TIJOY INSTITUTE

OPTIMISTIC DESTINY

MALAWI SCHOOL CERTIFICATE

OF EDUCATION COMPLETE
GEOGRAPHY MSCE
GEOGRAPHY

2018-19

AIDED BY TIJOY STEVEN LOWORE

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION. ............................................................................................................................... 3
UNIT 1. LITHOSPHERE ..................................................................................................................... 3
UNIT 2: HYDROSPHERE ................................................................................................................. 35
UNIT 3 THE ATMOSPHERE............................................................................................................ 47
UNIT 4 WORLD CLIMATES ........................................................................................................... 68
UNIT 5 THE ENVIRONMENT ........................................................................................................ 89
UNIT 6 WEATHER INSTRUMENTS .............................................................................................. 96
UNIT 7 MAP WORK ELEMENTS ................................................................................................. 100
HUMAN AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY .............................................................................. 117
Unit 1 WORLD AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE ..................................................................... 117
UNIT 2 WETLANDS IN MALAWI ................................................................................................ 145
UNIT 3 ENERGY FROM NATURAL RESOURCES .................................................................... 145
UNIT 4 MINERALS AND MINING ............................................................................................... 149
UNIT 5 INDUSTRIES ...................................................................................................................... 156
UNIT 6 SETTLEMENT AND URBANISATION........................................................................... 162
UNIT 7 WORLD HUMAN POPULATION .................................................................................... 165
UNIT 8 STATISTICAL METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY ................................................................ 167
UNIT 9 THE ENVIRONMENT ....................................................................................................... 170
UNIT 10 TOURISM IN AFRICA .................................................................................................... 174
UNIT 11 TRANSPORTATION AND TRADE ............................................................................... 175
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION.
Within the spheres of physical geography emanate the three conceptual and peripheral categories
namely: Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and Atmosphere which involve land, water and air
respectively. These three components of the environment will be explained in detail in this book.
Furthermore, learners will be exposed to map work elements which have been simplified to ease
learning and understanding. This book has been simplified to easy learning and understanding. This
book has been written in line with the current curriculum and its explanations have been simplified
to help the learner grasp the content easily. Learners will also be exposed to review questions which
they will find at the end of each unit.

UNIT 1. LITHOSPHERE
Main Ideas:
By the end of this unit, you should be able to know that:
 The earth has three distinct parts namely the crust, mantle and core which have distinct
characteristics.
 There are two theories i.e., continental Drift and Plate Tectonics dealing with the lithosphere
both caused by conventional cell or currents operating in the upper part of the mantle.
 Mountains are formed by earth movements created by tension and compressional forces as
well as denudation.
 Volcanism or volcanicity is caused by tension force and that it has both positive and negative
effects. Some areas are prone to volcanism while others are not.
 Earthquakes are caused by all types of plate movements and they have many effects. Some
parts are stable and are often called shields while some are not.
 Rocks are composed of different minerals such as quartz, feldspars and micas. These rocks
can change from one type to another under different conditions and are important to man.
Furthermore, these can also undergo both physical and chemical weathering.

To begin with, the world lithosphere comes from the Greek word “lithos” which means rock or
stone. Thus, lithosphere means sphere of rocks. The study of rocks is called lithology.

The earth is made up of three parts namely:

a. The crust (lithosphere)
b. The mantle (mesosphere)
c. The core (barysphere)
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT LAYERS OF THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE
OF THE EARTH

(A) THE CORE

Characteristics
(i) This is the most interior layer of the earth, which is also known as the baryshphere.
(ii) It is divided into the outer and inner core or barysphere
(iii) It is 3476 km in radius.
(iv) It is made up of Iron (Fe) with some Nickel (Ni) and hence it is called NIFE.
(v) The temperature hare is estimated to be as high as 1927oC and the core is subjected to
high pressure. Under such conditions the core is expected to be in liquid state.
Note: But recent studies through earthquake wave have suggested that the innermost part
of the core is probably a solid or crystalline mass.
(vi) It is the source of gravitational force (centripedal force)

(B) THE MANTLE (MESOSPHERE)

Characteristics
(i) This pat of the earth is found between the core and crust.
(ii) It is about 2,900 km thick
(iii) It is composed mainly of dense rocks which is olivine and silicate minerals.
(iv) The upper part of capable of flowing.
(v) There are a lot of convectional currents that operate within the mantle which cause plates
to move.
(vi) It is separated from the core by the imaginary line called Guternburg discontinuity.

(C) THE LITHOSPHERE (CRUST)

Characteristics.
(i) This is the solid crust, which surrounds the mantle of the earth.
(ii) It is separated from the mantle by the Mohodiscontinuity.
(iii) It consists of the thin, loose layer known as the soil
(iv) It extends to a depth of about 33km below the earth’s surface
(v) It protects above the hydrosphere to form continents
(vi) It is the thinnest layer ranging from 5km to 48km thick.
(vii) It is made up of two distinct parts namely:
1. Upper part
This forms continents and its minerals are silica and alumina (SIAL).
2. Lower part
The rocks are denser basaltic rocks, which form the ocean floor
The minerals are silica and magnesium (SIMA)

AN EXPLANATION OF THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

(i) DEFINITION
This is moving part of continents due to the movement of the tectonic plates.
The theory suggests that at one point in time the earth was a single super continent (pangea) which
was surrounded by a single super ocean (panthalasa) but later it did split apart due to convectional
currents or cells that operate within the upper part of the mantle.
A german Scientist who put it forward by the name of Alfred Wegener supported that continents
drift or move across the surface of the earth, gradually changing their positions. His theory dealt with
the continental crust beneath oceans. In light of this, the proponent of the theory constructed a super
continent, the pangae which was surrounded by a single super ocean, the panthalasa, which existed
intact 300 million years ago (the carboniferous period).
There are specific physical occurrences within certain periods, million years ago.

There are specific physical occurrences within certain periods, million years ago.

(A) Permian period (225 million years ago)

Physical occurrences: There was a single super continent called pangea which was surrounded by a
single super ocean called Panthalasa.

(B) Early Triassic (200 million years ago)

Physical occurrences: The Pangea broke part and the land blocks separated slowly in a sideways
direction.

(C) Late Triassic (180 million ago)

Physical; occurrences: The land blocks formed two main land masses namely Luarasia broke into
North America, Greenland, Madagascar, India, Australia and Antartica and Gondwanaland which
broke into Africa and South America.

(D) Late Jurassic (135 years ago)

Physical occurrences: Land masses formed from Luarasia and Gondwanaland gradually moved
apart.

(E) Late Cretaceous (65 million years ago)

Physical occurrences: India moved northwards to join Asia. South America drifted northwards to
join North America that was moving westwards. Australia detached itself form Antaerctica and
drifted eastwards. Antarctica moved southwards.

(F) Quaternary (Less than 1 Million years ago)

Physical occurrences: the continents attained their present position but still continue to drift apart.

Note: The water of the super ocean (panthalasa) formed the various oceans that we see today such as
Atlantic, Pacific and India.
(ii) EVIDNCE FOR CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

(a) The southern continents fit in a gigantic jig-saw puzzle i.e. they can b e easily fit if brought
together.
(b) There is almost an identical geological sequence of rock layers in South America and
Antarctica.
(c) Folded ranges of Argentina are similar in structure and age of the folded Cape Ranges of
South Africa.
(d) Magnetism of ancient rocks (Paleomagnetism) indicates that the continents were once a
single continent. Rocks are magnetized in the direction of the magnetic north when
solidifying. All ancient rocks on all continents show similar magnetism pattern.
(e) There are climatic changes of continents drift from one latitude to another. For instance coal
seams only form within the equatorial belt but today coal deposits are found away from this
belt. The question in how has coal managed to reach such areas. This is a clear evidence that
the earth was once joined but later split due to convectional cells within the upper part of the
mantle. Furthermore, there are glacial deposits in Congo basin. Such deposits are impossible
today because the basin is influenced by equatorial conditions. In addition to this, fossilized
trees in Antarctica show that land mass might have experienced climatic conditions different
from those of today. The present day Antarctica is frozen and covered with ice.
(f) West African rocks and those of Brazil are similar. This shows that the two regions were
once joined.

(iii) WEAKNESSES OF THE THORTY

(a) The theory does not explain what caused the drifting process.
Note: Wegner’s scenario of continental drift took a new meaning in the 1960’s – 1970’s
when plate tectonic theory emerged. The plate tectonic theory involved the entire lithospheric
plates much thicker than merely the outer crust of either the continents or the ocean basins.
(b) The separate of the continents (continental drift process) has been strongly opposed on
physical grounds i.e., Alfred Wegner proposed that the continental layer of less dense rocks
had moved like a great raft through a “sea” of dense oceanic crust rock. This process is
physically impossible in such a fashion.
(c) Fossil plants might have been spread throughout the drifted continents by wind or ocean
currents and not by the drifting process.
(d) Polar wandering: The position of the magnetic poles seem to have wandered all over the
earth. The group of geographysicists who first measured the poles of the apparent polar
wandering in 1950’s were surprised by this wandering. They discovered that the magnetic
poles move a little but still always remaining close to the poles of rotation. They also
discovered and become puzzled upon learning that a pat of apparent polar wondering
measured in North America was different from that in Europe. Conclusion was drawn that
because poles could not have moved, then, it must be the continents and not the magnetic
poles which had moved. However, a mechanism to explain the movement occurred was still
lacking.

AN EXPLANATION OF PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

(i) DEFINITION OF THE PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

The earth’s crust is composed of oceans and continents which are carried on six large and several
other small plates which float on a soft layer called the Asthenosphere and are continuously moving
due to convectional cells or currents operating within the upper part of the mantle.

(ii) CAUSE OF TECTONIC ACTIVITY

Convectional currents that operate within the upper part of the mantle cause this tectonic activity.
These currents are responsible for plate spreading or divergence and collision or convergence.

(iii) TYPES OF PLATES

The earth is divided into a number of plates which are also called lithosepheric slabs
These plates move or are carried on a soft layer between crust and mantle called Asthenosphere by
horizontal moving convectional currents (refer to figure showing internal structure of the earth).
These are two types of plates namely:

(a) Continental Plates

These are plates which are lighter and they carry continents. Examples of such plates include North
American Plate, South American Plate, African Plate, Australian Plate and Eurasian Plate.

(b) Oceanic Plates

These are plates which are denser because they contain heavier basaltic rocks and they form the
oceanic floor. Examples of such plates include the pacific Plate and the Antarctic Plate.

(IV) EXAMPLES OF MAIN TECTONIC PLATES

NAME DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT

 NAZCA Eastwards
PACIFIC Westwards
AUSTRALIA North Eastwards
EURASIAN Eastwards
SOUTH AMERICAN Westwards
NORTH AMERICA Westwards
PHILIPPINES Eastwards
AFRICAN North Eastwards

(V) PLATE BOUNDARIES

These are zones in instability and the changes that take place in the margins lead to the formation of
world’s landforms such as rift valleys, plateau, block mountains, oceanic ridges, oceanic islands,
volcanic mountains and fold mountains.

 Destructive margins: These are margins of converging plates and they are called destructive
margins because this is where the crust is destroyed.
 Constructive margins: These are margins of diverging plates so-called because these are
places where curst is formed.
 Conservative margins: These are margins that occur where two plates move past one
another.

(VI) TYPES OF PLATE MOVEMENTS

Basically, there are three types of plate movement and these include:

1. Spreading or Diverging Movement

In this type of movement, plates move apart. It results into formation of various physical features
such as Marine/Oceanic ridges. Examples of such ridges are the Mid-Atlantic Ridges Chagos-
Laccadive, South West and South East Indian Ridges (ref. diagram of main tectonic plates).
Volcanic mountains, rift valleys, block mountains are also formed due to a kind of conventional
currents that move away from centre of plumes outwardly as shown in the diagram below.

Convectional currents responsible for plate spreading or divergence

Figure showing spreading or diverging movement.
2. Convergence Movement
The plates move towards each other under compression force and finally collide. This type of
movement results in the formation of such features and block mountains, rift valleys and oceanic
islands. The leading edge of one plate sinks into the mantel under the edge of another plate. The
sinking edge melts and eventually is destroyed due to great heat and pressure thus creating volcanoes
and earthquakes. In addition, colliding plates may fold rocks layers into huge fold mountain systems
such as Himalayas in India and Rockies in South and North America.

Furthermore, trenches are formed by the sinking of plate under the other during plate collision. For
example, the trenches bordering the Pacific Ocean are regions where the Pacific Plate is sinking and
the size of the plate decreases as it sinks into the trench. Notably, the Pacific Plate is shrinking
slowly.

This kind of the plate towards each other under compression force and finally collide. This type of
movement results in the formation of such features as block mountains, rift valleys and oceanic
islands. The leading edge of one plate sinks into the mantle under the edge of another plate. The
sinking edge melts and eventually is destroyed due to great heat and pressure thus creating volcanoes
and earthquakes. In addition, colliding plates may fold rock layers into huge fold mountain systems
such as the Himalayas in India and Rockies in South and North America.

Furthermore, trenches are formed by the sinking of plate under the other during plate collision. For
example, the trenches bordering the Pacific Ocean are regions where the Pacific Plate is sinking and
the size of the plate decreases as it sinks into the trench. Notably, the Pacific plate is shrinking
slowly.
This kind of the plate movement is caused by conventional currents that originate from different
areas of plumes and come together as shown in the figure below:

Convectional Currents responsible for convergence or collision

Figure showing convergence movement

3. Shearing or sliding Movement

In this type of movement, plates movement is caused by convectional currents that operate in the
apposite direction. The boundary that separates the two plate is called a Fault Boundary and the
San Andreas Fault in Califonia is a very good example of this boundary where earthquakes are very
common.

Figure showing sliding or shearing movement.

(vii) RESULTS OF TECTONIC ACTIVITIES.

(a) Tectonic activities lead to the formation of trenches. When an oceanic plate and a continental
plate converge, the margin of the oceanic plate is drawn beneath the margin of the
continental plate. The rocks of the oceanic plate margin are absorbed into the mantle.
Destructive margin are called Zones of Subduction. The zones of the active subduction are
found off the coast of Japan, Califonia and the West Coast of South America. In these Zones,
the margins of oceanic plates are bent down into the mantle

as the continental plate “rides up” over them. This causes trench to form. Examples of
trenches include Peru, Aleutian, Java, Marianas and Tonga.
(b) They also give rise to the formation of Oceans Ridges e.g. the Mid-Atlantic Ridge A ridge is
formed when plates diverge or move away from each other and the crust between the plates
breaks forcing the magma out of the surface. When this happens on the ocean floor, the
magma spreads out and solidifies forming a new crust. The zone between the diverging
plates is sometimes called a spreading zone. Such a zone occurs beneath the Atlantic Ocean
where the African plate and American plate are diverging. The magma outpouring in this
zone is building a ridge called Mid-Atlantic ridge.
Figure showing two continental plates diverging and forming a ridge.

(c) They also lead to volcanism and earthquakes. Association with the formation of oceanic
ridge are chains of Volcanic island. Often violent activity takes place as the magma wells up.
Additionally, earthquakes are frequent.
(d) Tectonic activities lead to the formation of different types of mountains such as block, fold
and volcanic mountains. For example, in the formation of fold mountains, sediment is
crushed and folded and fold mountains may form it a zone of thick sediment lies between
two converging continental plates.
(e) They also lead to the formation of oceanic island.

Figure showing Ocean Island

 Ocean island are formed then compression forces operate on a section of the earth
such that folding occurs. Their formation is similar to the formation of Fold
Mountains.
(f) Volcanic Islands: This form under tensional forces, i.e, diverging plate movement.
Explanation:
When plates move apart due to tension force, a hole (vent) is created through which magma passes.
Leather on the magma protrudes above the surface of the water and finally cools and solidifies to
form a volcanic island.

(viii) DESCRIPTION OF MOUNTAIN BUILDING PROCESS ASSOCIATED WITH

PLATE TECTONICS.
There are several mountains building periods during the earth’s history – the three most recent ones
are the Caledonia, the Hercynian and the Alpine which took place 310,240 and 30 million years ago
respectively.
The process of mountain building is also called Orogenesis. This is movement caused within the
crust (crust movement). The are two major movements namely:

(i) Vertical movement which is also called Epeirogenic.

(ii) Horizontal movement which is also called Orogenic/lateral.

General orogenic movements are possible for mountain buildings (both Fold Mountains and
Volcanoes), marine ridges and trenches. The Epeirogenic movements cause rift valleys and
sometimes block mountains. Rift valleys can also be formed by orogenic belts involves a sequence
of events.
Which together form what is known as Orogenic Cycle. It involves the following sequences of
events of stages.

Stage One.
Development of geosynclines (this is an elongated down wrapping of the crust of the earth – forming
a deep trough in which great thickness of sediments accumulate especially in the central zone).

Stage Two.
Compression of the belt by a first orogenic phase involving root formation in depth, fold and over
thrusting superstructure and uplift of the compressed zone in response to the buoyant (isostatic)
effect of the root.
Isostatic theory asserts that equilibrium exist on the earth’s surface, equal mass msut underlie
equator surface.

State Three
Lateral growth of the geosynclines by the development of new subsiding tract outside the rising
mountain. As the latter are crushed into peaks and valleys by denudation they provide much of the
sediments which fill up the depression.

State Four
Renewed orogenic compression of the whole belt stage three and four may occur twice even three
times in the more complex belt.

Stage Five
During the more vigorous orogenic phases and particularly during climax of revolution, the deeper
rocks are intensely metamorphosed. Since the dawn of geological time, not less than nine orogenic
movements have taken place, folding and faulting the earth’s lithosphere. The folding and faulting of
the lithosphere rocks is called the Diastrophism.
Some of them took place in pre-Cambrian times but others have taken place quite recently i.e. 30
million years ago.
The process of mountain building involves folding and faulting which are associated with plate
tectonic activity.

EARTH MOVEMENT
Major features such as mountains, plateaus and plains have been formed by earth movements both
lateral (ins a sideways direction) and vertical (up and down). These exert great forces of tension and
compression which though they take place very slowly, produce very impressive features.

(A) TENSIONAL FORCE

Explanation:
When tension forces acts on a certain section of the earth as shown above, faults develop and the
centre block begins to subside. After subsidence a depression with steep fault scarp sides i.e., a Rift
valley is formed.

(B) COMPRESSIONAL FORCE

Explanation:
When there is compression force, two parts of the earth move towards each other as shown in the
Diagrams above. Faults develop and the outer blocks begin to thrust6 up over the centre block. The
hanging sides of the rift valley are worn out buy erosion.

FOLDING

DEFINITION OF A FOLD
A fold is simply a bend in the crust caused by compression forces exerted by the earth movements.

TYPES OF FOLDS
There are four types of folds namely:
1. Simple fold
2. Asymmetrical fold
3. Overfold
4. Overthrust fold/thrust fault

A. Simple Fold

Explanation:
The rock layers that bend up form an upfold or anticline; those that bend down form a downfold or
syncline. The sides of the fold are called the Limbs.
Explanation
If compression continues, a simple fold is first changed into an asymmetrical fold where one limb is
steeper than the other.

(C) An Overfold

Explanation
If the compression continues, an asymmetrical fold is changed into an overfold where limb is
punished over the other.

(D) An Overthrust Fold or Thrust Fault

Explanation:
If pressure continues, the rock fracture and the limb of the fold is thrust forward over the other limb.

