness: Wall A, B, C,
Normally used
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
R.C.C Pipes

Normally used for sanitary and combined sewers.

Size: 225mm – 4570 mm
9” 108”
Class: Available in 5 classes
I II III IV V
Weakest → Normally used → Strongest

Wall Thickness:
Wall A Wall B Wall C
Min Thickness Normally used Max thickness
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
STRENGTH OF R.C.C PIPE

Three edge bearing test is used to measure the strength of

R.C.C pipes. Load is applied on Pipe to produce a load crack
of 0.25mm crack Load

I - beam Wooden Block

Pipe

Strength of the pipe is expressed as KN/linear max

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
LOADS ON PIPES

The static load produced on buried pipe may be calculated

by using the following equation
W = C w B2
Where
W = Load on pipe per unit length
w = Weight of fill material per unit volume, kg.m3
B = Width of trench at the top of pipe
C = Coefficient which depend upon following
• Depth of trench
• Character of construction
• Fill material
For structural stability
Strength from 3-edge test > W
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SEWER BEDDINGS

If sewers are simply laid by placing the pipe barrel on the

flat trench bottom, the pipe will not be able to support a load
significantly greater then the THREE EDGE BEARING
TEST.

However, if the bedding trenches at least the “LOWER

QUADRANT” of the sewer and bad material is care fully
tamped around the sides of pipe, the supporting strength of
pipe significantly increase.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
LOAD FACTOR

LOAD FACTOR express this increase in strength and

numerically

L.F = Load carrying capacity / 3-edge strength

Failed at almost loading Failed at greater then three edge bearing

three bearer test test

L.F = 1.1

Quadrant
L.F = 1.5
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Various bedding normally used by PHED & WASA

(Pakistan) along with their load factors are shown below.

Brick Ballast Crushed

1” = 1 ½ “ Stone PCC 1:2:4
3/4” = 1 ½ “
Backfill
(Tamped)
1’

D/4 D/4 D/4

D/4 D/4 Min 4”
L.F = 1.7 L.F = 1.9 L.F = 3
Class C- Class B- Class A-
Bedding Bedding Bedding
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Guide lines to Design of Sewers

Design sewer mean to find the diameter (size) and to

scope (gradient) of sewer to carry the given amount of
discharge providing a self cleaning velocity.

Velocity in Sewers
The deposition of solids in sewer is undesirable. The
velocity of sewage in sewer should be such that there is no
setting of solid in sewer for a wide range of discharge.
The self cleaning velocity largely depended on the scope
or gradient of sewer and the size of suspended solids in
sewage and size of sewer and the material of sewer.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Minimum Self-cleaning velocity

Minimum Self-cleaning velocities for varies size of sewers

are: -

Size of sewers (cm) 15 – 25 (30-60) > 60

Min S.C. velocity (cm/s) 100 75 60

Self-cleaning velocity for some natural materials are: -

Nature of Material Minimum Self Cleaning Velocity
Angular stone 100 cm / sec
Round pebbles 60 cm / sec
Fine Gravels 30 cm / sec
Course Sand 20 cm / sec
Find sand clay 15 cm / sec
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Generally the velocity in sanitary sewer should not be less then

0.6 m/s (2 ft /sec) and in storm sewer should not be less than 1.0
m/s (3ft/sec) because of high organic loading.
The upper limit of velocity in set by screening action of a
sewage are depend on limiting of sewer.
Nature of Sewers Non Scouring Velocity (cm/s)
Earthen channel 60 – 120
Brick lined sewer 150 – 240
Cement line sewer 240 – 300
Stone ware sewer 300 – 450
Generally 2.4 m/s is used for of sewers
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Design flow in Sanitary Sewer

To find the design flow in sanitary sewers the following

steps are followed: -

1. Forecast the design population (P) of the area.

2. Find the sewage flow per day by multiplying population
with flow per capita of sewage. The sewage is taken as
(70 – 80) % of average water supply. If (q) is average per
capita per day water consumption of water then
Qavg = Average Sewage Flow
= (0.7 → 0.8) x P x q
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

3. Select a peaking factor (P.F) to find the peak sewage flow

according to WASA.
P.F = 4 (for discharge up to 0.0283 m3/sec)
P.F = 2 (for discharge less than 5.66 m3 /sec)
i.e peak discharge = Q peak = (P.F) (Qavg)

Peaking factor M which is the ration of maximum rate of

sewage to average flow is
M = 1 + 14 / (4 + √P)
Some designer are using 22 instead of 14.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

4. Calculate the allowance for industrial and commercial

sewage at a rate of 3734 m3 / km2 / day

5. Calculate infiltration from average sewage flow as

given by WASA.