TYPES OF MOUNTAIN
There are four types of fold mountains namely:
(a) Fold mountains
(b) Residual mountains
(c) Block mountains or Horsts
(d) Volcanic mountains

(A) Fold Mountains

Fold mountains consist of masses of folded sedimentary rocks which have a thickness of 12km or
more.
Large scale earth movements cause these mountains when stresses are set up in the earth’s crust.
Such stresses may be due to the increased load of overlying rocks, flow movements in the mantle,
magnetic intrusion into the crust, or expansion or contraction of some part of the earth. When such
stresses are initiated, rocks are subjected to compressive forces that produce folding along the line of
fault.

Examples of Fold Mountains

(a) Himalayas
(b) Rockies
(c) Andies
(d) Alps

Formation
There are four stages which are involved in the formation of fold mountain

Stage one
In this stage, the continental blocks move towards each other – thus creating compressional force.
Colliding plates produce a trench that becomes a site of the sea. Deposition takes place and
eventually sedimentary rocks form.

STAGE TWO
As the continent blocks approach each other, the sedimentary rocks are folded and pushed up.

Figure showing formation of fold mountains

Stage Three
As compression continues, intense folding takes place. Sometimes one continental block rises up and
over the other (not shown in the diagram): the folded rocks continue to rise.

Figure showing formation of fold mountains

Stage Four

Effects of Mountains Building / Fold Mountains on Human Activities

(a) They often act as climatic barriers. Regions on one side of the mountain have an entirely
different climate from that of the other side. For instance, to the west of Rockies, the
coastland of British Columbia have mild winters, warm summer and rain throughout the year
while to the east or Rockies, the Phrairies have cold waters, hot summr and there is
maximum rain in summer
(b) They often receive heavy rain and / or snow which may give rise to important rivers. These
rivers may be used for irrigation to meet the needs of the increased population and for the
production of hydro-electric power.
(c) Some mountains and their plateau may contain minerals e.g. Nevada (copper and gold),
Bolivia (tin).
(d) They act as barriers to communications or they may make construction of communications
difficult.
(e) Some mountains ranges have valuable timber resources e.g., coast ranges of Western
America (coniferous soft wood), foothills of the Himalayas (teak)

(B) Residual Mountains

Formation
These are mountains evolved by denudation. Where general level of the land has been lowered
by agents of denudation e.g. water and wind, some very resistant areas may remain and these form
residual mountains e.g. mountains monadnock in USA.

Residual mountains may also evolve plateaux which have been dissected by rivers into hills and
valleys.

As denution proceeds, erosion resistant rocks stand out to form a mountains as the weaker rocks
get eroded away to give valleys .

(c) Block Mountains or Horsts

Formation
When the earth’s crust bends, folding occur, but when it cracks faulting takes place. Faulting may
be caused by tension and compression forces which lengthen and shorten the earth’s crust, causing
a section of it to subside or to rise above the surrounding level.

Explanation:
Earth movements generate tensional forces that tend to pull the crust apart and faults are developed.
The middle block subsides leaving two blocks on either side. These remaining blocks of land form
mountains that are called Block Mountains or horsts
Explanation
Compression forces set up by earth movements may produce a thrust or reverse fault and shorten
the crust. A block may be raised or lowered in relation to the surrounding areas

( D ) VOLCANIC MOUNTINS

Definition
These are mountains that are formed after the materials ejected from fissures inside the earth’s
surface solidify on the earth’s surface. These materials include molten lava, volcanic bombs,
cinders, ashes, dust and liquid mud. They fall around the vent (hole through which molten lava
passes) in sucessive layers, building up a volcanic cone.

Volcanic mountains are also called mountains of accumulation. They are very common in the
Circum-pacific belt (this is a belt where volcanic activity and earthquakes are very common.)
furthermore, they are also common in such volcanic peaks as Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Mayon
(Phillippines), Mt. Merapi (Sumatra), and Mt. Agung (Bali).

VOLCANISM

MEANING OF VOLCANISM

 Volcanism refers to all various ways by which molten rock and gases are forced into the
earth’s crust and out on to its surface.
 Volcanicity therefore includes:
(a) Volcanic eruptions i.e., the formation of lava plateaus, geysers and volcanic mountains.
(b) Formation of volcanic features and as batholiths, sills and dykes etc. in the crust.

HOW IS A VOLCANO FORMED?

To begin with, rocks below the crust have a very high temperature, but the very high pressure
exerted on them by the crust, keeps the rocks in semi-solid state. Friction along rock surfaces at the
boundaries of tectonic in pressure caused by faulting and folding which are associated with
movement of tectonic plates, causes the rocks to become molten and semi-fluid. Such rocks are
called Magma.
As the magma rises, it forces its way into cracks of the crust. The magma may stay in the crust
where it forms internal features such as batholiths, sills and dykes or it may reach the surface either
quietly, or with great violence.
If the magma contains a lot of gases, especially steam, then the magma approaches the surface, the
pressure on the gasses is reduced. This causes the gases to expand quickly which gives rise to violent
explosions. When magma reaches the surface, it loses its gases and is called lava.

LAVA

TYPES OF LAVA
These are two types of lava namely:
(a) Acidic lava
(b) Basic lava

Why is it that acidic lava is violent?

These lavas are highly viscous so much so that they accumulate in the vent and in turn obstruct the
flow of the outpouring lava. This results in loud explosions that throw out volcanic bombs.

(A). ACIDIC LAVAS

Characteristics
 They are highly viscous with a high melting point
 They are light coloured
 They have low density
 They have a high percentage of silica.
 They flow slowly and seldom travel far before solidifying
 The resultant cone is steep sided.

Effects of acidic lavas

 It results in loud explosion, throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts. This is because
the accumulation of lava is the vent obstructs the flow of the out pouring lava.
 This is why these lavas are very violent. The lavas are so viscious that they can form a spine
or plug.
 The resultant is steep sides.

(B) BASIC LAVAS

Characteristics

 They are very hot about 1000oC (1830 oF)

 They are highly fluid (flow with a speed of 16-48km / hr)
 They are dark coloured like basalt.
 They are rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica.
 They flow quickly and are not very explosive.

Effects of Basic Lavas

 They effect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great distance before they
solidify.
 The resultant volcano is gently sloping with a wide diameter and forms flattered shield or
dome.
TYPES OF VOLCANO
There are three types of volcano namely:
(a) Active
(b) Dormant
(c) Extinct

Active
 Volcanoes are said to be active when they frequently erupt at least when they have erupted
within recent times.

Dormant
 Those that have known to erupt and show signs of possible eruption in the future.

Extinct
 These are volcanoes that have not erupted at all in historic times but retain the features of
volcanoes

FORMATION OF VOLCANIC FEATURES

Features are formed either inside the earth’s crust or outside it.

A. Features formed inside the Earth’s Crust

(Volcanic Intrusions)
Examples of features formed inside the earth’s curst are:
 Batholiths
 Sills
 Dykes

(i) Batholiths
Definition
 This is very large mass of magma which accumulates in the crust
 Some times it forms the root or core of a mountain. Batholiths are made of granite and they
form surface features only after they have been exposed by agents of denudation e.g water
through erosion and air through moving wind.

(ii) Sills
Meaning of Sill
 A sill is formed when a sheet of magma lies along a bedding plane.
 Some sills form ridge-like escarpments when exposed by erosion. Others, through erosion,
remain as carps on the top of hills which they protect from erosion.
 An escarpment formed by sill-dimensions of sills are similar to those of a dyke.

(iii) Dykes
 When a mass magma cuts across bedding planes, it forms a wall-like feature known as a
Dyke. Some dykes are easily eroded to form shallow trenches, other resist erosion and stand
up as wall-like ridges. Like sill, dykes sometimes give rise to waterfalls or rapids.

B. Features Forming Outside the Earth’s Surface (volcanic Extrusion)

 Magma sometimes reaches the surface through a vent (hole) or a fissure (cracks) in the
surface rock. When magma emerges at the surfaces it is called Lava. If lava emerges via a
vent, it usually builds up a volcano, which is a cone-shaped mound.
 Examples of features which form outside the earth’s surface are:
1. Lava plains
2. Lava plateaus
3. Active volcanoes
 4. Dormant volcanoes
5. Extinct volcanoes

EFFECTS OF VOLCANISM
They are both destructive and constructive influence of volcanism and these are:

Destructive Influences
(i) Some eruptions cause loss of life e.g., Krakatoa in 1873 which caused great sea waves
drowning 40,000 people in the neighbouring islands and Mont Pelee in 1902 where
outpourings of gases killed 30,000 people.
(ii) Some eruptions cause great damage to property e.g., Mont Pelee caused destruction of
St. Pierre and Vesuvius which baried Herculaneuma and Pompelii with ash.

Constructive Influences
(iii) Some lava outpourings have weathered to give fertile soil, e.g. In Java, the North
Western part of Deccan plateau and the plain around Etna. These regions are of important
agriculture value.
(iv) Volcano activity sometimes results in the formation of precious stones and
materials.

These occur in some igneous and metamorphic rocks e.g. Diamonds and Kimberly;
copper deposits of Butte (USA), the Nickel deposits of Sudbury in Canada.
(v) Source of geo-thermal power. Some hot water to buildings in New Zealand and Iceland.
(vi) It also enhances tourism because volcanoes give rise to scenic features of great
beauty.

LOCATION OF MAJOR AREAS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND LAVA PLATEAUS

The greatest concentration of volcanoes is probably that in the CIRCUM-PACIFIC region,
popularly known as Pacific Ring of Fire having an estimated two thirds of the world’s volcanoes.

Other forms of volcanic activity

 Emission of gases and steam periodically take place from dormant volcanoes. Similar
emission of gases and steam take place in some volcanic regions where active lava
eruptions have long since ceased.
 Superheated water may flow quietly as in hot springs or it may be thrown out with great
force and accompanied by steam as in geysers.
 Thus, a geyser differs from a hot springs in that its water is ejected explosively. Geysers
and hot springs are common in Iceland, North Island of New Zealand and the Yellow
Stone National Park of USA. Examples of hot springs in Malawi include Liwonde and
Chawina in Nkhotakota district.

EARTHQUAKES

MEANING
- These are sudden earth movements or vibrations in the earth’s crust.

Causes of these Sudden Earth Movements or Vibration in the Earth’s crust / Earthquakes.
These are caused by:
1. One tectonic plate sliding over or past another plate along the line of fault.
2. Volcanic eruptions – the movement of molten rock below or on to the earth’s crust, which in
turn is caused by the movement of tectonic plates (diverging movement).
3. Converging movement of tectonic plates caused by compression forces.

Where do the majority of earthquakes occur?

The majority of earthquakes occur in narrow belts which mark the boundaries of tectonic plates. The
main types of regions where they occur are:
1. The mid ocean ridges
2. The ocean deeps and volcanic islands.
3. The ridges of crustal compression.

NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES
- The point which an earthquake originates is called focus, and sometimes it is several
kilometers below the surface. The pint on the earth’s surface immediately above the focus is
called the epicenter. This is where the shock waves that give rise to an earthquake. These
shock waves are of two types namely: body and surface waves.

 As shock waves travel out from the focus, they set up vibrations that may be used as high as
200 per minute.
 The intensity of an earthquake is measured by an instrument called a SEISMOGRAPH which
records the vibrations produced by an earthquake.
The magnitude of an earthquake refers to the normal amount of energy released, and the scale which
gives the magnitude is called RICHTER SCALE.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
1. They can cause vertical and lateral displacement of parts of the crust.
2. They can rise or lower the parts of the sea floor as in Sangami Bay (Japan) in 1923. Parts of
the Bay were uplifted by 215 metres. This caused tsunamis (water earthquakes) or tidal
waves.
3. They can cause the raising or lowering of Coastal regions as in Alaska in 1899 when some of
the coastal rocks were uplifted by 16 metres.
4. They can cause landslides as in the loess country of North China in 1920 and 1927.

5. They can cause the destruction of cities-fires (electrical lines can cause fire when they spark)
and diseases (mainly water-borne disease e.g., dysentery, cholera, etc.

Explanation of the Relationship Among Fold Mountains, Earthquakes and volcanic Zones

Fold Mountains were formed within earthquakes and volcanic zones. For example, Rocky mountains
and Andies Mountains were formed within the Circum-pacific rings of fire where volcanoes and
earthquakes are common (refer to figure showing the volcanoes and lava plateau).

Identification of the Most Stable Parts of the Earth

These stable parts are known as shields. Example of such parts are shown in the following map:

1. Laurentian Shield 6. Siberian Shield

2. Brazilian Shield 7. Deccan Shield
3. Baltic Shield 8. China Shield
4. African Shield 9. Australian Shield
5. Arabian Shield

ROCKS

MEANING
These refer to any naturally formed aggregate of a mineral particle.

COMPOSITION OF ROCKS
 The earth’s crust consists of rocks which comprise of combination of different minerals. All
minerals are formed from one or more of eight main elements.
 These elements include:
Oxygen
Quartz
Silicon
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron
Aluminum

Examples of Minerals
1. Quartz (sometimes called silica) is a compound of silicon and oxygen. It is a very common
mineral. Other common minerals are micas and feldspars. Granite, a fairly common rock, is
a mixture and it contains quartz, micas and feldspars.
2. Feldspars are compounds of potassium, sodium, calcium and aluminium.
3. Micas are compounds of potassium, magnesium, silicon and aluminium.

Classification of Minerals
Some minerals are crystalline while others are non-crystalline.

(i) Crystalline minerals

Atoms of these crystalline minerals are arranged in a definite manner.

(ii) Non-Crystalline minerals

Atoms of these minerals are not arranged in any definite manner.

Below is a table showing common rocks and their minerals

ROCKS MINERALS
Limeston Quartz, feldsparas, micas
Sandstone Quartz, calcite, feldspars
Granite Feldspars, augite
Basalt Calcite, dolomite
Shale Quartz, micas, feldspars

TYPES OF ROCKS
Generally speaking, all rocks may be classified into three groups namely:
1. Igneous rocks
2. Metamorphic rocks
3. Sedimentary rocks
 The classification is based on their origin and appearance.

1. Igneous Rocks
Their formation

The name igneous comes from Latin word IGNIS which means “Fire”
These rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten rock (magma) from beneath the
earth’s crust.
When rocks solidify after reaching the earth’s surface, they are called lava or volcanic or extrusive
rocks.

When rocks solidify in channels connecting the molten magma reservoirs with the exterior, they are
called hypabysal rocks.
When rocks solidify well below the surface under the influence of pressure, they are called intrusive
or abyssal rocks.
In terms of origin there are two main classes of igneous rocks namely: Plutonic and Volcanic rocks.

(a) Plutonic Igneous Rocks

 These are rocks formed at some of the depth of the earth’s crust. They have cooled and
solidified slowly such that large, easily-recognized crystals have been able to form. These
intrusive rocks, such as granite, diorite and gabbro, are exposed to the surface by the
processes of denudation and erosion.

(b) Volcanic Igneous Rocks

 These are motlen rocks poured out of volcanoes as Lavas. They solidify rapidly on the
earth’s surface and crystals are small.

Characteristics of Igneous rocks

These rocks are characterized by the following:
(i) They are crystalline.
(ii) The rocks are non-stratified.
(iii) The rocks are non-fossilifeous (don’t contain fossils).

Origin Texture Rock Name Dominant Minerals

Extrusive Glassy 1. Obhsidian Orthoclase, Amphibole, Quartz
2. Pumice Orthoclase, Amphibole, Quartz
Fine-grained 3. Scoria Plagioclase, Olivine, Pyroxene
4. Rhyolite Orthoclase, Mica
5. Andesite Plagioclase
6. Basalt Plagioclase, Olivine, Pyroxene, Mica
Intrusive Coarse-grained 7. Granite Orthoclase, Amphibole, Quartz, Mica
8. Diorite Plagioclase, Pyroxene, Amphibole, Mica
9. Gabbro Plagioclase, Pyroxene
10. Peridorite Olivine, Pyroxene

2. Metamorphic Rocks

Meaning
These are rocks which are originally igneous or sedimentary but have been changed into character
and appearance due to heat, pressure, water and air. Air molecules enter rocks through their holes
and react chemically with different rock elements and thereby changing their composition.
 Their formation
 Any rock can be changed into metamorphic rock.
Heat: This cause the minerals to recrystallise sometimes
Pressure: This alters/changes the rock structure
Water: Dissolve some rock material and deposits materials thereby changing the
composition of the rock.
Air: Move through the rock pores and come into contact with different rock elements
changing its composition.
 The metamorphic changes which are due to pressure are called Dynamic. The first sign of
metamorphism is the rearrangement of minerals in bands or layers. This structure is called
Foliation.
 Where heat determines what changes take place, the process is called Thermo, or Contact
Metamorphism.
 Where pressure and heat operate together over a large area, the metamorphism is called
Regional.
 Sometimes gases move through rock pores and come into contact with different rock
elements. Chemical reactions take place hence new minerals are formed. This kind of
metamorphism is known as Metasomatism.

Examples of metamorphic rocks

Name of Rocks Original Rock Arrangement of Grains

1. Slate Shale, siltstone Layers almost invisible
2. Phyllite Shale, siltstone Layers almost invisible
3. Schist Impure Limestone, Shale, Siltstone Layer visible from 1 cm to 1m apart
4. Gneiss Granite, Slate, Conglomerate, Silstone Layers from 1cm to 1m apart
5. Marble Pure Limeston No layer
6. Quartize Purre Sandstone No layer
7. Serpentine Basalt, Peridotite No layer

3. Sedimentary Rocks

Meaning
 These are rocks formed from sediment deposited either deposited either by water or by wind
or ice. The most common sedimentary rocks are those formed in water
 Solid rock is broken into small particles called Sediments or Clastics and others may be
formed by chemicals and organic processes. These are non-clastic rocks. The chemical rocks
are often referred to as Hydrogenic particularly if they are formed in water: Organic ones are
called Biogenic or Carbonaceous rocks.

(a) Clastic rocks.

Existing Rocks Weathering Transportation by

Wind, Water/ Glaciers
 Sedimentary Lithification Compaction Deposition in a
Rocks geosynclines

Figure showing formation of clastic rocks

The sediments are deposited in a geosynclines (sea and ocean bordering the continents) where they
are compacted (squeezed) and lithified or connected together to form hard rocks.
Sometimes the rocks are said to be mechanically formed. Clastic rocks are named according to size
and shape of their sediments.

(b) Non-clastic rocks

These include precipates such as calcite, evaporate such as salt and organic deposits such as coal and
limestone. Non-clastic rocks are named according to composition. All of them have interlocking
crystals except peat, lignite, coal sequence.
Examples of sedimentary rocks.

Name Texture Composition Remarks

Clastic
Conglomerate Round pebbles Any kind of rock Pebbles held together
Breccias Angular pebbles Any kind of rock Sand, clay and cement
Sandstone Sand-sized grains quartz Grains may be calcite
Siltstone Very fine grains Mostly quartz and clay Gritty feel
Shale Microscopic grains Mostly clay and Mica Occurs layers

Non-clastic
Limestone Coarse to small crystals Calcite, small shells Texture
Chert (Flirt) Microscopic crystals Chalcedomy Cement in rocks
Alabaster Microscopic to course Gypsum Evaporate
Rock Salt Cubic crystals Halite Evaporate
Peat Lignite Course to microscopic Fragments of plants Products of plants decay without oxygen.
plant fragments.

Characteristics of sedimentary rocks

The following are the characteristics of sedimentary rocks:
1. They are layered of stratified (the clastic rocks particularly)
2. They are fossilized (they contains fossils)
3. They are non-crystalline formed sedimentary rocks.

Types of sedimentary rocks

 There are three types of sedimentary rocks classifies according to their origin and
composition. There are:
1. Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks
2. Organically formed sedimentary rocks
3. Chemically formed sedimentary rocks

(a) Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks.

 These rocks have been formed from the accumulation of materials derived from other rocks
which have been cement together.
 These include clays, gravel and alluviums (all deposited by water), moraines, builder clay
and gravel (deposited by ice), and loess (deposited by wind).

Examples of mechanically formed sedimentary rocks.

 (i) Sandstone (familiar ones)
 Made from sand grains, often quartz fragments derived from granite. Their texture
or composition and colour vary tremendously.
(ii) Conglomerate
 Large pebbles are firmly commented to form a rock
(iii) Breccia
 Formed when the fragment are angular

(iv) Clay
 Formed from finer sediments and it is used for brick making.

(v) Shale or Mudstone

 Formed from finer sediments.

(b) Organically formed sedimentary rocks

These are formed from the remains of living organisms.

Examples of originally formed sedimentary rocks

These includes:
(i) Chalk (formed from animals)
(ii) Coral (formed from animals)
(iii) Peat (formed from plants)
(iv) Coal (formed from pants)

(c) Chemically formed sedimentary rocks

These rocks are precipitated chemically from solutions of one kind or another.

Examples of chemically formed sedimentary rocks. These includes:

(i) Borax
(ii) Potash
(iii) Gypsum
(iv) Nitrates
(v) Certain Limestones
(vi) Rock salt.

(d) Economic importance of sedimentary rocks.

The following are the importance of sedimentary rocks:
1. Rocks weather to give fertile soils.
2. Clay is used in brick making (building)
3. Limestone is used in cement making
4. Rocks are also used for decoration

(e) The rock cycle

 Rocks can change from one kind to anther under different conditions. This process is called
Rock Cycle. Change takes place beneath the earth’s surface due to high temperature and
great pressures. On the surface, weathering is predominant.
 Sedimentary rocks may be buried so deep that they melt. The rocks formed from the melted
rocks will be Igneous Rocks. Sometimes the minerals in buried sedimentary rocks are
rearranged while the rock remains solid. Changes that take place while the rock remains solid
are called Metamorphism. The rocks that result are Metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic
 rocks can be uplifted and be weathered to form sedimentary rocks or they can melt and
Igneous rocks can be formed.

WEATHERING

MEANING
Weathering is a term which refers to the decomposition and disintegration of rocks by exposure
to atmosphere.
Denudation means the breaking away of rocks by various agencies and removal of thebroken
materials.

TYPES OF WEATHERING
There are two types of weathering namely:
(a) Physical or mechanical weathering
(b) Chemical weathering.

(a) Physical or Mechanical Weathering.

Rocks are broken down into small particles without changing their chemical composition physical or
mechanical weathering take place in various ways namely:
(i) Freeze – thaw / frost action
(ii) Repeated temperature changes
(iii) Repeated wetting and drying
(iv) Biotic agencies
(v) Pressure release
(vi) Salt crystal growth

1. Freeze – Thaw / Frost action

This occurs when rain water fills the cracks and joints or holes of rocks where it freezes at 0oC and
makes the rocks expand this exerting great pressure on them. When temperature increase
suddenly, the frozen ice melts i.e., changes from solid to liquid making the rocks to contact. The
alternative freezing and melting can force rocks to disintegrate.

2. Repeated temperature changes

The heat from the sun makes rocks to expand and later if subjected to low temperatures, cooling
makes them to contract. Such repeated expansion and contraction makes rocks to break away
particularly near the surface. The process of rock disintegration is very common in deserts where
temperature changes are rapid and notable. Screes (small rock particles heaped around the rock) may
form. Furthermore, such temperature changes may also result in the peeling off of a thin layer of
rock through the process called exfoliation.

3. Repeated wetting and drying

When rocks are wetted, the outer layers absorb a certain amount of moisture and therefore expand.
When they dry, this moisture evaporates and they quickly shrink when this happens repeatedly, the
outer layers split off.

4. Biotic agencies
Plants growing in rock cracks or faults may have their roots extending these cracks until the rock
breaks. Additionally, animal hooves, and men in mining, farming and road construction all
contribute to physical weathering.
Strictly speaking, the word run-off and wind is excluded from weathering involving transportation, it
belongs to erosion which is part of a process of Denudation.

5. Pressure release
This is the process whereby overlying rocks are removed by erosion thereby causing underlying ones
to expand and fracture parallel to the surface resulting into rocks disintegration.

6. Salt crystal growth

This simply refers to the growth of crystals of salts such as Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) and Sodium
Carbonate (NaCO2) which might expand if heated by temperature around 26 – 28oC. Such expanded
salt crystals make rocks to expand too and therefore break away. Secondly, water containing such
salts may enter the rock through its pores or cracks. And it the water evaporates, the salt crystals
may be left behind to attach the structure.

(b) Chemical weathering.

 Very slow and gradual decomposition of rocks where the rock minerals are altered in the
process. Rocks change in their chemical composition when reactions take place.

1. Solution
 This occurs on rocks containing calcium carbonate e.g., chalk and limestone. Rain water
contains carbon dioxide from the atmosphere thereby forming a weak carbonic acid which
dissolves Calcium Carbonate present in the rocks mentioned. Calcium carbonate bicarbonate
or calcium hydrogen carbonate which is soluble and is removed by percolating water. This
reaction leads to disintegration of chalk and limestone (sedimentary rocks.)

2. Oxidation
 Rain water containing oxygen from the air disintegrates rocks containing iron minerals to
form iron oxides which produce a reddish brown coating.

3. Hydration
 Water entering the rock can react with minerals and from new compounds.
 A mineral combines with water to form a compound. This may lead to rock disintegration.
This happens when water enters the rock through pores.

4. Hydrolysis
  This occurs on rocks that contains orthoclase feldspar e.g., granite. When water containing
acids enters a particular rocks through its pores or cracks, orthoclase reacts with acidic water
to form Kaolinite (or Kaolin or China clay), Silicic acid and potassium hydroxyl. In the
process, the hydroxyl are removed in the solution leaving behind china clay as the end
product while other minerals in the granite, such as quartz and mica, remaining in the
Kaolin. This process to rock disintegration.

Review questions
Question 1:
(a) Define the term “Lithosphere”.
(b) With a well labe4lled diagram, draw the internal structure of the earth.
(c) Describe the characteristics of the following layers of the internal structure of the earth:
(i) Core
(ii) Mantle
(iii) Crust
(d) Give similarities and differences between the theory of continental drift and the theory of
plate tectonics
(e) Account for the evidences of continental drift theory
(f) Why is it that the theory has faced a lot of criticisms? Explainary two of these criticisms.
(g) How do crustal plates contribute to the formation of the following:
(i) Oceanic / marine ridge
(ii) Oceanic island
(iii) Trenches
(iv). Volcanoes
(h) Explain how residual mountains envolve. Illustrate by giving relevant examples.

Question 2:
(a) Define a fold
(b) With the aid of well-labelled diagrams, describe the four types of folds.
(c) With the aid of well-labelled diagrams, explain how fold mountains envolve. Cite relevant
examples.
(d) What could be the effects of the following movements?
(e) How do block Mountains form under the following forces?
(i) Tension force
(ii) Compression force
Explain with the aid of well-labelled diagrams.
(f) How important are Fold Mountains on human activities?

Question 3:
(a) What do you understand by the term “Volcanicity/Volcanism”?
(b) Explain how a volcanic mountain such as Kilimanjaro came into existence.
(c) Mention physical features that form in each of the following conditions
(i) When magma cools on the earth surface
(ii) When magma cools on the earth’s surface (extrusive features)
(d) Locate areas of volcanic activity on the world map
(e) Volcanism brings about both constructive and destructive effects. Explain these effects
(f) Name and locate plates and their boundaries on the world map.

Question 4:
(a) Define the term “earthquake”.
(b) Explain the causes of earthquake
(c) List major regions where earthquakes commonly occurs.
 (d) Locate areas of earthquake activity.
(e) Explain the effects of earthquakes by citing relevant examples.
(f) With a well-labelled diagram, explain what happens when a continental plate collides with an
oceanic plate.
(g) Differentiate between a hot spring and a geyser.

Question 5:
(a) What is meant by the term “rocks”?
(b) Mention three types of rocks.
(c) Explain how each of the rocks (as mentioned in (b) is formed. Cite relevant.
(d) State the characteristics of each type of rock.
(e) Describe the rock cycle by illustrating it.
(f) Rocks are of economic importance to man. What do you think are the four possible important
ways of rocks?

Question 6:
(a) Define the term “weathering”.
(b) State the two main types of weathering.
(c) Describe how each of the following factors contributes to the weathering process:
(i) Oxidation
(ii) Hydration
(iii) Solution
(iv) Biotic agencies
(v) Repeated temperature change
(vi) Frost action.

UNIT 2: HYDROSPHERE

MAIN IDEAS:
By the end of this unit, you should be able to know that:
 The hydrosphere is composed of 70% of the earth’s surface.
 The hydrological cycle has various features such as groundwater, oceans, clouds, vegetation,
rivers, surface run-off. It also has processes such as evaporation, transportation,
condensation, infiltration, and percolation.
 The water cycle is disturbed by global warming, deforestation, acid rain and poor agricultural
techniques.
 Furthermore, this cycle can be maintained by conserving the water cathment areas, reducing
emission of various elements into the atmosphere, use of good farming methods, and
weathering forecasting.
 Ocean currents are caused by temperature, salinity (water density), sind and rotation of the
earth.
 Wind direction, shape of continents, temperature, and rotation of the earth all effect the
direction of the ocean currents.
 There are two types of ocean currents namely: warm and cold and these are distributed in
different places over the globe.
 Ocean currents have effects on climate, fishing and shipping.

MEANING OF HYDROSPHERE
This refers to part of the earth which is composed of water masses e.g., lakes, rivers, oceans and
dams.

COMPOSITION OF THE HYDROSPHERE IN RELATION TO THE EARTH’S SURFACE

The hydrosphere comprises 70% of the earth’s surface while remaining percentage (30%) is covered
by the lithosphere.

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

DESCRIPTION OF THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE.

To begin with, the word “hydro” means water and hydrological cycle thus refers to the circulation
of the water. It should be noted that this is the system having processes which include evaporation,
transportation, condensation, precipitation, run-off, infiltration, percolation and capillary attraction.
Being a closed system, water is neither lost nor created but instead it

changes from one form to the other, i.e., from gas (vapour) to liquid and liquid to gas.
The hydrological cycle has both input and its output. The system starts withy the presence of solar
energy which breaks water molecules present on land and water masses into hydrogen and oxygen
gasses which combine to form vapour.

By the way, the process whereby water changes from liquid state to gas (vapour) is known as
evaporation. Thus evaporation takes place on both land and water masses. Additionally, vapour is
also lost from vegetation through openings found underneath the leaves called Stomata. This
process is called transpiration. The combined loss of vapour from both vegetation and land and
water masses is referred to as evapotranspiration.

When vapour has been released into the atmosphere, it starts losing its temperature to the air at
surrounds it following a decrease in temperature because the higher one goes, the cooler it becomes.
It reaches a point that this vapour cools below its dew point which is also known as a diabatical
cooling. When this happens, tiny water droplets start forming which eventually enlarge as more and
more water droplets join them and this process is called condensation. These water droplets
combine to form a cloud. When the diameter of water droplets enlarges, the cloud can longer be held
in the atmosphere but instead, the water droplets are forced to fall on the ground through the process
called precipitation which takes many forms such as rain, for snow, hail, drizzle and sleete. On the
other hand, dew or morning mist is not a from of precipitation because it forms on the earth’s surface
following a decrease in temperature towards sunset as vapour fails to rise up into the atmosphere.
The vapour cools below its dew point whilest it is close to the earth’s surface. When we wake up in
the morning we find dew on the earth’s surface.

When rain is failing on the earth’s surface, two processes take place namely infiltration and run-
off or overland flow. The former (infiltration) refers to the soaking of water into the soil whereas the
letter (run-off) refers to the moving of flowing of water on the earth’s surface. The water that flows
on the earth’s surface joins water masses where it evaporates again in the presence of the solar
energy thus completing and restarting the hydrological cycle.

On the other hand, the water t hat soaks into the soil can either move in sideways direction through a
process called percolation (through flow) or flow vertically to join the underground water. it
should b e known that water in the underground layer also rises by capillary attraction until it is
absorbed by vegetation roots. Eventually, this water will also transpire again thus completing and
restarting the hydrological cycle. In the same vein, the water that percolates will join water masses
through capillary attraction and evaporates again. This therefore, makes understand that indeed water
is in circulation and it is not lost nor gained.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE.

The hydrological cycle is important in the sense that it maintains water supply which is used for the
following:
1. Water is the basis for the sporting activities such as swimming and skiing
2. It also provides a means of communication by ship or boat.
3. Water stored in dams is used to produce hydro-electrical power
4. Water is used for domestic and industrial services
5. It services a habitat for aquatic animals e.g., fish, hippos and crocodiles.
6. Lakes and rivers are often popular tourism attraction centres because water is a source of
natural beauty of the environment.

However, if the hydrological cycle has been disturbed, crops dry up and wilt like in the case of a
drought. Additionally, even in the presence of prolonged drought and heavy rainfall, flooding often
results, which destroys fields, homes, and causes extensive erosion of fertile soil. There are many
water borne diseases caused by bacteria or parasites living in water.

Finally, some of the available water can be polluted by people, making it difficult to use. This
therefore calls for proper conservation of water.

FACTORS THAT CAN DISTURB THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

There are several factors that can disturb the hydrological cycle and these include:
(a) Global warming
(b) Acid rain
(c) Poor agricultural practices
(d) Deforestration.

Global warming is a recent phenomenon which is always on the air. It should be noted that there is a
natural layer of gases in the atmosphere which absorbs rays from the sun which include gamma rays,
infrared rays, X-rays and so forth. This layer of gases is known as Ozone layer comprising of Ozone
gas (O3) water vapour (H2O), etc.

The problem emanates from the fact that man with his sophisticated mind has made several devices
on earth such as air conditioners, cars and refrigerators which emit harmful gases called
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s). Other gases include Methane released from decaying organic matter
e.g., animal dung, etc. Nitrous oxide from cars, power stations and production of agricultural
fertilizers and carbon dioxide released through combustion. All these gases are called greenhouse
gases which absorb terrestrial radiation and send the heat back to the earth’s surface. This heat is the
one that warms up the globe and this is what, is know as greenhouse effect. Furthermore, these
gases react with the ozone layer gases thereby making it difficult to absorb heat from the sun which
passes through the ozone layer easily thereby reaching the earth’s surface. Therefore, the globe is
being warmed and hence global warming.

How does the poor farming practices disturb the hydrological cycle?

This concept tampers with the hydrological cycle in the sense that it affects rainfall distribution
pattern resulting in heavy rainfall or little or no rain in others. Normally, it is expected that rain
should be distributed uniformly.

(B) Acid Rain

When rain is falling, the water molecules in form of H2O’s react with various gases present in the
atmosphere which include Oxygen, (O2), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen (N2) and water vapour
(H2O)
There is molecular breaking and rearrangement of atoms to form other chemical compounds. For
example, water molecules (H2O) react with oxygen (O2) to form Hydronium ion (H3O+) which is
acidic in nature or can react with carbon dioxide (CO2) to form weak Carbon acid. When water
molecules are falling onto earth’s surface, they carry with them the acid hence the acidic rain.

How does acid rain tamper with the hydrological cycle?

It disturbs the hydrological cycle in that there is a reduction in number of water molecules as more of
these react with gases in the atmosphere. The end result is that there is little rain instead of heavy
rains. This clearly indicates that there will be little rain in the subsequent years. Furthermore, acid
rains destroy the leaves of the vegetation hence transpiration rate is affected negatively as the
number of stomatas decreases.

(C) Poor Agricultural practices

It should be pointed that some farming practices have negative impact on the circulation of water
within the hydrological cycle as a system. Examples of these poor agricultural practices include:
cultivating a long steep slopes, overstocking, overgrazing and setting bushfires.

How does the poor farming practices disturb the hydrological cycle?
When these practices are being followed, vegetation is removed resulting in the reduction of the
number of openings found underneath the leaves through which vapour is lost in the atmosphere.
The application is that there is a reduction in the mount of water apour going into the atmosphere
which will form very few tiny water droplets. These tiny droplets will eventually form very small
cloud. The end results will be little or no rainfall. In this way, poor farming practices interfere with
the hydrological cycle.

(D) Deforestation

Meaning
This is the wanton cutting down of trees without replacing them.

How does it tamper with the hydrological cycle?

When trees have been cut down, the rate of transportation relatively reduces because all the leaves
dry up and wilt implying that all stomates die. The present little vapour will from very tiny water
droplets which will eventually combine to small cloud. The end results will be little rain throughout
because the rate of transpiration has been reduced

WAYS OF MAINTAINING THE HYDROLLOGICAL CYCLE

There are several ways of maintaining the hydrological cycle which include:
(a) Afforestation and re- afforestation.
(b) Avoidance of use of machine that release or emit dangerous gases called chlorofluocar-bons
(CFCS’) into the atmosphere or using CFC’S free machine
(c) Avoidance of emotions of various elements/cco0mpounhd into at the atmosphere e.g.
Carbon dioxide, Oxygen, sulpher and nitrogen
(d) Use of good farming methods.
(e) Conservation of water catchment areas areas.
(f) Weather forecasting.

(a) Afforestation and re-afforestatiuon

 Afforestation means planning trees where there dare no trees while re-afforestation refers to
the planting of trees where they have been cut.
 When trees are planted, the rate of transpiration is increased. Eventually heavy rainfall result.
This is one way of maintaining hydrological cycle.
(b) Avoidance of use of machines that release/emit dangerous gases called chrolofloucarborns
(CFC’S) into the atmosphere
 It is hoped that when such gases are not emitted into the atmosphere, the hole created through
the Ozone layer will be sealed up eventually and the issue of global warming will be the
thing of the past. This will reverse the annual distribution of rainfall and bring back the usual
one.
(c) Avoidance of emission of various elements into the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide,
oxygen, sulpher and nitrogen
 When such elements/compounds are avoided, chemical reaction that would take place in the
atmosphere is also avoided. It rightly follows that more water molecules will fall onto the
earth’s surface thus maintaining the hydrological cycle.
(d) Use good farming methods
 Use of good farming methods ensures a full protection of vegetation from destruction that
plays a great role in releasing vapour which contributes to rain thereafter. This is one way of
maintaining hydrological cycle
(e) Conservation of water catchment areas
 When water catchment are conserved, the rate of evaporation from those water masses
increased,thus,this will in turn also increase the number of tiny water droplets that will form.
The end result will be a big and heavy cloud which will bring heavy rainfall. This is one way
of maintaining the hydrological cycle.
(f) Weather forecasting

OCEAN CURRENTS

MEANING OF OCEAN OF CURRENTS

These are large masses of surface water that circulate in regular patterns around the oceans.

MEANING OF DRIFTS
These are ocean currents caused by prevailing winds

TYPES OF OCEAN CURRENT

There are two types of Ocean Currents namely:
(a) Warm Ocean Currents
(b) Cold Ocean Currents

(A) Warm Ocean Currents

Definition
These are ocean currents that flows from the equatorial region/belt polewards having a higher
surface temperature.