Q inf = (0.05 to 0.1) Q avg

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

6. Find the design sewage flow by adding peak flow,

industrial allowance and infiltration flow.
Q design = Q peak + Q ind + Q inf
Normally Manning's formula is used for design of
sanitary sewer which is :
V = l / n (R)2/3 √S
Where
V = Velocity of sewage flow
R = Hydraulic radius
S = Slope of sewer
n = roughness coefficient
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Formulas

Some other formula used for designed of sewage

flow are:
→ Chazy’s Formula
V = C√ RS where C Chazy’s Constant

→ Kutter’s Formula for value of C

C = (41.66 + 1.811/n + 0.00281/S)
Where n = roughness coefficient

→ Hazen’s William formula may also be used.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DESIGN PROCEDURE

The following steps should be followed.

1. Calculate the design flow as already explained

2. Select value of self cleaning velocity and compute area of
pipe (sewer) by A = Q / v and the diameter.
3. find the slope of sewer by Manning’s formula.
V = l / n (R)2/3 √S
4. Check the velocity, it should be greater then minimum self
cleaning velocity.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
SEWAGE PUMPING STATIONS

Purpose:
These are required to ELEVATE and TRANSPORT
wastewater when
• Continuation of gravity flow is no longer feasible and
there is a need to raise the HGL of sewer.
• Any obstacle lies in the path of sewer (e.g. river, canal
etc)
• Receiving stream is higher than the sewer.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Pumps

Pumps for Sewage:

Centrifugal, single suction, non-clogging type pumps are
normally used. They have impellers having two or three
vanes. PUMPS SUCTION PIPE is usually larger than the
DISCHARGE pipe by about 25%.

SMALLEST discharge pipe =75mm (3”)

SMALLEST suction pipe =100mm (4”)
[WASA]
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Components of Sewage Pumping Station

1. Screens: to screen out large floating matters which can

damage the pumps
2. Dry well: to house the pump
3. Wet well: for receipt of wastewater

Outfall sewer

Well Curb P

Suction Pipe
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1. More than one pump should be provided to cope with

variable discharge. Two pumps for small P.S and more than
two for large P.S should be used:
a. Minimum flow
b. Average flow
c. Maximum flow

2. Total pumping capacity of the P.S must be equal to

the peak sewage flow.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

3. Standby pump MUST be provided at the P.S. Its capacity

should be at least 50% of peak sewage flow.

4. Alternate source of power MUST be provided at P.S.

(Either power from two feeders or a diesel operated
pump be provided)

5. Pumps should be SELF PRIMING TYPE and should

operate under +ve suction head.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

6. Each pump should have an individual intake.

7. Screens with 50 mm opening be provided at pump

suction to avoid entrance of big particles in pumps.

8. Size of dry well should be sufficient to house

pumping machinery.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

9. Dry well be provided with pumps which are usually

RECIPROCATING PUMPS to pump out sewage leaks
in dry well.

10. Sluice valves must be provided at suction and non-

return valve at the delivery side.

11. Detention time in wet well should not be greater than 30

minutes to avoid septic conditions.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II Design of Pumping station

Design refer to finding the OPERATING VOLUME of wet

well. A wet well has to fulfil two requirements:

1. Pumps should not be started and stopped frequently to

avoid overheating of motors. Time between two successive
start ups of the pumps should be more than minimum
CYCLE TIME as given by pump manufacturer.

Cycle time =5 ~ 10 minutes for small pumps

15 ~ 20 minutes for large pumps

Cycle time can be defined as (time between two successive

start ups of the pumps)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

2. Detention time in wet well at average flow should not

be more than 30 minutes to avoid SEPTIC
CONDITIONS.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Detention time and volume of wet well

We can derive the equation for detention time considering

a cycle time condition.

Cycle time = Time on + Time off

t = Time to empty + Time to fill
t = V/(P-Q) + V/Q … I
t = V(P-Q)-1 + VQ-1
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Diff w.r.t Q
dt /dQ = -1 V(P-Q)-2 (-1) – 1 x VQ-2
dt / dQ = 0 for min cycle time
0 = V / (P-Q)2 – V/Q2
V / (P-Q)2 = V / Q2
P2 = 2PQ
Q = P/2
t = tmin when Q = P/2
Put Q = P/2 and t = tmin in Eqn. I
tmin = V / (P-P/2) + V/(P/2)
= V / (P/2) + V / (P/2)
= 4V/P
V = P tmin/4
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II PROBLEM