Examples of Warm Ocean Currents

(a) Brazillian Current
(b) Mozambique or Agulhas
(c) Gulf stream
(d) North Atlantic drift
(e) Cayenne current
(f) Florida current
(g) South Indian Ocean Current
(h) North Equatorial Current
(i) Kuroshio (Japan Current)
(j) South Pacific Current
(k) East Australia current
(l) South Atlantic current
(m) Equatorial counter Current
(n) South Equatorial Current.
(B) Cold Ocean Current
Meaning
These are ocean currents that flow from the polar regions equatorwards having a lower surface
temperature.

Examples of Cold Ocean Currents

(a) Banguela Current
(b) Canaries Current
(c) California Current
(d) Peruvian or Humboldt Current
(e) Labrador
(f) Irmiger/Eastern Greenland
(g) Falkland
(h) West Wind drift
(i) West Australia Current
(j) Oyashio-bering
(k) Okhaotsk
(l) North Pacific drift
(m) Kmachatka

CAUSES OF OCEAN CURRENTS

There are four causes of ocean currents which include:
(a) Temperature
(b) Rotation of the earth
(c) Planetary wind
(d) Salinity
1. Temperature
There is much difference in temperature of ocean waters at the equator and at the poles. As warm
water is lighter and rises and cold water is denser and sinks, warm equatorial water move slowly
along the surface pole wards while the heavier cold waters of the polar regions creep slowly along
the bottom of the sea equator wards. This type of movement creates friction that causes an ocean
current as warm water moves on top of cold water.

2. Rotation of the Earth

When the earth is rotating on its own axis at 23 ½o, it creates a force known as Coriolis force
(centrifugal force) which pushes surface water of an ocean in one direction and thus creating an
ocean current.

3. Planetary Wind
When planetary winds below over the ocean, surface water is pushed in one direction creating a
regular pattern of movement of large masses of water round the ocean.

4. Salinity
Water of high salinity (high concentration of salts) is denser as compared to water of low salinity
which is lighter. Therefore, water of higher salinity will sink because it is denser while water of low
salinity will move on top of high saline water because it is higher. This type of movement creates
frictions which eventually trigger an ocean current.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE DIRECTION OF AN OCEAN CURRENT

There are several factors that determine direction of ocean currents which include:
(a) Shape of continents
(b) Rotation of the earth
(c) Wind direction
(d) Temperature

1. Shape of Continents
A land mass always obstructs and diverts a current. For example, the tip of South Chile diverts part
of the West Wind Drift Northwards.

2. Rotation of the Earth

The earth’s rotation deflects all freely moving objects, including oceans, to the right in clockwise
direction in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the anticlockwise direction in the Southern
Hemisphere. For example, in the Northern Hemisphere, the Gult Stream Drift and Canaries currents
deflect to the right while the Brazilian and west Wind Drift deflect to the left in an anticlockwise
direction. This observation is referred to as Ferrel’s Law of Deflection.

3. Wind direction
Figure showing planetary wind on the globe

The direction taken by the planetary winds on the globe will be the same direction to be taken by an
ocean current in the particular area.

4. Temperature
Water of high temperature is lighter and therefore it will move from equatorial belt towards the poles
while water of low temperature is denser and therefore it will flow from the polar regions to the
equatorial belt. In the same vein, all warm ocean currents will flow from the equatorial belt pole
wards while all cold ocean currents will flow form the polar regions equator wards.

EFFECTS OF OCEAN CURRENTS

(A) On Climate
 As Warm ocean currents move polarwards, they distribute heat from the tropics to the poles
thus influencing a particular type of climate. For example, the North Pacific Drift warms the
west coast of Alaska and British Columbia, melting the winter ice hence Vancouver part is
ice-free in winter which becomes very mild.
 On the contrary, cold ocean currents from polar regions distribute coldness to the tropics
influencing a particular type of climate. For example, Benguela current lowers temperature
off the coast of Namibia (Kalahari) where fogs are common.

(B) On Fishing
 The meeting of cold and warm ocean currents creates major fishing grounds. For instance,
the Western Pacific grounds (Kamchatka and Kurosiwo), the North-Western Atlantic
(Labrador and North Atlantic Drift) and North Eastern Atlantic (North Antlantic Drift and
Irminger)
  When cold and warm ocean currents meet, there is precipitation of minerals wich facilitate
the growth of microscopic plants called planktons which are food for fish. As a result, fish
multiply abundantly.
 The major fishing grounds are found in continental shelves where water is shallow and
enables sunlight to penetrate. Hence planktons are able to photocynthesize and multiply
abundantly.

(C) On Shipping
Positive

 Ships will sail following the direction of currents hence easing their movements, less fuel
which reduces expenses and transit time.
Negative
 Currents increase the height of tides and can make ship loading and off-loading difficult,
 The meeting of cold and warm ocean currents creates fogs which impede visibility and can
consequently lad to loss and capsizing ships.

WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF EACH OF THE FOLLOWING OCEAN CURRENTS?

(a) Brazillian Current
 This encourages fishing along the coast of Uruguay and Argentina.

(b) North Pacific Drift

 Warms the west coast of Alaska and British Columbia, melting the winter ice hence
Vancouver port is ice-free in winter and winter is very mild.

(c) Benguela
 It lowers temperature off the coast of Namibia (Kalahari) where fogs are common (formed
when onshore winds blow over the current).

(d) The Mozambique Current

 It modifies the climate of eastern coast of Africa by raising the temperature (generally
temperature there are higher than on the western coast where the cold Benguela current
flows).

(e) The Meeting Gulf Streat and Labrador

This gives dense fogs off Newfound land/precipitation of minerals for the growth of planktons.

EFFECTS OF OCEAN CURRENT TO THE COAST THEY BLOW

(A) Warm Ocean Currents

(a) They bring rains to the coast

(b) They raise temperatures to coast.
(c) They provide warmth for the growth of planktons.

(B) Cold Ocean Currents

(a) They lower temperature of the coast.
(b) They bring little or no rain.
FORMATION OF CALDERA LAKES
Caldera lakes are also known as crater lakes.

A volcano is formed by the explosion or eruption of the magma to the surface. If another volcanic
explosion takes place, the tope of the core may be blown off. After the explosion, a natural hollow
called crater is formed. If further subsidence (going down) takes place, an enlarged hollow known
as a caldera is formed. Gradually, rain water collects in these hollows and a crater lake (or caldera
lake) is formed.

TYPES OF RAIN AND THEIR FORMATION

There are basically three types of rain namely:
(a) Convectional
(b) Cyclonical/frontal/depression
(c) Orographic/relief

A. CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL

This type of rainfall usually comes in the afternoon after intense heating of land and water masses by
solar energy during morning hours. This simply means that there is a lot of evaporation as more
water molecules are broken down into hydrogen and oxygen atoms giving rise of vapour. This
vapour rises and cools to form a big cumulonimbus cloud which is anvil-shaped. It is the most
common type of rain in equatorial regions and in regions having a tropical Monsoon Climate
because the sun is direct overhead these areas.
Characteristics
This type of rainfall is characterized by the following:”
1. Thunder
2. Lightening
3. An anvil-shaped cloud

B. CYCLONIC/FRONTAL/DEPRESSION RAINFALL

 This type of rainfall is formed when two air masses of different temperature (one warm and
the other cold) meet. The result of this meeting is that warm air mass rises up over the cold
air mass and cools gradually to form a cloud which consequently brings about rainfall.

In tropical cyclones, the rainfall is often very heavy but lasts for only a few hours. In temperate
depressions, it is much lighter but lasts for many hours or even days. Cyclonic rainfall is common
throughout the doldrums where the trade winds meet.

C. OROGRAPHIC/RELIEF RAINFALL

 Orographic rainfall occurs in all latitudes. It is most common where on-shore winds rise up
over hilly or mountainous regions lying at right angles to the direction of the winds. These
winds rise up and eventually cool because temperature decreases to form a cloud. One of the
side called windward receives heavy rainfall while the other commonly known as leeward
side receives little or no rainfall because as air descends on the other side, it becomes dry and
therefore cannot bear rainfall. Most of the rainfall on the south-east facing slopes of the
Nyika plateau, the Viphya plateau and Mulanje Mountain in Malawi is of this type. Other
example include the Western side of Rockies and Andies fold mountains.
Review questions

Question 1:
(a) What do you understand by the term ‘hydrosphere?’
(b) With the aid of a well-labelled diagram, describe how water circulates in the hydrological
cycle.
(c) Describe four factors that disturb the hydrological cycle.
(d) Suggest ways of maintain the hydrological cycle.
(e) How important is the hydrological cycle to man?
(f) Suggest problems that are likely to be faced by nations as a result of the disturbance of the
hydrological cycle.

Question 2:
(a) Define the following
(i) Ocean currents
(ii) Warm ocean currents
(iii) Cold ocean currents
(b) What do you think can trigger an ocean current? Explain four ways.
(c) The direction of ocean currents is influenced by different factors. Explain four ways.
(d) Why are some ocean currents warm and others cold?
(e) Name and locate the major ocean currents on a world map.
(f) Classify ocean currents as being warm or cold
(g) What do you think could be the effects of ocean current on:
(i) climate
(ii) Fishing
(iii). Shipping

Question 3:
(a) Explain any beneficial effects of ocean currents on human activities
(b) What impact each of the following currents have:
(i). Brazilian Current
(ii). North pacific current
(iii). The meeting of Kamchatka (Oyasiwo) and Kurosiwo currents.
(c) How are caldera lakes formed?
(d) How does each of the following type of rain form? Illustrate with diagrams:
(i). Convectional rainfall
(iii). Cyclonic/frontal/depression rainfall
(iii). Orographic or relief rainfall
UNIT 3 THE ATMOSPHERE

Main Ideas:

By the end of this unit, you should be able to know that:

 Seasons are caused by the tilting of the earth’s axis 66% and have several characteristics.
 Air pressure is influenced by rotation of the earth, temperature, altitude and humidity
 Planetary winds are caused and by the major pressure belts which are alternatively distribute
on the globe.
 Closeness of isobars leads to steep gradient (high wind speed) and vice versa.
 Prevailing winds such as trades, westerlies and polar are influenced by Ferrel’s Law of
deflection and are named after the direction form which they blow.
 Local and prevailing winds have various characteristics
 Land breeze occurs at night while sea breezes occur during day and are caused by different
heating of land and sea which eventually affects air pressure.
 Cyclones are regions of low atmospheric pressure at the centre while anti-cyclones are
regions of high pressure at the centre which increase eventually.

MEANING

This refers to the part of the earth that is composed of different gasses such as Oxygen (21%),
Nitrogen dioxide (78%), carbon dioxide (0.03%), Argon (0.93%) and other rate gases comprising
0.03%

The word “atmo” is Greek word which means vapour.

CHARACTERISTICES OF THE SEASONS

1. Summer
 It is characterized by high temperature, heavy rainfall, longer days and short nights.

2. Winter
 It is characterized by low temperature, some rainfall, shorter days and long nights.

3. Spring
 It is season characterized by rising temperature, some rainfall, increasing day length and
decreasing night length. Spring ends in summer.

4. Autumn/Fall
 It is characterized by decreasing temperature reducing rainfall, reducing day length and
increasing night length. Autumn ends in winter.

CAUSE OF SEASONS

There are several cause of seasons namely:

(a) The high tilting of the earth’s axis (66 ½ %)
(b) The apparent movement of the sun.
A. The Tilting of the Earth’s Axis (66 ½ %)

Explanation
 From 21st to 23rd September, the Northern Hemisphere is titled towards the sun and it is
summer because heat from the sun reaches the ground and is the nearly overhead. This
results into days being warmer and longer.
 During this period it is the winter in the Southern Hemisphere because is titled away from
the sun.

 From 22nd December to 21st March, the Northern Hemisphere is titled away from the sun and
it is winter seasons.
 The Southern Hemisphere has summer because the sun is nearly overhead there and the days
are warmer and longer.

B. Apparent Movement of the sun

 The sun is overhead on the equator on 21st March and 23rd September of each year. The
length of the days and the nights are equal. These two days (21st March and 23rd September)
are called Equinoxes.
 21st March marks the beginning of the Autumn in the Southern Hemisphere and spring in the
Northern Hemisphere while 23rd September marks the beginning of spring in the Southern
Hemisphere and the Autumn in the Northern Hemisphere.
 On the 21st June, the sun is overhead and the Tropic of Cancer and marks the beginning of
the summer in the Northern Hemisphere. On this day, the Northern Hemisphere has the
longest day and shortest night. This is called Solstice. Thus the Northern hemisphere has
summer solstice on this day while the Southern Hemisphere has its shortest day and longest
night – winter solstice. When the sun is overhead at the tropic of Capricon in the southern
hemisphere, the conditions are reserved slowly. This is on the 23rd September.
 However, some regions don’t have all the four seasons. For example in the tropics, temperature
changes little while the amount of rainfall varies greatly. So the tropics have wet season and dry
season.

On the other hand, the polar regions have a light season and a dark season because the sun
shines almost all the time in summer and almost never in winter.

SEASON IN MALAWI
Malawi lies within the tropics where the midday sun varies very little from tis vertical position every
day. As a result days and nights are almost equal the whole year. Hence Malawi experience the
following seasons:

Period Season
November to April Hot, wet season
May to July Cool, dry season
August to October Hot, dry season

AIR PRESSURE
 Air has weight and it therefore exerts pressure called Atmospheric pressure, on the earth’s
surface. The pressure is not the same for al regions nor is it always the same for any one
region all the time i.e., in some regions the pressure is higher for one part of the year than it
is for the another part of the year.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE AIR PRESSURE

Air pressure is affected by the following factors
1. Altitude
2. Temperature
3. Rotation of the earth
4. Humidity

A. Altitude
Air pressure at sea level is higher than it is at the top of a mountain. Why is that so?

Explanation
This is because at sea level air has to support a greater weight of air than does air on the top of a
mountain. The molecules of the air at sea level push outwards with a force equal to that exerted by
the air above it whereas the molecules of the air at the top of a mountain push outwards with much
less force because the weight of the air above it is less. This explains why air pressure increases
when air descends.

When it descends its volume decreases but the number of molecules in it is the same. The outward
pressure of the molecules is spread over a smaller area. Similarly, when air rises, its volume is
spread over a large area, and its pressure decreases.

B. Temperature

Explanation 1
When air is cooled, it contracts and when this happens the outward pressure of its molecules is
spread over a similar area. This means that the pressure of the air increases.

Conclusion: The pressure of the air rises when its temperature falls.

Explanation 2
When air is heatd, it expands and when this happens the outward pressure of this molecules is spread
over a larger area. This means that the pressure of the air decreases.

Conclusion: The pressure of the air falls as its temperature rises.

C. Rotation of the earth

Explanation
The rotation of the earth causes the air at the poles to be thrown away towards the equator. In theory
this should result in air piling up along the equator to produce a belt of high pressure, whilst at the
poles low pressure should develop. But what actually happens is much more complicated and
therefore it is important to examine how temperature and rotation together affect the pressure
pattern.

Temperature
 Low temperature at the poles causes the air to contract creating high pressure. High
temperature along the equator causes the air to expand creating low pressure called the
Doldrums low pressure.

Rotation
 Air blow away from the poles crosses paralles that are getting longer, and it spreads out to
occupy greater space i.e., it expands and its pressure falls. These low pressure belts can be
noticeable along 60oN and 60oS. They are known as the Temperature low pressure Belts. As
the air moves away from the poles, more air moves in front higher levels to take its places.
Some of this comes from the rising low pressure air along 60oN and 60oS.
 Air rising at the equator spreads out and moves towards the poles. As it does so, it crosses
paralles that are getting shorter and it has to occupy less space. It contracts and its pressure
rises. This happens near 30oN and 30oS; in these latitudes, the air begins to sink where it
builds up sub-tropical high pressure belts, sometimes called the horse latitude.
D. Humidity
Explanation
Water vapour is always lighter as compared to air. Therefore, a large amount of water vapour in the
air will reduce air pressure. Thus, the higher the humidity, the lower the air pressure and vice versa.

MEASUREMENT OF AIR PRESSURE

Air pressure is sometimes called barometric pressure. It is usually measured by an instrument
called barometer and it is expressed in millibars (mb). The line joining all the places having the
same pressure is called an isobars.

There are two types of barometers namely:

(a) Mercury barometer
(b) Aneroid barometer

(a). Mercury Barometer

Explanation of how the Mercury Barometer works
When air pressure increases, the air pressing the surface of the mercury will force the mercury
column to rise to register high pressure. When the pressure decreases, the mercury column drops to
register low pressure. The pressure is read is read of the scale on the glass tube.

(b). The Aneroid Barometer

Explanation of how the Aneroid Barometer works

It consists of a metal box with very little air inside. Any increase in air pressure on the outside of the
box makes the lid to move inwards thus registering high pressure. When the lid moves inwards, the
chain is pulled to the right and this forces the indicator to move to the right also. When pressure
reduces, the box lid moves outwards, the indicator moves to the left so show low pressure.

Note: the mercury barometer is not good for outdoor measurements. Therefore, aneroid barometer is
used although it is less accurate than mercury barometer.
ISOBARS AND PRESSURE GRADIENT

WHAT IS PRESSURE GRADIENT?

The rate at which the atmospheric pressure changes horizontally in a certain direction on the earth’s
surface is called Pressure Gradient.

When the isobars are close together, a fast change of pressure from point to point at right angles is
shown and the gradient is steep and air is quickly drained (the movement of air or wind is great).
When the isobars are far apart the gradient is slight and wind speed is low.

THE MAIN PRESSURE BELTS AND PREVAILING WINDS OF THE WORLD.

The planetary winds (also known as prevailing winds) are caused and controlled by the major
pressure belts. Additionally, the direction they take is determined by earth’s rotation which creates a
force called Colioris which deflects any freely moving object including wind to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere in a clockwise direction and to left in the Southern Hemisphere in an
anticlockwise direction. This observation is referred to as Ferrel’s Law of deflection.

It should also be known that winds are usually named after the direction from which they blow and
they blow from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure.

PREVEILING WINDS
These are winds that blow more often than any other type of wind on the globe

Note: The direction of these winds is influenced by pressure belts (high or low) because air always
moves from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure and Ferrel’s Law of deflection which
says any freely moving object will be deflected to the right in a clockwise direction in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in an anticlockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere.

POLAR WINDS
Characteristics
1. They blow from the polar high pressure to temperature low pressure.
2. They are better developed in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere.
 3. They are deflected to the right to become North-East Polar winds in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left to become the Southern –East Polar winds in the Southern
Hemisphere.
4. They are irregular in the Northern hemisphere.

WESTERLIES
Characteristics
1. They blow from the Horse Latitudes to the Temperature Low pressure
2. They are deflected to the right to become South Westerlies in the Northern Hemisphere and
to the left to become the North Westerlies in the Southern Hemisphere.
3. They are both variable in both direction and strength.
4. They contain depression (masses of air whose isobars form an overall or circular shape,
where pressure is low in the centre and increases towards the outside).

TRADES
Characteristics
1. The word “Trade” comes from Saxon words tredan which means tread or to follow a
regular path.
2. They blow from the Horse Latitude to the Doldrums
3. They are deflected to the right to become the Northern East Trade winds in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left to become the South East Trade Winds in the Southern
Hemisphere.

AIR MASSES
Technology
Air mass: This is a large volume of air with uniform temperature and humidity.

Classification of Air Masses.

Air mases are classified according to:
(i) latitude
(ii) Temperature.

1. Latitude
Basing on latitude, we come up withy three air masses namely:
(i) Polar Air Masses.
 These originate from the poles and hence they are called Polar Air Masses hence they are
called Polar Air Masses.
(ii) Equatorial Air Masses.
 These originate from the tropical belt.

(iii) Tropical Air Masses

 These originate from the tropical belt.

1. Temperature
Basing on Temperature, we come up with Cold and Warm air masses.

Main types of Air Masses

These are:
(i) Polar in masses
(ii) Tropical air masses

(i) Polar air mass

This is divided into two:
(a) Maritime Polar Air Mass
 These originate from poles but within oceans
(b) Continental Polar Air Mass
These originate from poles but within the lands.

(ii) Tropical air mass

This is divided into two:
(a) Tropical Maritime air mass
 These originate from the tropical but within the oceans.
(b) Tropical Continental Air Mass
 These originate from the tropical but within the lands.

Note: Air Masses can either be stable or unstable

Stable air masses

 When an air mass rises and becomes cooler the surrounding air, it tends to sink back to the
ground if no longer forcibly carried upward. Such air is not likely to produce conventional
rise, because the air resists lifting. Such air is Stable.

Unstable air masses

 An air mass in which rising (updraft) tends to increase in intensity as time goes on is said to
be unstable. It continues to rise as long as its temperature is higher than that of the
surrounding air. Unstable air mass yields heavy showers and thunderstorms, and it is most
likely to be found in warm, humid areas such as equatorial and tropical oceans and their
bordering lands throughout the yield and the middle-latitude regions during the summer
season.

FRONTS

WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY THE TERM ‘FRONT’?

This is a boundary or a line of separation at the earth’s surface between cold and warm air masses.

TYPES OF FRONTS
These are four types of fronts namely:
(a) Warm front
(b) Cold front
(c) Occluded front
(d) Stationary

(a) Warm Front

This develops when a warm air mass uplifts the cold air mass.

Warm front conditions

The following are the conditions.
 1. A change in wind direction accompanies a warm front. In the Southern Hemisphere the wind
always backs, but it is more gradual.
2. There is an increase in temperature, but the change occurs slowly than in case of a cold front.
3. The atmospheric pressure usually drops rapidly before the onset of the warm front and then it
becomes gradual.
4. A marked passage of a warm front. The cloud over is much more extensive.
5. Humidity is high.

(c). Cold Front

This develops when a cold air mass uplift the warm air mass.

Cold front conditions

1. When wind changes direction as the front passes a point on the ground – the wind always
backs in the Southern Hemisphere and veers in the Northern Hemisphere. Backing is
changing directions to the left that is anticlockwise. Veering and backing a re called Wind
shifts. Winds shifts are associated with sudden, gusty wind conditions. When such conditions
occur simultaneously along the time line of the front is called line squall.
2. The decrease in temperature marking a sudden end of a period of warm when a cold air mass
arrives.
3. There is always a decrease in humidity since cold air contains as much moisture as warm air.
4. A fast-moving cold front preceded by warm, unstable, moist air produce cumulonimbus
clouds with associated thunder, lightening, hail and turbulence.
5. Air advancing cold front usually heralds an increase in atmosphere pressure.
(c) Occluded Front.

This develops when cold and warm air masses uplift each other.

Occlusion
As the cold fronts moves in more quickly than the warm front, it eventually overtakes the warm
sector. This is called Occlusion and boundary between the uplifted air and the cold air is called an
occluded front.

 Cold Front Occlusion

The air on the leading edge of an advancing cold front is warmer than the air behind. The
result is that both the warm air mass behind the warm front and the cooler air mass in front of
the cold from are uplifted above the advancing cold front.

 Warm Front Occlusion

 The air ahead of the warm front is cooler than the air behind the advancing cold front. As the
cold air overtakes the warm air, the advancing cold air rises above t he cooler air ahead of the
warm front air.

The Influence of fronts on weather.

(d) Stationary Front

This develops when warm and cold air masses remain stationery where they have met.

OTHERS
(e) Inter Tropical Front
This develops between the trade wind belts of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

(f) Polar Front

This develops between polar and tropical air masses.

CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES

A. CYCLONES

Definition
A cyclone is a region of low atmosphere pressure at the centre.

Types of Cyclones.
There are two types of cyclones namely:
(a) Temperate cyclones (also known as depressions).
(b) Tropical cyclones e.g., Typhoons, hurricanes and Willy-Willies.

Tropical cyclones
Meaning
A tropical cyclone is a storm generated by a low atmosphere pressure system in which isobars are
closely spaced and they form a circular shape.
Areas of occurrence
These develop only between the sub-tropical high pressure belts and the equatorial belt where north
east trades and south east trades meet along the inter tropical front.

General characteristics of a tropical cyclone.

(i) It originates over oceans in the tropical in summer
(ii) It does not occur in the regions which about 5o of the equator because of weak Coriolis force.
It develops between 5o and 20o north and south of the weak Coriolis force.
(iii) It is smaller than a frontal depression and is centred around an area of extremely low
atmospheric pressure.
(iv) Once formed it moves westwards.
(v) Its rotation is clockwise in the southern hemisphere. This is Buys Ballot’s law.

(vi) Accompanied by heavy rain and showers which cause great deal of damage due to strong
winds and floods.
(vii) A source of energy in a tropical cyclone is the large amount of latent heat freed as moist
tropical air condenses.

Condition necessary for tropical cyclone development.

(i) An abundant source of warm, moist air of temperature of a bout 27oC near to the sea surface.
(ii) Air must be blowing inwards towards the centre and rising rapidly and nimbostratus clouds
must form to give heavy rains.
(iii)There must be an inward flow of air in the upper level of the atmosphere.

Association weather
(i) As the front of vortex arrives, gusty winds develop and thick clouds appear
(ii) When the vortex arrives, the wind becomes violent reaching speeds of over 240km/hr.
(iii)Calm conditions return when the ‘eye’ arrives
(iv) The arrive arrival of the rear of the vortex brings in the violent winds.
With aid of diagram, explain how and where tropical cyclones develop.

These develop when North East Trade winds and South East Trade meet along the inter-tropical
front. When they meet, one is uplifted over the other and its moisture produces heavy rainfall. these
develop over oceans because air masses which have travelled over oceans have warm moist lower
layer. The tropical cyclones die out when reaching land.
Why is this so?
It is because their supply of moist air is cut off completely.

Depression or temperature cyclone

A depression or a temperate cyclone refers to an area of low air pressure whose isobars are very
close at the centre forming an oval shape.

Movement of air in the depression.

Air moves or circulate in an anticlockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in
the southern hemisphere observing Buys Ballot’s law. Normally, winds move from areas of high
pressure to the central part of the cyclone. Depression area rarely stationary but generally move in an
easterly direction.

Where do depressions develop?

They occur in temperature latitudes (60 degrees North and South of the equator) where westerly
winds meet polar winds. Humid air from the tropics meets cold air from polar regions along the
boundary line called polar front.

Characteristics of a depression
a. They are associated with changing weather with continuous rain caused by the lifting of
warm, moist tropical air by the cold polar air which is a bit drier.
b. They vary in their size (some are large while some are small).

How a depression develops?

Firstly, cold air from the polar regions starts moving in a general westerly direction along the polar,
and the warm tropical air from the tropics starts moving in a general easterly direction. When these
two meet, there is always friction which cause a wave to develop in the front. This wave bulges into
colder air and gets larger. Normally, pressure falls at the tip of the wave and winds blow around this
tip in an anticlockwise direction. This development of the bulge causes warm air to rise over the cold
air at the warm front. The colder air forces its way under the warm air at the back often called the
rear where the cold front develops. It is important to know that warm air between the two fronts is
called the warm sector.

Weather associated with a depression

1. Clear sky but often with little cirrus cloud.
2. Definite cloud cover develops as winds blow from South East causing occurrence of light
shower of rain. Then the warm front passes.
3. The rain stops and the wind changes its direction from South East to South West.
4. Temperature rise and the air is humid because the warm sector lies over the centre.
5. Weather changes very quickly causing wind to blow from the North East and temperature
falls. They sky remains clear and cool with the passage the depression.

Similarities and differences between temperature and tropical Cyclones

Similarities
They both circulate in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere, (this is Buys Ballot’s Law.)

Differences
1. A tropical cyclone is smaller in size than a depression
2. A tropical cyclone is also more violet than a depression

ANTICYCLONES
Meaning
These are regions in which the atmospheric pressure is high at the centre and decreases outwards.
The pressure gradient is gentle and winds are light.

Characteristics and Consequences

(i) They bring about fine weather
(ii) Skies are clear, the air is calm
(iii)Temperature and high in summer but low in winter.
(iv) In winter great cooling of the lower atmosphere may result into thick fogs.
(v) Wind blow outwards as opposed to inwards in cyclones.
(vi) The blow in a clockwise direction in the northern hemi
(vii). The main anticyclones of the word include: South Atlantic High and Indian Ocean
High.

Characteristics and Effects of Some Local Winds

1. Chaperoni
Where does it blow?
 It originates from Mozambique mostly effecting the Shire highlands.
Characteristics
(i) It is warm
(ii) It is moist

Effects
It brings the persistent low clouds (stratus) which can sometimes bring drizzles in the Southern
region of Malawi, particularly Mulanje, Thyolo and Blantyre.

2. Chinook

Where does it blow?

It originates from the Pacific Ocean and it blows across the Rockies mountains in Canada and
U.S.A.
Characteristics
(a) They descend over rockies mountains.
(b) They are warm
(c) They bring orographic rain to the west Rockies
(d) It is commonest in spring and winter

Characteristics
 They bring rain to the west of Rockies mountain windward side) and little or no rain to the
eastern side. This rain is orographic type of rainfall
 By being warm, it raises temperature, sometimes by 19oC in 15 minutes and therefore it is
capable of melting and drying up winter snow. This is why it is sometimes called Snow
Eater. It is thus of economics value, especially in pastroral regions ranging from Southern
Colorado (USA) to as far North as Mackenzie river (Canada).

3. Harmattan

Where does it blow?

 It blows from the Sahara desert to the western coast of Africa.

Characteristics
(a) It is a hot, dry and dusty
(b) It is capable of splinting trunks of trees and also damages crops.

Effects
 They bring hot air to the area they blow. Guinea receives a lot of rain. Hence the incoming of
hot air encourages a lot of evaporation. This is why harmattan is called the Doctor.

4. Fohn

Where does it blow?

 It blows down the leeward slope of Northern Alps (fold mt. in Swatzerland).

Characteristics
(a) It is warm
(b) It is dry
Effects
It is capable of melting snow because it raises temperature by 8oC to 11oC
Trees and houses become excessively dry, avalanches may occur.
In Northern Switzerland in spring, it is useful in melting winter snow from the pastures.
In autumn, it is useful in ripening the crops, especially grates.
LAND AND SEA BREEZES
It should be noted that air generally flows form an area of higher pressure to an area of low pressure.
Land and sea breezes are caused by differential heating of land and water masses.

SEA BREEZE

Explanation
Land heats up and cools down faster and compared to water. During the day, land will heat up faster
than sea and therefore air molecules above it expand to occupy large space thus exerting a low
outward pressure hence air pressure decreases over land. The water in the sea will heat up at a much
slower rate as compared to land and therefore the temperature is lower above the sea than above
land. This causes air above the sea to contract resulting into high pressure. As a result, this causes air
to move from the sea to high pressure (sea) to the area of low pressure (land) creating a sea breeze.

LAND BREEZE

Explanation
Suring the night, the reverse takes place. The land cools more quickly than the sea, which results in
the air over the land having a lower temperature and high pressure while the sea cools more slowly
than land resulting in the air above it to have a high temperature and low pressure. This creates a
land breeze because air will move from the area of high pressure (land) to the area of low pressure
(sea).

DESCRIPTION OF LAND AND SEA BREEZES ON LOCAL WEATHER.

These normally lower the temperature of the coast they blow to.

THE INTER TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (ITCZ)

Meaning
This is an area (zone) where air masses meet and is indicated by the apparent movement of the sun.
This is the zone of low pressure which is created because of high temperature. Due to the low
pressure a conducive environment is created where air of different characteristics meet.

Formation of ITCZ over Africa

A. In January
  Winds blow towards this low pressure zone i.e., the warm dry stable air from the land, north
of t he low pressure zone (North East Trade Winds) and the moist unstable maritime air from
the Atlantic and Indian Ocean (South East Trades)and the Zaire Air. Such meeting makes the
moist air to rise over the warm stable one resulting in rainfall.

B. In July

 The ITCZ shifts to the North. The warm moist air from the Atlantic (West Coast) meet the
warm dry stable air from the land North of Africa including Sahara.
 The type of rainfall that is experience in the convergence zone include:
(a) Cyclonic
(b) Convectional
 The type of rainfall that is experienced in the Central Africa is largely influenced by the
ITCZ to the extend is largely influenced by the ITCZ to the extent that if it does not form in
the area, there can be a problem of drought.

Rainfall Prediction through Studying the ITCZ

 Experts can predict the situation by studying the position of the ITCZ. In Africa, where
rainfall (especially in the central) is predominantly influenced by the position of the ITCZ,
rains are predicted to good if the ITCZ is positioned somewhere between mid Tanzania and
Southern Zimbabwe. It brings good rains to most of Southern Africa.
 It is worth noting to remember that ITCZ develops in areas of low pressure and therefore any
disturbing condition which would increase pressure would end up effecting/disturbing the
formation of the ITCZ hence effecting rain distribution.
 Atmospheric condition (for example) over Botswana which is known as the Botswana high
brings about the condition hinders the normal creation of the ITCZ and this explains why
rains over Botswana are very erratic.

LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES

LATITUDES
Meaning
Latitude is the angular distance of a pint on the earth’s surface, measured in degrees from the centre
of the earth. These lines are also called paralles of latitude and examples of these are shown in the
following figures.

Calculation of Distance Using Latitude

These 180o North or South of the Equator and the surface distance between the South Pole and North
pole is 20,000 km meaning that there are 112km between any two degrees and latitude. Put simply,
at the equator 0o, the distance is 110km, at 45o is 111km and at the poles is 111.7km and the average
is taken as 111km.

Example: a cyclist is at a certain town 32o South of the equator. How far is it from the equator?
Working: since 1o is equal to 111km

Therefore, 32o is equal to

32o x 111km
e. = 1 = 3552km

Activity: A tourist visits a game reserve at latitude 54 degrees 30 seconds. How far is it from the
equator? You should know that 1 degree is equal to 60 second (60')

Use of Latitudes
(i)These are used to find positions on the earth and maps.
(ii)They are also used to calculate distance on the globe from the equator.

LONGITUDES
Meaning
Longitude is an angular distance measured in degrees along the equator east or west of the Prime
(first) meridian. These lines are shown as a series ciciels that run from pole to pole passing through
the equator. All longitudes are great circles because they cut the globe into two equator halves.

Calculation of Local Time Using Longitudes

Since the earth makes one complete rotation of 360 in one day or 24 hours, it passes through 15o in
1 hour or 1o in 1 minute.
All areas to the right of the prime Meridian have their local time ahead and for every additional 15
degrees, 1 hour is added while all areas to the left have their local time behind and for additional 15
degrees, one hour is subtracted. There are 12 hours and 180 longitude lines to the right and left and
Greenwich Meridian.

Example 1: A journalist leaves a village at longitude 105o West of Prime Meridian at 10:00 a.m. and
he arrives a certain island at 20:00hrs East of Prime Meridian. At which longitude is he at this time?

Working: The longitude is a head of Prime Meridian, therefore, time will be added.
From 105o to 0o, there are 7 hours.
Add 7 hours to 10:00a.m. = 17:00hrs.

From 17:00hrs to 20:00hrs, there are three hours.

If 1 hour = 15 degrees
Therefore, 3 hrs = 45 degrees

Answer: The journalist will be at the longitude of 45 degrees East.

Example 2: A tourist leaves a historical site at 5:00 p.m. at a longitude 45 degrees East of
Greenwich Meridian. At what time does he arrive at longitude 150 degrees West of Prime Meridian?

Solution: The time is found by subtracting 13 hours from 5:00p.m. because this longitude is found
to the West of Greenwich Meridian. You should know that for every 1 hour the earth rotates 15
degrees.
Therefore, the tourist arrives at longitude 150 Degrees West of Prime Meridian at 4:00 a.m.

THE INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE

MEANING
This is the line where the date changes by exactly one day when it is crossed. A traveler crossing the
date line from east to west loses a day (because of loss in time encountered) and while crossing the
date line from West to East the gains a day (because of the gain in time he has encountered). This
line drawn passing through 180 degrees east and west of prime Meridian and is drawn in such a way
that it avoids Islands and landmasses such as Eastern Russia, Fiji and Tonga Island groups. The idea
is to avoid confusion for people living in such areas.

Example : The captain of the ship observed that it is Thursday at longtime 180o west of Greenwich
Meridian and the local time is 4:00p.m at what time and day is it for another captain to arrive at
longitude 180o East of Greenwich.

Working: There are 12 hours to the West and 12 hours to the East of Prime Meridian. This means
from longitude 180o West to longitude 180o East of Prime Meridian, there are 24 hours (one day).

Answer: The captain arrives at longitude 190oE and Friday at 4:00p.m.

Activity: A traveler starts her journey at longitude 180o E of Prime Meridian at 6:00 a.m. on
Thursday. At what time and day will she be at longitude 180o West of Prime Meridian.
Revision questions
Question 1:
(a) What is meant by the word “atmosphere”?
(b) Mention two causes of seasons.
(c) How does each of these [in (b)] contribute to the occurrence of season?
(d) Describe the characteristics of the following types of seasons:
(i) Summer
(ii) Winter
(iii)Autumn
(iv) Springs

Question 2:
(a) What is “air pressure”?
(b) Explain three factors that influence air pressure
(c) Account for the distribution of pressure belts (high and low) on the global and on it located
the prevailing winds.

Question 3:
(a) Define pressure gradient.
(b) Differentiate between local and prevailing winds.
(c) Mention the characteristics of the above mentioned winds.
(d) Locate the following local winds on the world map:
(i) Chinoock winter
(ii) Harmattan (cooler season)
(iii)Chiperoni
(iv) Pamphero (summer)
(v) Bora (winter)
(vi) Zonda (summer)
(vii) Berg (winter)
(viii) Sirocco (spring)
(ix) Khamsin (spring)
(x) Southerly burster (summer)
(xi) Brick fielder (summer)
(xii) Fohn (winter
(xiii) Mistral (winter)
(xiv) Levenche (spring)
(e) Give characteristics of effects of each of the following local winds.

(i). Chinook winds

(ii). Harmattan
(iii). Chiperoni
(iv). fohn

(a) Account for the occurrence of land and sea breezes. Illustrate with well-labelled diagrams.
(b) Describe the influence of land and sea breezes on local weather.
(c) With the aid of well-labelled diagrams, explain how the following weather instruments
work?
 (i). Mercury barometer
(ii). Aneroid barometer

Question 5:
(a) Define the following:
(i). Front
(ii) warm front
(iii)Cold front
(iv) Stationery front
(v) Occluded front

(b) Give one similarity and one difference of temperature and tropical cyclone.
(c) With the aid of a diagram, explain how and where tropical cyclone develops.

Question 6:
(a) What do you understand by the term “air mass?”
(b) How are air masses classified? Mention two bases.

UNIT 4 WORLD CLIMATES

Main Idea:

By the end of this unit, you should be able to know that:

 World climate is divided into tropical and temperature climates and each climate has
location, characteristics, agricultural development, and hindrances to such agricultural
development, vegetation associated with each type, characteristics of such vegetation,
examples of vegetation and their economic importance.

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD CLIMATES

The most important climate elements are temperature and rainfall, these form the basis of climate
divisions.
The world is divided into five temperature zones:
1. Hot zone
2. Warm zone
3. Cool zone
 4. Cold zone
5. Very cold zone

The resulting regions all have a distinct climate. The world climate is divided into tropical climates
and temperature climates.