Design a wet well if the average sewage flow is 4000 m3/d

and peak sewage flow is 14000 m3/d. The motor pump has a
minimum cycle time of 20 min. Also check the detention
time to avoid septic condition.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Solution
Average sewage flow = 4000 m3/d
Peak sewage = 14000 m3/d
tmin = 20 min
Volume of tank is designed on peak flow and detention
time is checked on average flow.
V = P tmin/4
V = (14000 / (24 x (60)2) x 20 x 60) / 4
V = 48.61 m3
Let dia of well = 5m
Depth = 48.61 / ((π/4) x 52) = calculate
t= V / Q = 48.61 / 4000 = 0.012 day
t= 17.5 min < 30 minutes, so no septic
conditions
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

DESIGN OF STORM SEWERS

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II DESIGN OF STORM SEWERS

The first step in the design of STORM SEWERS is the

estimation of flow which they will receive.
There are different methods to estimate storm flow
from URBAN AREAS.
Primary source of storm flow is RAIN FALL and
RATIONAL METHOD is minimally used for
estimating the storm flows in urban areas and semi
urban areas
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II RATIONAL METHOD

All techniques for estimating storm flow are based upon use of rainfall
data – either directly or indirectly and rational method is not an
exceptional to it.

Rational method relates the flow to:

(a) rainfall intensity
(b) the tributary area and
(c) a coefficient

Q = CiA (Rational Formula)

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

Where
Q = amount of rainfall which appear as runoff , m3 / hr.
i = intensity of rainfall , m / hr
A = Area upon which the rainfall, m2
C= Runoff coefficient, i.e the fraction of incident rainfall
which appear as surface flow. It depend upon the nature of
area.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Typical values of ‘C’

Typical values of ‘c’ as used by design engineers are

given in table below:-

Type of area C value

Density built area 0.7 ~ 0.9

Well built area 0.5 ~ 0.7
Detached house 0.25 ~ 0.5
Sub urban areas 0.15 ~ 0.25
(with few building)
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II TIME OF CONCENTRATION

Definition: It is the time required for the max runoff to develop.

When rainfall event occur upon an area served by a storm
sewer the runoff will flow over roofs yards and pavements to
the gutter and eventually to the sewer INLET. This travel
require measurable time and the areas immediately adjacent to
the inlet will contribute flow quickly, areas which are distant
will not.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

The max rate of runoff for a given rainfall intensity will occur
when the rainfall has continued for a period sufficient to
permit flow to reach the inlet from the most remote point of
the drainage area. Consider the rectangular water shed
shown below:-
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II TIME OF CONCENTRATION

C
5 min
B

5 min A

5 min
Inlet
Sewer

Inlet Time
I1

Time of
I2 Flow in
sewer
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II

So, only the rainfall events are of interest which are of

sufficient duration to develop max runoff.
Inlet Time Mathematically:-
Time of conc = inlet time + time of flow in sewer.
(For Lahore time of conc= 2 hrs)

Where INLET TIME is the time required for rainwater to flow

from the farthest point to the sewer inlet.
Usually Inlet time = 3 – 20 min

For most urban areas 2 hrs is taken as critical duration to

produce max runoff.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II RAINFALL INTENSITY

In determining rainfall intensity for use in RATIONAL FORMULA it

must be recognized that the shorter the duration the greater the
expected avg. intensity will be and vice versa. The storm sewer
designer thus require some relationship between DURATION AND
INTENSITIES. The relation is of form
I = A/(t + B)

Where.
I = intensity of rainfall, mm / hr
t = duration of rainfall, minutes
A,B = Constants, determined using rainfall data
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Constants ‘A’ & ‘B’

Usually 5 year storm frequency is used for residential areas.

For Lahore Camp and Dresser found the values of A and B

based on 5 years storm frequency.
I = 7190 /(t + 103)

USA is divided in 7 zones

A = 810 to 9520
B = 10 to 38
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING
STORM FLOW

• Select a suitable critical rainfall duration / time of

concentration on (thoroughly consult rainfall records
and project area).
• Find out rainfall intensity using above duration form
a relation of type.
I = A/(t + B)
• Use above intensity in rational formula to find flow.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Problem
Find the maximum storm flow for the sewers shown in figure below:-
Area

A B C
4 ha 3 ha 2 ha
0.8 0.7 0.8
Inlet time for each area = 8 minutes
Time of flow between manholes = 5 minutes
Rainfall intensity I = 2670/(T + 15) mm/hr
4 3 2 1
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - II
Solution
Using rational formula
• Q = Ci A

From To MH Area C =AC ∑AC Time I Q Q

MH Servd of m/hr m3/hr m3/Sec
Conc.(
min)
4 3 40000 0.8 32000 32000 8 0.116 3714.8 1.03
3 2 30000 0.7 21000 53000 13 0.0954 5053.9 1.40
2 1 20000 0.8 16000 69000 18 0.0809 5582.7 1055