Note: The study of climate is called Climatology. Climate can be deemed as changing when we
have distinct changes in rainfall and temperature patterns.

TROPICAL CLIMATES

1. EQUATORIAL CLIMATE
Location
 Between latitudes 5oN and 5oS of the equator e.g., Amazon basin (South America) and the
Zaire Basins; Southern Ivory Coast, South Western and South Central Ghana; Western
coastal Nigeria.

Climatic Characteristics

SINGAPORE
Months Temperature (oC) Rain (mm)
J 26 380
F 26 240
M 24 280
A 25 340
M 25 300
J 26 310
J 23 300
A 24 310
S 24 380
O 26 550
N 26 600
D 26 560
(a) There are no definite seasons because there is low pressure throughout the year
(b) Average daily temperatures are 26oC and the annual temperature range is 3oC. This is caused
by an almost constant length of the day all year with the mid-day sun being always near the
vertical.
(c) Heavy convectional rainfall. Rainfall comes in the afternoon accompanied by thurder and
lightening. Annual rainfall is about 2000 mm.
(d) Humidity is always high.

Agriculture Development
  People earn their living through hunting and food collection since population is sparse.
 Type of farming followed is shifting cultivation.
 Plantation agriculture is also followed e.g., (Malaysia and Indonesia), oil palm (Malaysia and
Zaire), sugarcane (Cuba), cocoa (Ghana).
 There is an important timber industry (lumbering). Valuable trees include mahogany, ebony
and green heart (hard wood trees).

Things that Retard Development in the Equatorial Climate

(a) Diseases and inspect pests e.g., tsetse fly. These attach man, his animals and his crops.
(b) Since it is densely forested, communication e.g., roads are difficult to construct.
(c) Loss in soil fertility due to leaching.

2. TROPICAL CONTINENTAL (SUDAN) CLIMATE

Location
 It occurs between 5o and 15o North and South of the Equator.
 It is best developed in Africa and East Central South America
 In Africa it is called Savanna Climate.

Climate Characteristics
(a) There are definite we and dry seasons which coincide respectively with the hot and cooler
seasons.

(b) Summers are hot with temperatures around 32oC. Winters are cooler about 21oC. Annual
temperature range is about 11oC.
(c) Heavy convectional rains fall in summer. Winters are usually dry.
(d) The annual rainfall is often around 762mm but it may be more in coastal regions and less
near hot desserts.
(e) The highest temperatures occur just before the rainy season begins e.g., April in the Northern
Hemisphere and October in the Southern Hemisphere.
(f) Humidity is high in summer.
Agriculture Development
(i) Agricultural development is not well developed in Africa savannas because some still follow
primitive methods of agriculture e.g. the Masai of Kenya
(ii) In some areas e.g., Nigeria, the Hausa Kikuyu of East grow crops e.g., millet, maize,
bananas, groundnuts and beans. They also keep herds of cattle and goats.
(iii)Commercial plantation is also carried on e.g, Kenya, Malawi grow tea.

Factors Preventing Further Expansion to Africultural Development

(a) Unreliable rainfall (droughts are common)
(b) Diseases and insect pests
(c) Loss of soil fertility
 (d) Poor communications.

3. TROPICAL MARINE CLIMATE

Location
 Occurs East Coastal areas of regions having a tropical continental climate and in coastal
regions of Central America.
 Best developed in lowlands of Central America, West Indies, Brazil, East Africa, East
Malagasy, North East Australia and Philippines.

Climate Characteristic

(a) On-shore trade winds blow throughout the year bringing rains throughout the year with
maximum in hot season.
(b) Rainfall is both convectional and orographic with annual rainfall between 1000 mm to 2000
mm.
(c) Temperature are similar to tropical continental climates. Annual temperature range is about
8oC. Hot season temperatures – 29oC and cool season temperature – 21oC.

4. TROPICAL MONSOON CLIMATE

Location
 South East and Eastern Asia; Northern Australia

Climatic Characteristics

(a) Seasonal reversal of winds is the chief feature of this climate.

(b) Annual rainfall varies greatly, depending mainly of relief
(c) Temperature ranges from 32oC in hot seas to about 15oC in cool season.
(d) Typical tropical monsoon climate consists of three seasons
1. Cool dry season (November to January)
 2. Hot dry season (March to May)
3. Hot we season (June to October)

Agriculture Development
(i) There is intensive cultivation of food crops Padi is important food crop.
(ii) Extensive cultivation of non-food crops usually in plantation or Estates.
 Tea and sugarcane are most important plantation crops.

Obstables to Agricultural Development

 Farmer’s ignorance on modern methods of farming
 Practice of land division on the death of the owner
 Poverty
 Overdependence on onshore monsoon winds.

5. TROPICAL DESERT CLIMATE

Location
 The most important regions are the Sahara desert, the Arabian, Iranian and Thar deserts, the
Australian desert, Namib, Atacama, the Califonia, and Mexican deserts.

Climatic characteristic
Months Temperature (oC) Rain (mm)
J 18 -
F 18 0.1
M 17 0.2
A 16 -
M 16 -
J 15 -
J 14 -
A 15 -
S 16 -
O 16 -
N 17 -
D 18 0.2

(a) Rain rarely falls. Average annual rainfall is usually 120mm.

(b) Occur in tropical high pressure belts.
(c) Temperature vary from 29oC in hot season to 10oC in cool season.
 (d) Day temperature often go over 38oC because of no clouds. At night due to no clouds,
temperatures fall to 15oC in cool season. Diurnal temperature range is very high.

Agriculture Development
1. Irrigation agriculture can place. Crops grown are heat, dates, vegetables and fruits.
2. Nomadic herding takes place in Sahara and Arabian.

Factors Preventing Further Development

 Very limited quantities and distribution of available fresh water. This can be solved through
ice towing from the Antarctic to the hot desert areas.

WARM TEMPERATURE CLIMATE

1. WARM TEMPERATURE WESTERN MARGIN CLIMATE – MEDITERRANEAN
CLIMATE
Location
 Occur 30oN and 45oN, and 30oS and 40oS, on the Western side of continents
 Best development around the shores of the Mediterranean sea, South Western Africa; Central
Chile; Central California, South West and South Australia.

Climatic Characteristic

Months Temperature (oC) Rain (mm)

J 9 99
F 10 81
M 11 81
A 12 49
M 19 35
J 20 10
J 22 -
A 22 -
S 21 5
O 18 11
N 12 80
D 9 98

(a) This is a unique type of climate because it receives rainfall in winter. It receives both
cyclonic and convectional rainfall. Annual rainfall is between 500-900mm.
(b) Temperature ranges from 21oC in summer to 10oC or below in winter.
(c) Off-shore trade winds blow in summer. These are dry and give no rains.
(d) On-shore westerly winds blow in winter bringing cyclonic rainfall.
(e) Receive local winds like Sorocco (blows) in summer and is hot dusty and dry wind which
blows in the summer across the Mediterranean sea from the Sahara desert; Mistral (strong
and cold wind) blows in the winter from the North down the Rhone valley; Bora which blows
in winter and development because of pressure different.

Agriculture Development
(a) This climate suits growth of many crops e.g., fruits and cereals.
(b) Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, grapefruits and limes) are extensively grown. This is made
possible through irrigation.

Important Agriculture Activities.

 (i).Olive trees – for making cooking oil.
(ii) Growing of grapes (viticulture) – used for making wine.
(iii). Wheat and barley – for making canning and food processing.

Industries
Wine making, flour milling, fruit canning and food processing.

2. WARM TEMPERATURE INTERIOR CLIMATE (WARM CONTINENTAL)

Location
 It occurs in the interior of continents between latitude 20oC and 35oC North and South of the
equator excluding Asia.
 The climate is best developed in Southern continents e.g., Murry-Darling low lands
(Australia), High Veldt (Africa); Western Okhahoma, Texas and Northern Mexico (USA);
Central Argentina.

In regions having this climate, the grasslands have specific names e.g., the Downs (Australia); Veldt
(South Africa); Pampas (Argentina). Cattle and sheep are reared in this climate region.

Factors that Retard Agricultural Development

 Drought due to high evaporation.

3. WARM TEMPERATURE CLIMATTE EASTERN (CHIMA TYPE)

Location
 It is located on the Eastern side of continents between 32o and 35o North and South of the
equator.
 Best development in Central China; South Eastern USA; Southern Brazil; Easter part of
Argentina; South East Africa and South Eastern Australia; Southern Japan.

Climatic Characteristics

(a) On-shore trade winds blow in summer brining rains. During winter, there off-shore westerly
winds which bring little or no rain. Most of the rainfall is convectional. Total annual rainfall
is about 1000 mm.
(b) Summer temperature is about 26oC while winter temperature is about 13oC. Winter
temperature can be dramatically lowered suddenly when local winds caused by depressions
 develop, e.g., Pampero (Argentina), and southerly Buster (Australia), and blow strongly.
Typhoos (South China) and Hurricanes (South USA) are common in summer
(c) Monsoon winds tends to develop in both South East USA and in China. In China, the
Development is marked and where is a definite seasonal wind reversal because of this warm
temperature monsoonal climate.

Agricultural Development

1. The temperature and rainfall patterns enable crops to be grown throughout the year. Padi
(often two crops a year) is cultivated extensively in china is grown on substistence basis.
Other crops grown include cotton, tobacco, maize and sugarcane.
2. Cattle and sheep are reared in vast numbers in South America. Some maize is used to feed
animals. In South East Australia, the main activity is daily farming.

Factors that Retard Agricultural Development.

Some strong cold winds like Pampero kill animals.

COOL TEMPERATURE CLIMATE

1. COOL TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN CLIMATE – THE BRITISH TYPE

Location
 Occurs western sides of continents between 45oN and 60oN and South of 45oS.
 It is best developed in North West Europe, Western Canada, Coastal Southern Chile,
Tasmania and South Island of New Zealand.

Climatic Characteristics.

(a) Winter temperature is between 2oC to 7oC. Summer temperature is between 13oC to 15oC.
Annual temperature range is between 8oC and 11oC .
(b) Prevailing winds throughout the year are from the west and blow strongly in winter.
(c) Combination of warm ocean currents and winds results in small annual temperature range.
(d) Rain falls throughout the year, through there is both occur. Total annual rainfall is 760 mm
and 2500 mm in mountains.
Agricultural Development
(a) Expensive areas are under cattle and sheep farming.
(b) In North-west Europe, the following activities are carried out:
(i) Beef and diary cattle farming.
(ii) Sheep farming (wool and meat)
(iii)Cereal farming especially wheat and barley.
(iv) Mixed farming.
(v) Market gardening near to urban areas.
(vi) Fruit farming.

2. COOL TEMPERATE EASTERN MARGIN LAURENTAIAN TYPE

Location
 Occurs in the eastern side of North America and Asia between 36oN and 50oN and on the
eastern side of South America south of 40oS.
 Well developed in maritime provinces of Eastern Canada and in Northern China
 It also occurs in the New England states of the USA, Korea and Central and Northern Japan.

Climate Characteristics
(a) Winter temperature range from – 9oC to 4oC and summer and summer temperature range
15oC to 24oC. Temperature range is therefore high.
(b) Cold winds blow outwards from the interior of North America and Asia continent. These
lower winter temperatures. Temperatures. Temperatures are also lowered by cold currents
e.g., Labrador Current (N. America).

(c) Precipitation occurs throughout the year and is fairly distributed. Total annual rainfall varies
from 530 mm to 1000 mm. the rain is both convectional and cyclonic.
(d) In North-East Asia, there is typical monsoon wind pattern (seasonal reversal

Agricultural Development
(a) Mixed farming with cattle, hay, oats and wheat is a major activity in the lowlands of North-
East America.
(b) Daily farming and market gardening are important near towns. Fruit farming is also
important.
 (c) Crop farming is extensive in most areas. Important crops are wheat, maize, millet and soya
beans.
(d) Sheep farming is important in south-eastern South America because of poor rains and soils

Factor that Retard Development

Cold winds kill animals

3. COOL TEMPERATE INTERIOR CLIMATE

Location
 Occurs in the interior of North America and Eurasia between latitudes 35oN and 60oN.
 Best developed in the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba in Canada; in
Central and Eastern European and Western USSR.

Climatic Characteristics
Months Temperature (oC) Rain (mm)
J -20 10
F -17 17
M -9 29
A 3.6 34
M 11 53
J 16 82
J 19.1 79
A 17.3 56
S 12 53
O 4 34
N -6 28
D 13.9 23

(a) Winter temperature often falls to as long as -19oC with summer temperature rising to 18oC.
Annual temperature range is 37oC.
(b) Convectional rainfall falls in summer. Annual total rarely exceeds 513 mm. rainfall decreases
towards the east in Eurasia and towards the west in North America. Rainfall intensity
decreases as one goes polewards.
Note: This climate has no place in the Southern Hemisphere.

Agricultural Development
(a) Growth of wheat important in both America and Eurasia regions.
(b) Mixed farming usually cattle with wheat and other temperature cereals take place in the
European and Soviet regions.

4, COLD TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL CLIMATE (SIBERIAN TYPE)

Location
 Location between the Cool Interior climate and the Tundra climate in both North America
and Eurasia (between 55oN and 68oN).
 Best development in Canada and the USSR.
 (a) Winter temperature ranges from -34 oC in parts of Canada to – 45oC in parts of CIS.
Summers are warm about 21oC. Annual temperature range is over 55oC.
(b) Annual precipitation rarely exceeds 380 mm, and most of this falls in summer. Most of the
rainfall is convectional.

Agricultural Development
The sub-soil is frozen for most part of the year and this prevents most types of agriculture from
taking place.

TUNDRA CLIMATE
Location
 Occurs in the Northern Continents north of the Cold temperature continental climate.
 It is best developed in Northern Canada and Northern Asia.

Climate Characteristics.

(a) Winter temperature range from – 29oC to -40oC and summer temperature is about 10oC. The
annual range varies from 39oC to 50oC.
(b) Winter nights are long with hardly any daylight and summer days are long with hardly any
night.
(c) Total annual precipitation is about 250mm.
(d) Humidity is always low because of the low temperature.
Agriculture Development
 Sub-soils are permanently frozen and there is no agricultural of any type.

6. POLAR CLIMATE
Location
This occurs in Greenland, interior Iceland and in Antarctica.

Climate Characteristics
(a) Temperatures are permanently below 0oC
(b) Winters are one continuous night and summers one continuous day.
(c) Blizzards (frost or snow) are frequent.

7. MOUNTAIN CLIMATE
Location
 This climate is best developed in regions of young fold mountains e.g., the Rocky mountains,
the Andes and the Himalayas.

Climate Characteristics
(a) In general, pressure and temperature decrease with altitude while precipitation increases.
Daily temperature range is small.
(b) Local winds include Chinook (in the Rockies); Fohn (in Swatzerland).

Important formulae for calculating climate related problems

(i) . Diurnal Mean Temperature

= Daily Max. Temp + Daily Min. Temp
2

(ii). Mean Monthly temperature range

= Daily Mas Temp – Daily Min. Temp

(iii). Mean Monthly Temperature

= Sum of Mean Daily Temp for 1 month
Number of Days in 1 month

(iv). Mean Annual Temperature.

= Sum of mean Monthly Temp for 1 year
12
(v). Mean Annual Range of Temperature
= Highest Mean Monthly Temperature
- Lowest Mean Monthly Temps.

NATURAL VEGETATION
 Natural vegetation are different types of plants (trees, grass, shrubs, etc) that grow without
any noticeable or modification by the human race.
 Natural vegetation can be modified or interfered through animal rearing, agro-forestry,
urbanization and fire.

CLASSES OF VEGETATION
(a) Forest
(b) Savanna (forest and grass)
(c) Grassland
 (d) Desert

DESCRIPTION OF VEGETATION
Vegetation can be described according to its structure and physical properties. The following are the
features one would look at to describe vegetation.

(a) Life Forms

(i) Trees (with main trunk and branches) and shrubs (with branches and stunted in growth)
(ii) Lianas (those that climb upon other plants)
(iii)Herbs (do not have a woody structure)
(iv) Epiphytes (those that live on other plants
(v) Flowerless plants.

(b) Size
 Whether the plant is tall, medium or low in height.

(c) Coverage
Sparsely covered (as in deserts) in groups, continuous (as in equatorial forests).

(d) Their response to Annual Climatic Cycle

They may be deciduous (losing leaves seasonally) or semi-deciduous (those that shed leaves but not
seasonally. They shed within short periods of time). Others may be evergreen.

(e) Leaf Size and Shape

 Broad leaf or needle leaf.

(f) Leaf Texture

Leaves may be thick; thin and delicate. Others are hard; thick and leathery; thick and spongy.
TYPES OF VEGETATION
1. Tropical Vegetation/Tropical Rainforest/ Equatorial Forest

Location
 In equatorial climate regions.

Characteristics
(i) Contains a great variety of plants and animals
(ii) The forest consists of three layers: upper; middle layer and button layer.
(iii)The trees grow closely.
(iv) Growth is continuous (flowering, fruits, shedding takes place throughout the year).
(v) Most of the trees have broad leaves and long roots that ensure strong support.
(vi) Most of the trees are evergreen.
(vii) Threes are tall forming a canopy resulting into little undergrowth.

Trees found
Mahogany, ebony, orchids, rosewood, iron wood and greenheart. These are hardwood trees.

Economical importance of tropical evergreen forest

(a) Used for lumbering e.g., Mahogany
(b) Used for sculpture e.g., Ebony
(c) Used for poles

2. Tropical Grassland
Location
It is found in the tropical continental (Savanna climate)

Characteristics/Characteristics Features
It has tall grass with scattered trees.
The grass dries up in the hot dry season
Luxuriant growth of both trees and grass is only evident during the hot wet season.
The trees are deciduous (shed their leaves).
Trees have long roots.

Vegetation found
Baobab, palms, acacias, gum trees, elephant grass.
Name of different tropical grasslands.
(i) Campos (tropical grassland in Brazil.
(ii) Llanos (Guinea highlands).
(iii)Savanna (Africa and Australia).

Difference between Vegetation in the Equatorial Climate and in Savanna climate

(a) Equatorial vegetation is dominated by trees while the Savanna type is dominated by grass.
(b) Equatorial vegetation has a continuous canopy while the Savanna does not because in most
cases it is spiced by grass.
(c) Growth, flowering and fruiting etc, of trees is there all the time in the Equatorial while in
Savanna it is seasonal.
(d) There are more species in the Equatorial than the Savanna.
(e) Trees in Equatorial are evergreen while in Savanna it is deciduous.
3. Desert Vegetation

Figure showing desert vegetation

Location
 It is found in tropical desert climate regions,
 Desert vegetation differs from one part of the world to another, for example, in some deserts
(cold desert) like Mahave, plants are notably big with some scattered bushes of shrubs and
grass while in hot desert like the Savanna, most areas are bare without vegetation except for a
few areas.

Characteristics
They grow long roots that get to the depth
They have very thick laves and stems to store water.
Have waxy leaves that prevent transpiration and also have tiny laves.
They produce sleepy seeds (those that lie dormant when it is dry) and germinate when water is
available.
Have scattered vegetation of drought resistant species.

Vegetation found
Cacti, thorn bushes, date palms and shrubs.

4. Temperature Vegetation

Location
Found in Mediterranean climate regions

Characteristic features
(a) Evergreen trees most of which are not naturally growing
(b) Trees have needle shaped leaves.
(c) There are shrubs, grasses scattered all over.
(d) Very little natural vegetation.

How vegetation withstand the dry summer?

(a) Water is stored in their thick barks and leaves.
(b) The plants have spreading and deep roots that easily trap water.
(c) Needle shaped leaves ensure less transpiration.

Species of plants found

Cedars, conifers, eucalyptus, maquis, chaparral, malle, and oaks.
Note: one common characteristics feature of Mediterranean plants is that they are all in one way or
another adapted to the summer drought.

5. Coniferous Forest
This climate is best developed in regions of young fold mountains e.g., the Rocky

Location
Found in Cool Temperature Interior climate regions.
Characteristics
(a) Composed of evergreen coniferous trees.
(b) Have needle-shaped leaves
(c) Have umbrella-shaped structure
(d) Trees grow at a reasonably slow rate
(e) They have big area or mass of wood than leaves.
(f) No undergrowth.

Example of trees
Hemlock, spruce, pine and Fir. These are soft woods.

Economic Importance of coniferous forest

1, Soft wood is used for making paper.
2. Soft wood is used for making furniture.
3. Soft wood is used for making matches.
4. Soft wood is used for making synthetic fibres such as rayon.

6. Temperature Grasslands.
Location
 Found in Temperature desert regions.

Characteristics.
1. Extensive area of grass without trees.
2. Grass occurs together with herbs.
3. The grass becomes short as we move towards the temperature desert areas.

Examples of Temperature Grasslands

1. Prairies (Canada / USA)
2. Pampas (Argentina)
3. Steppes (Eurasia)
4. Darling Murry (Australia)
5. Veldt (South Africa).

7. Tundra Grasslands
Location
Found in Tundra climate

Characteristic features
a. A variety of grass grows together with mosses and linches.
b. The grasses are short due to slow growth because of the very cold climate.
c. The grass is punctuated by very stunted growth of bushes.

Note: Tundra grasslands are only found in the Northern Hemisphere because it has large land masses
than the Southern Hemisphere.

Importance of Grasslands
1. Habitats a variety of wildlife e.g., in tropical grasslands – antelope, gazelles, temperate
grassland – horses, antelope; tundra vegetation – mosquito, musk-ox, arctic hares, arctic
white fox, birds.
2. Offer ideal land for agriculture
3. Other grasslands are turned into National parks and game reserves.
4. Beatify the country
8. Tropical Monsoon Forest
Location
In areas having Tropical Monsoon climate.

Characteristics features
1. There is smaller number of species.
2. Most of the trees are deciduous.
3. Tall trees.
4. Trees are sparsely spread
5. Undergrowth is denser.

Example of trees
Teak, Bamboo, Sal, Sandalwood, Acacia, Eucalyptus. These are hardwoods.

Economic Importance of tropical monsoon forest.

(a) Trees are used for lumbering e.g., teak.
(b) Used for poles e.g., eucalyptus.

Review Questions
Question 1:
Table below shows climate data for a weather station. Use it to answer questions which follow:
Months Temperature (oC) Rain (mm)
J 25 28
F 26 -
M 27 -
A 28 -
M 29 23
J 31 100
J 35 200
A 34 200
S 27 150
O 28 50
N 26 18
D 24 -

(a) Identify the type of climate data for the station.

(b) Where is this type of climate developed?
(c) Describe any two characteristics of this climate.
(d) Explain any two factors which hinder economic development in the climatic region.
(e) What type of vegetation is associated with this type of climate?
(f) Give five examples of vegetation that is found in this type of climate.
(g) Describe any characteristics feature of the vegetation you know.

Question 2:
Follow table shows climatic data for weather station. Use it to answer questions which follow.
 Months Temperature (oC) Rain (mm)
J 9 99
F 10 81
M 11 81
A 12 49
M 19 35
J 20 10
J 22 -
A 22 -
S 21 5
O 18 11
N 12 80
D 9 98

(a) Identify the type of climate for the station.

(b) List any five characteristics of this type of climate.
(c) Suggest any two important agricultural developments at this station.
(d) List any three agricultural activities which dominate at this station.

Question 3:
The table below shows climate data for a weather station. Use it to answer question which follow:

Months Temperature (oC) Rain (mm)

J 26 360
F 26 240
M 24 280
A 25 340
M 24 300
J 24 310
J 23 300
A 24 310
S 24 380
O 26 550
N 26 600
D 26 560

(a) Identify the type of climate for the station.

(b) Describe any four characteristics of this type of climate.
(c) Explain any two factors that hinder economic development in the region.
(d) What type of vegetation is associated with this type of climate?
(e) Give any four examples of vegetation that is found in this type of climate
(f) Describe any two characteristics features of this type of vegetation.
Question 4:
Follow table shows climatic data for a weather station. Use it to answer questions which follow.

Months Temperature (oC) Rain (mm)

J -40 10
F -37 9
M -28 11
A -17 10
M -8 15
J 8 22
J 8 46
A 5 48
S 3 47
O -18 25
N -33 14
D -35 12

(a) Identify the type of climate for the station.

(b) Describe any four characteristics of this type of climate.
(c) Describe any agricultural development associated with this type of climate that you know.

Question 5:
The following table shows climate data for the weather station. Use it to answer questions which
follow:

Months Temperature (oC) Rain (mm)

J 18 -
F 18 0.1
M 17 0.2
A 16 -
M 16 -
J 15 -
J 14 -
A 15 -
S 16 -
O 16 -
N 17 -
D 18 0.2

(a) Identify the type of climate for the station.

(b) Describe any five characteristics of this type of climate
(c) Describe any two agricultural developments associated with this type of climate.
(d) Explain factors that hinder agricultural development at this station.
Question 6:
Follow table shows climate data for a weather station. Use it to answer questions which follow:

Months Temperature (oC) Rain (mm)

J 11 32
F 12 24
M 21 18
A 26 15
M 27 46
J 30 75
J 31 176
A 27 174
S 25 142
O 24 8
17 17 -
D 16 8

(a) Identify the type climate for the station.

(b) Describe the characteristics of this types of climate
(c) Describe any two agricultural developments associated with this type of climate
(d) Explain any tow factors that hinder agricultural developments at this station.
UNIT 5 THE ENVIRONMENT
Main Ideas:
By the end of this unit, you should be able to know that:
 There are human activities that endanger the environment such as deforestation, poor
agricultural practice, pollution and poor disposal.
 Desertification is process whereby land changes into a desert and that it has effects such as
climate change, erosion, poor crop yield, soil degradation and depletion and water resource.
 There are measures of controlling desertification which include afforestation, approximate
land husbandry and environment.
 Air, water and land pollution are caused by emissions, waste disposal; discharge, oil spills,
and nuclear testing respectively.
 Air pollution results into respiratory problems, odour, acid rain and poor visibility, water
pollution results into loss of aquatic life, diarrhea problems, scarcity of safe and portable
water. land pollution results into loss of biodiversity.
 Pollution can be controlled by proper waste disposal, using clean energy and legislature and
enforcement of laws that protect the environment

TERMINOLOGIES
Ecology: Study of the mutual dependence and interaction among organisms and their surroundings.
Ecosystem: All giving organisms and the physical biotic (living) and (non-living) things.
Environment: The surroundings made up of the biotic (living) and (non-living) things.

EXAMPLES OF ENDANGERED WILD AND AQUATIC LIFE SPECIES IN MALAWI

(a) Chambo fish (one of the major foreign exchange earners).
(b) Elephants
(c) Nyala (the rare shy) etc.

WAYS HOW WILD AND AQUATIC LIFE SPECIES ARE ENDANGERED?

Human beings endanger wild and aquatic life species in ways that include:
 Poor agriculture practices such as shifting cultivation, pastoral nomadism, making ridges
along the slopes.
 Deforestation which encourages greater run-off and large-scale erosion.
 Misuse of pesticides.
 Pollution.
 Poor waste disposal.
 Disruption of the food chain.
 Careless bushfires.
 Over-fishing
 Poaching.
 Drainage of marshes and swamps.

(a) Poor Farming Practices.

These endanger wild and aquatic life species in the sense that they destroy the habitant for wildlife
like in the case of shifting cultivation, pastoral nomadism, making ridges along the slopes.

(b) Deforestation
This is a wanton cutting down of trees. It endangers wild and aquatic species in that it degrades or
destroys the habitat for wildlife.

(c) Misuse of Pesticides

These also destroy the habitat and also kill aquatic animals when they are discharged into water.

(d) Pollution
Water pollution destroys the habitat for aquatic animals when poisonous waste is disposed of in
water masses or when people use poisonous herbs (Katupe) when fishing. This can also kill aquatic
species which can reduce in number and eventually lead to extinction.

(e) Poor Waste Disposal

When waste is not properly disposed of, it can eventually destroy the habitat for wildlife. This may
be brought about by industries and human beings as they dispose their waste in water.

(f) Disruption of the Food Chain.

When food chain is disrupted by killing or getting rid of one or two species of living organisms, it
may affect the life expectancy of the others in the same food chain. This can lead to reduction in the
number of species of either plants or animals which in turn can also lead to extinction (complete
disappearance).

(g) Careless Bushfires

When bushfires are set unnecessary, they can destroy the habitat for wildlife because the fire
destroys the vegetation in which these live.

(h) Over-Fishing
Due to population increase, people are exerting pressure on fish since meat is comparatively
becoming in short supply. This results into the reduction in the number of fish species which
consequently leads to extinction. Sometimes fishermen use poisonous herbs (Katupe) when fishing
which eventually pollute the water. water pollution entails destruction of the habitat for these marine
species.

(i) Poaching
This is the illegal killing of wildlife. This comes I largely because of rapid population growth. This
tendency can result into depletion or reduction of wildlife which in turn leads to extinction.

(i) Drainage of Marshes and Swamps

This activity destroys the habitat for marine species like crocodiles, hippopotami, etc.

WAYS OF CONSERVING WILD AND AQUATIC SPECIES.

The following are the ways of conserving wild and aquatic species:
(i) Establishment of conservation areas such as forest reserves, national park and game reserves.
(ii) Catching game where they are facing extinction and / or overpopulated and relocating them
elsewhere.
(iii) Protection of rare and endangered species.
(iv) Civic education on conservation.

IMPORTANCE OF WILD AND AQUATIC LIFE SPECIES.

(i) These promote tourism which in turn improves foreign exchange currency as tourist visit
places of interest.
(ii) They are a source of protein, calcium and other nutrients which are important in our body.
(iii)Source of income to people. For instance, people go fishing and eventually find money to
make both ends meets.
(iv) They bring about an ecological balance.

WETLANDS
These refer to swamps, marshes and begs.

EXAMPLES OF WETLANDS IN MALAWI

Ndindi elephant marsh
Lake Chirwa
Vwaza marsh

THE IMPORTANCE OF WELANDS.

(i) These beautify the environment, providing grounds where biological studies and recreational
observation can take place.
(ii) They produce life in that they provide feeding spawning and nursery for fish.
(iii)They stabilize shore lines.
(iv) They are habitat for birds, and endangered and threatened plant and fish species.
(v) They lock up carbon in form of peat thus preventing it from entering the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide, the main gas in global warning.
(vi) These absorb and filter pollutants that would degrade rivers and lakes thus providing clean
water.
(vii) At the coast, they buffer the impact of tides and inland wetlands absorb run-off,
reducing flood waves down stream.

HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT THREATEN WETLANDS

The major human activities that threaten wetland is encroachment where people drain them for
cropping. This results for scarcity of land for cultivation which emanates from rapid population
growth.

MANAGEMENT OF WETLANDS.
(i) By Government
The Government can civic educate people who live near and around the wetlands on the importance
of these. Additionally, the government can teach people to control population growth through the
mass media e.g., raidos, TVs, Newspapers etc. in doing so pressure on land for cultivation can
reduce.

(ii) By Individual
Individuals should avoid encroaching wetlands by not draining them. It is only knowledgeable
people who are able to do so. This is why civic education is very important.

(iii) By Communities
Communities should join hands in protecting these wetlands, by ensuring that anyone found
encroaching them is dealt withy accordingly.

DESERTIFICATION
MEANING
This is a process that creates conditions by downgrading the land surface. It is a steady process that
returns good and fertile into a barren and unproductive scrub.

MAJOR CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION

The main cause of desertification is through they misuse of the land. When land is cleared for
cultivation and settlement, it is eventually left bare resulting into deforestation which in turn leads to
desertification. This problem is aggravated by rapid population growth.
PROBLEMS OF DESERTIFICATION
(i) It disturbs the water cycle since the ate of transpiration is tampered with. This may in turn
lead to drought and famine conditions.
(ii) It prevents regeneration of various valuable species thereby degrading forest.
(iii)It causes land slides.
(iv) It encourages soil erosion contributing to the silting of the river bed and thus causes flooding.
(v) It leads to climate damage.
(vi) It leads to poor crop yield.

CONTROL OF DESERTIFICATION
(a) Afforestation
 Planting trees where there were no trees can help to control desertification

(b)Re-afforestation
 This tendency of planting trees where they have been cut also helps to combat desertification.

(c) Proper Land Husbandry

 Good agricultural techniques will avoid and control desertification. These include, contour
ploughing, avoiding overgrazing and overstocking etc.

(d) Civic Education

 Teaching people about the dangers of deforestation and desertification as well as the
importance of vegetation can also help to control desertification.
(e) Controlling Rapid Population Growth
This will reduce pressure on vegetation thus controlling desertification.

(f) Provision of Alternative Sources of Energy

This reduces pressure on vegetation and therefore it controls desertification.

POLLUTION

TYPES OF POLLUTION
There are three types of pollution namely
1. Air
2. Water
3. Land

CAUSES OF POLLUTION
1. Pollution
This type of pollution is caused by the following:

a. Removal of vegetation cover

Vegetation purifies air and its removal would result into pollution.

b. Emissions
The release of various elements into the atmosphere is going to pollute air in that the elements break
the air molecules apart and these can rearrange to form other compounds which bring abut pollution.

c. Noise
Air molecules act like a medium of transmission of noise.
d. Water disposal
The burning of waste when it has been disposed of pollution air.

2. Water Pollution
This type of pollution is caused by:
(a) Waste discharge
 The disposals of waste in water by industries and inadequate sue of toilets where people opt
for defaecation in water.

(b) Oil spills.

 Oil leakage into water masses pollute water.

3. Land Pollution
This type of pollution is caused by:
(a) Waste discharge
 When people dispose waste on land masses, it eventually leads to land pollution.
(b) Nuclear testing
 The tendency of testing nuclear materials leaves dire consequences on land because these
materials are hazardous.

EFFECTS OF POLLUTION
Air Pollution
(a) Respiratory problems
(b) Odour
(c) Acid rain
(d) Poor visibility

2. Water pollution

(a) Loss of aquatic life

(b) Diarrhea problem
(c) scarcity of safe and portable water

3. Land pollution
 Loss of biodiversity
- Land pollution leads to the loss living organisms in the soil which consequently reduces
species of this organism.

WAYS OF CONTROLLING POLLUTION

There are ways of controlling pollution namely:
(a) Proper waste disposal
(b) Using clean energy
(c) Legislate enforces laws which protect the environment.

CLIMATE CHANGE

INTRODUCTION
It is important to know that the world climate has changed due to various reasons which include
deforestation and pollution.
The change brought about by climate has several effects such as global warming, increasing storms,
changing ocean current and shrinking of the Antarctic ice cap .
This issue of climate change is a global issue which requires joining hands to solve it. Possibly,
international invention is necessary where all countries in the world should agree on proper action to
be taken and civic education could be important tool of curbing the problem of climate change
among the others. It is vital to know that temperature and rainfall are only elements to be considered
when dealing with issues of climate changes. This implies that what have changed are temperature
and the amount of the rainfall

CAUSES
(a) Deforestation
This wanton cutting down of trees which is mainly caused by rapid population growth. When trees
have cut aimlessly, the rate of transpiration is reduced leading to little or no rain. The water cycle is
adversary effected resulting into drought which can also create famine condition.

(b) Emission of Gases (greenhouse effect)

The release of such gases as carbon dioxide through combustion, methane through decaying of
vegetation, nitrous oxide from moving vehicle and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC,s ) From devices like
refrigerators ,cars and air conditioners has negative impact on the earth’s protective ozone gases
which eventually destroy the ozone layer and hence cause causes global warming. This recent
phenomenon has upset normal trend of rainfall in that there is non uniform distribution of rainfall.
Some areas are over bleated while others are not leading to little or no and heavy rainfall
respectively. High temperature also disturbs the condensation process i.e. Dew, point is not reached
easily.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE.

(1) Global warming

This is the most recent phenomenon which has affected the whole globe. It is caused by the release
of greenhouse gases such as methane, carbon dioxide chlorofluorocarbons (CF’s) and nitrous oxide.
These gases react with ozone layer gases once emitted into the atmosphere. The end result is a
creation a hole through which dangerous rays from the sun such as X- ray, gamma rays infra-red
rays pass. These rays happen to reach to reach earth’s surface and therefore warming it hence global
warming. Further more when greenhouse gasses have been emitted into space they absorb terrestrial
radiation from the earth’s surface and send it back to it. It is this heat. It is this heat that warms
phenomenon leads to differential heating of land and water masses hence the different evaporation
rates. Additionary, it is also tempers with condensation process as temperature go beyond dew point.
In a nutshell, the end results in un uniform distribution of rainfall.

(ii) Increasing storms

Firstly, I should be noted that temperature affects air pressure and globe warming effects temperate.
High temperature emanating from global warming makes air molecules to expand and become
lighter. Therefore a parcel of air molecules will have to exert a less outward force to support the
weight of air above it and therefore, a parcel of a molecule will have to exert a less outwards force to
support the weight of air above and it therefore air pressure falls. A region of low air pressure
develops which will force air from different places of high pressure to converge in the low pressure
zone to creating cyclone. The probability of having increasing stoms is becoming increasingly higher
than before following increasing temperatures brought about by global warming.

(iii) Changing Ocean Currents

Temperature is a factor as well as an influence in the direction of oceanic currents. Normally warm
ocean currents flows from the equator pole wards while cold ocean currents while cold ocean current
flow from the polar region towards the equatorial belt, but with increasing temperature especially in
region towards the equatorial belt. But with increasing temperature especially in region towards the
poles, the direction of such ocean currents is like to be changed.

(iv) Shrinking of the Antarctic ice cup

Global warming increases temperature in different places on the earth’s surface within the Antarctic
belt, normal temperatures are low thus leading to the formation of the ice cup. But due to high
temperature, part of this melting resulting into the shrinking of Antarctic ice cap which also leads to
flooding as the molten water gets land masses

SOLUTIONS TO THE CAUSES OF CLIMATIC CHANGE

1. Civic Education
 Communities in different areas in various parts of the world should be sensitized so that they
know the importance of afforestation and re-afforestation, the dangers of releasing dangerous
gases into the atmosphere, the effects of climatic change and its solutions.

2. Avoidance of use of Machines or Activities that Release Dangerous Gases

(Chlorofluorocarbons) Methane, Carbon dioxide and Nitrous oxide)
 This will avoid reactions between ozone layer gases and these greenhouse gases which in
turn will seal the ozone layer hole and stop global warming.

3. Afforestation and Re-afforestation

 The number of trees replaced will reverse the normal trend of rainfall since the rate of
transpiration will be normalized.

4. Avoidance of Setting Bush Fires

When combustion is taking place, oxygen is used and carbon dioxide is released. This greenhouse
gas is very dangerous to the ozone layer therefore avoiding the setting of bush can also help to solve
the problem of grobal warming. There is thus need for international intervention

Review Questions

Question 1:
(a) Explain ways how wild and aquatic species are endangered.
(b) Suggest measurers from conserving wild and aquatic life species.

Question 2:
(a) How important are wetland in Malawi?
(b) Describe human activities that threaten wetlands
(c) Suggest ways how wetland can be managed properly.
(d) Name any two significant wetlands in Malawi
(e) Explain ways in which wetlands are a source of clean water.
(f) Describe the positive impact that wetlands have on global warming.

Questions 3:
(a) Explain causes of seasons.
(b) Discuss causes of climatic change.
(c) What are the effects of climatic change? Explain any four.
(d) Suggest possible solutions to causes of climatic change.
Questions 4:
(a) Describe the process of desertification.
(b) What could be the effects of desertification?
(c) Suggest measures for controlling desertification.

Question 5:
(a) List the type of pollution that you know.
(b) Describe the causes of pollution.
(c) What do you think could be the effects of pollution?
(d) How can pollution be controlled? Suggest any three ways

Questions 6:
(a) Explain any two causes of climate change.
(b) Explain any four effects of climate change.
(c) Describe any four solutions to problems associated with climate change.

UNIT 6 WEATHER INSTRUMENTS

Main idea:
By the end of this unit, you should be able to know that:
 Different instruments are used to measure weather condition. These includes: wind vane,
wind rose, cup anemometer, sunshine recorder, hygrometer, rain gauge and six’s
thermometer.

There are several weather instruments that you should know and these include the following:
- Wind vane
- Wind rose
- Cup anemometer
- Sunshine recorder
- Hygrometer/wet and dry bulb thermometer
- Rain gauge
- Maximum and minimum thermometer/six’s thermometer

WIND VANE
The direction from which the wind is blowing is recorded or shown by wind vane .this instruments is
usually made of metal and it attaches to the top of building where there is free flow of wind
Note: wind is the named after the direction from which they blow. The arrow of the wind vane
points where the wind is blowing from.
WIND ROSE

A wind rose is used to record wind direction. Each day, there are three things that can take place and
these are :

(a) One can shade in the arm of that shows wind direction or write the date in appropriate square
(b) The number of calm day is indicated in the centre of rose

Note : the most common wind ( the prevailing wind ) can easily be noted for a given station (for
example, over a month ) by using the rose

CUP ANENOMETER

The speed of the window measured using an instrument called anemometer. You should know that
the faster the wind speed, the faster the arms and cups of the anemometer will spin around.

SUNSHINE RECORDER

The amount of sunshine a place receives depends on the season, a factor determined by latitude and
by the earth in its revolution around the sun.

HYGROMETER/WET AND DRY BULB THERMOMETER

Humidity is measured by instruments which is also known as wet dry bulb thermometer/hygrometer.
The hygrometer is made up of two thermometers. One is called dry bulb and measure dry air
temperatures within the Stevenson screen. the other one is known as the wet bulb thermometer
because it is covered by a wet muslin cloth which is wrapped around its base .
HOW THE HYGROMETR WORKS?
When the air is hundred per cent full of moisture or saturated, there is no evaporation taking place
from the muslin cloth. The two thermometers will therefore show the reading. On the other hand.
When the air is not saturated (not 100 o/o full of moisture),

moisture evaporates from the muslin cloth. Mercury contracts when evaporation is taking place.
Temperature is therefore lowered in the wet bulb by this evaporation. But the temperature is the dry
bulb remains the same. The difference between the two reading shows us the humidity of the air.
RAIN GAUGE

Rainfall is measured by an instrument called the rain gauge. The gauge should at least be a third of a
splashing. The instrument should be sited well away from tall buildings, high trees and other objects
which due to in-splashing of raindrops from tree leaves or roofs of building.

HOW TO MEASURE RAINFALL USING THE RAIN GAUGE?

This is done by removing the funnel, emptying the rain from the container into a graduated cylinder
with a 3.8cm. the reading should be done at eye level and to an accuracy of 0.25mm. for greater
accuracy, a special kind of paper measure which tapers at the bottom is used. The rain gauge must be
examined everyday. Snow is melted warming the funnel and then measured in temperate cold
regions.
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM THERMOMETER

Maximum and minimum temperature are measured by maximum and minimum thermometers.
These are either in the form of separate thermometers or joined in U-shaped glass tube as in the six’s
thermometer.

The maximum thermometer records the highest temperature reached during day. The mercury in the
closed glass tube expands when the temperature rises. The metal indicator is pushed up the tube and
this says at the maximum level when the temperature drops. It is important to remember to reset the
thermometer by pulling down the metal indicates to the meniscus (the curved surface of any liquid
caused by surface tension) of the mercury.

THE STEVENSON SCREEN BOX

This is a box which has louvred (slatted) sides to allow the air to flow through the box easily. This
box is used to hold thermometers and other sensitive weather instruments. It is placed at least 1-2m
above the ground to avoid ground temperatures which are often higher than air temperature from
affecting readings of the instrument. The box is painted white so that it reflects direct sunshine
which can affect the readings of the instruments. Examples of such instruments include the
minimum and maximum thermometer and the wet and dry bulb thermometer. This box is used to
provide shade for the instruments, to protect the instruments and to regulate air flow.
UNIT 7 MAP WORK ELEMENTS

Main idea:
By the end of this unit, you should be able to know that:
 Grid is a network of horizontal and vertical lines on a map.
 There are two ways of measuring winding roads, rivers and railways namely:
(a) By using string
(b) By using a divider
 Grid is the angle of slope of land.

The important map work elements include the following:

(a) Grid reference
(b) Measurement of winding roads, rivers or railways
(c) Direction
(d) Bearing
(e) Gradient
(f) Map enlargement and reduction
(g) Cross-section
(h) Intervisibility
(i) Drainage patterns
(j) Settlement patterns
(k) Occupation
(l) Calculation of area covered by a cert6ain feature such as a forest reserve
(m) Description of relief
(n) Reasons for absence of settlements
(o) Reasons for presence of settlements
(p) Land
Note: for assignments, use the map extract of Salima Sheet 1334C4, on page 101.

GRID REFERENCES

WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY THE TERM “GRID”?

 A grid is a network of horizontal and vertical lines. So grid reference entails using the grid to
refer to features on the map extract given.
 It should be known that questions can come in two ways namely:
1. Either, you can be asked to find a feature found at a certain six-figure grid reference
number.
2. Or, you can be asked to give the six figure grid reference number of a certain feature.

PROCEDURE OF GIVING A SIX-FIGURE GRID REFERENCE

When we are giving a six-figure grid reference number, we normally start with Easting’s and end
with Nothings.

Meaning of Eastings
These are vertical lines running from North to South but the numbers representing them range from
West to East hence the term “Easting’s”

Meaning of Northings
These are horizontal lines running from West to East but their numbers range from South hence the
term “Nothings”.
Q.1 (a) Find the six-figure grid reference or borehole BHY106.
Response 1a: It is 547678

Explanation: We imagine that the box which is a square is demarcated into ten horizontal and ten
vertical lines as shown below. If you are unable to imagine, it is important to draw these lines with a
calibrated ruler.

Q.1. (b) What feature is found at six-figure grid referenced 507680?

Response 1b: The feature is a Trigono-metrical Station 2904 .

Note: For simplicity sake, you can just cut the square box into two equal halves using two lines
crossing each other, one vertical and one horizontal as shown in the following figure.

From here, you can be able to judge that certain feature has a fraction as say 1, 2, 3 and 4 before the
half line (marked 5) or 6, 7, 8 and 9 after the same line (5)

MEASUREMENT OF WINDING ROADS, RIVERS AND RAILWAYS

There are two ways of measuring these winding roads, railways and rivers namely:
 By using a string
 By using a divider
The divider method brings more accurate measurements as compared to the string method.

USING A STRING
Procedure
Step 1: Lay a piece of string along the route between two points and use a pen to mark the
points.
Step 2: follow the route up to the second point and mark this pointy on the string.
Step 3: Avoid keeping on holding the string at one point but rather carefully follow the route up
to the second point and mark this point on the string.
Step 4: Straighten out string and transfer the measured distance onto the liner scale and read off
the distance.

How to Read Off the Distance onto the Scale?

Points of Remember:
1. Always start from Zero on your straight edge and not the 1 to the right of zero.
2. All whole numbers are measured to the right side from Zero.
3. All fractions are measured to the left hand side from zero
4. The final answer is the total from the whole number plus that of fractions.

USING DIVIDER

Step 1: Make sure you use a pen or pencil to cut the distance from the first point after any part
that makes a straight line as shown above.
Step 2: use a divider to transfer the distance from the winding road, river or railway line on any
piece of paper starting from the first to the last point.
Step 3: Join the two points with a smooth line.
Step 4: measure using a ruler.
Step 5: convert using the scale to actual length on the ground
Note: The aim of cutting distance and transferring it onto a certain piece of paper is to straighten the
winding road, river and railway line so that distance can easily be measured using a ruler: this brings
more accurate measurements than using a string.
Assignment: Measure the length of M17 road (refer to map of Salima)

DIRECTION
 Direction is not bearing because it talks about cardinal points such as North, South, West,
East which can also be split into further 32 cardinal pints while bearings refer to angles
calculated from North.
Note: In order to give direction one must know where North is and other points will be given in
relation to it.

Cardinal Points
Here there are 16 cardinal points which can also be splint into 32 cardinal points. These are the ones
which are frequently used.
Q.2 (a) What is the direction of A from B?

Step 1: Check or find out where the two points are on the map extract.
Step 2: Join the two pints with a smooth line using a pencil.
Step 3: Reread the question and not the point/place/feature which comes after the word “From”
and put your pencil there. Then extend a line northwards running parallel to the easting lines
for accuracy.
Step 4: You can be able to deduce and know the direction of A from B if and only if North is
known or detected by referring to it.

Response 2a: Point A is to the South West from B.

Assignment: What is the direction of borehole BHY 104 from trigonometrical station? 1895 .

BEARINGS
Compass directions can be give in degrees and all pints of the compass and up to 360 degrees,
beginning the ending at North. These angles are known as bearings.
Note: The angle of a bearing is always measured in a clockwise direction from North position.

Q2. (b) Calculate the bearing of X and Y.

Procedure: Considering that X and Y are points on the map extract.

Step 1: firstly, find out where X and Y points are on the map extract.
Step 2: Draw a line using a pencil joining the place concerned.
Step 3: then read the question and note the point / place that comes after the word “from” and
put the pencil where the extend to the True North or Grid North. Make sure that the line is
parallel to the easting lines.
Step 4: Place protractors in the correct position using the North line.
Step 5: Measure the angle in a clockwise direction from the line which has been extended to the
North to the joining points given.
Step 6: State the degrees
Assignment: Calculate the bearing of borehole BHY 105 from Msuzumira village.

GRADIENT
TERMINOLOGY
Gradient: Gradient is the angle of slope of land which is also expressed as a ratio of the height
between two points on land and the distance between them.
Vertical Interval {V.I.}: The difference in height between two points.
Horizontal Equivalent {H.E.}: The distance between the two points o the actual ground

Gradient ( AB) = Vertical Interval (BC)

Horizontal equivalent (AC)

Mathematically,

Hypotenuse = Opposite
Side

AB = BC
AC

HOW TO FIND VERTICAL INTERVAL?

We simply subtract the lowest value at the lowest point/ place in attitude from the high value to the
highest point given .

Vertical Interval = 500 ft – 100 ft – 400 ft.

HOW TO FIND HORIZIONTAL EQUIVALENT?

(a) Take a ruler to measure the distance between the two points given and then convert to the
actual length on the ground by using the scale of simple mathematical solving.
(b) Use a string to transfer the distance between the two points to the linear scale.
(c) Use a piece of paper to measure the distance between the two points given and later on
transfer to the distance to the linear scale in order to convert it to the actual length on the
ground. 1 centimetre between points A and B will give us 1 kilometre on the linear scale.

(i). Using Scale: Imagine you go straight to the scale and always start from Zero.
Fraction Scale
(ii) Simple Mathematical Method:
When you measure the distance between A and B, you find that it is 2cm which when converted
becomes:
If 1cm -= 20,000cm
Then 2cm = ? More
2cm x 50,000cm
1cm
= 100,000cm
= 1km

(iii) Division Stage: Normally, there is scale given for uniformity purposes and the value of H.E. is
always larger as compared to the value of V.I. This is distance on the ground. Therefore, the units
must be made the same by proper conversation. The answer has no values because the units cancel
each other out at this division stage. The answer can be a fraction, ratio or a decimal point number.

Assignment: Calculate the gradient between the highest point of Mkanga Hill and Borehole BHW
277. Use the scale of 1m = 50 ft. use map extract of Salimu on page 101.

MAP EXTRACT OF SALIMA

MAP ENLARGEMENT AND REDUCTION
Q.3. (a) Figure below shows the map of Malawi. Enlarge the map of Malawi twice its original
size
Procedure:
1. Draw a new, convenient grid figure and map. Make each side as big as was before. In this
case 2cm instead of 1cm.
2. Copy the details from each block of the original into the new blocks.
3. Remember to enlarge the scale by dividing it by 2.

Map reduction follows the same procedure except that the distance between the lines on the new grid
will be less than on the way grid. And the same increased map will have less ground detail and
decreased distance.
Note: Remember to either enlarge or reduce scale after reduction or enlargement of maps. Do not
forget that reduced scales have large values while increased scales have small values.

CROSS-SECTION
This is a side view of a piece of land. This is used to see the slope and form of land between two
pinots. Cross-section is drawn using two scales namely.

1. Vertical Scale: This represents the countour heights between two points and it is the only
scale that can be adjusted.
2. Horizontal Scale: This is the same as the one used on the map extract i.e., the distance of the
baseline should be the same as the distance between the two places given.

(a) Draw a cross-section of the area along Northing 65 from Easting 58. On it show M17 roads,
M5 road, the railway line and the river. Use a vertical scale of 1cm = ft. use the map extract
on pate 101.

How to Draw Cross-Section?

There are different steps to be followed as one draws a cross-section. The following are steps:
STEP 1: Establish the contour Interval on the map you are using.
Contour Interval is the difference in value between two contours lines and in our case it is
50ft.
Note: If there are no values between the two points given, you are supposed to follow the lines up to
where they end somewhere you get the figure.
You can also use values of adjacent contours lines which can help you to find the contours interval.
This contour interval can either be added to or subtracted from the last value close to the distance
between the two points.

STEP 2: Select a suitable vertical scale. This normally given for uniformly sake.

STEP 3: Draw a baseline of the same length as the distance between the two points on the map
STEP 4: place a straight-edged piece of paper along a line joining the two places given on the map
extract. On the edge of this paper mark the end points of your cross-section. Mark all points where
the contour crosses your paper. Write the height of each contour next to the point where it is marked
on your paper.
STEP 5: Place your paper along the baseline of the cross-section grid and mark the heights of each
contour (these are shown as crosses).
STEP 6: Join the marks on the grid with a smooth line. Then shade the section.
Activity: use the following diagram to draw the cross-section between S and T. on it shown
Kamwendo River.

Use the vertical scale 2cm = 2cm = 50 ft.

INTERVISIBILITY
By studying the contours you usually tell whether two points are intervisible. That is whether they
can be seen from one another. If it is possible to tell from the contours, then this may be done by
section drawing or more simply by plotting the heights of summits (high areas) along a line of sight.

Assignment: (a) Is borehole BHY 105 visible from the top of Mkanga Hill?
(b) If yes or no. why?

DRAINAGE PATTERNS
There are four major drainage patterns namely:
 Dendritic Drainage Pattern
 Trellis Drainage Pattern
 Radial Drainage Pattern
 Intermittent or Disappearing

DENDRITIC DRAINAGE PATTERN

 This resembles a branch of a tree and it is found where rocks have the same resistance to
erosion and weathering. The rivers follow the angle of slope from the source to the mouth.
TRELLIS DRAINAGE PATTERN

This is a regular and rectangular pattern found whether rivers and their tributaries flow more or less
parallel to each other. These patterns are found in the areas where there are alternate bands of hard
and soft rock. The rivers find it easier to follow weak cross-jointing lines in softer rock.

RADIAL DRAINAGE PATTERN

This shows rivers flowing from one source or watershed in and outwards direction like the spokes in
a bicycle wheel. Usually the source is a hill with the rivers flowing in all directions down stream and
it can be identified by looking at the closeness of contour lines with the stream emanating from the
central point (source) within a certain radius to the circumference (mouth).

INTERMITTENT OR DISAPPEARING

Assignment: Describe any two drainage patterns shown on the map

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
A settlement is a place where people live. There are five types of settlements namely:
 Compact/Nucleated
 Linear or Ribbon
 Dispersed / Scattered
 Cross (nucleated and linear)
 Isolated.
COMPACT/NUCLEATED SETTLEMENT PATTERN
The shape may be rounded or square but in all cases the building are close together and they are
connected by roads, or foot paths or both as shown below:

LINEAR OR RIBBON SETTLEMENT PATTERN

 Linear type buildings form a line, straight or curved which may follow a line of movement
e.g. a road, a relief feature, for example coast, the base of a ridge.

DISPERSED / SCATTERRED SETTLEMENT PATTERN

 The house are often far part and they are associated with extensive farming, e.g. the wheat
and sheep regions of south-East Australia.

CROSS TYPE SETTLEMENT PATTERN

 These form where two lines of movement cross the crossing of two roads
ISOLATTED TYPE SETTLEEMNT PATTERN
 A single house of farm, very remote from other settlement, constitutes an isolated settlement.
Assignment: Mention any two settlement patterns shown on the map.

OCCUPATION
 Sometimes you can be asked to suggest any occupation of people living in a particular area
within the map extract. You can be able to do so, by looking at certain features which can
guide you. These features include rivers and lakes which indicate that people go fishing or
cult6ivation symbols which show that people are engaged in farming. Furthermore, schools
can indicate that people are engaged in teaching. Presence of hospitals can help us to know
that nursing is one of the occupations. Markets and road infrastructure can mean that people
are traders among others.
Assignment: Suggest any three occupation of people living in this area of Salima

CALCULATION OF AREA COVERED BY A CERTAIN FEATURE SUCH AS A FOREST

RESERVE

Calculate the area covered by Kachere forest reserve in the following figure.
In order to calculate the area covered by Kachere Forest Reserve, you need to know the following
formula:

Area covered by Kachere Forest Reserve

= Number of full squares
+ Number of half squares

= 1 + 7 /2
=1+3½
= 4 ½ squares

{Each square is 2cm by 2cm which is equivalent to 1km by 1km}

1km x 1km = 1km2
Area covered by Kachere Forest Reserve
= 4.5 squares x 1km2
1square

= 4.5 x 1km
= 4.5 km2
DESCRIPTION OF RELIEF
 You can also be asked to describe relief displayed on the map extract and all you need is to
use contour lines on the map extract. If the contour lines are very close, it means that it is
hilly area. It is also important to describe other relief features such as marshes, valleys,
vegetation, river and lakes with their related features etc.
Assignment: Describe the relief along the Northing 66.

REASONS FOR ABSENCE OF SETTLEMENTS

 You should also be able to suggest reasons for absence of settlements in particular area on
the map extract. Such reasons include presence of relief features i.e., vegetation, mountains,
rivers, marshes, absence of social amenities, etc. it is important to use symbols and always
refer to the key or legend for their meanings.
Assignment: suggest one reason why there are no settlements south of Northing 67 and West of
Easting 57.

REASONS FOR PRESENCE OF SETTLEMENTS

There are always pull factors that attract people to settle in an area. People prefer flat areas to high
areas because they allow farming to be done quiet easily through use of machines and irrigation as
well as simplifying construction of houses. Furthermore, presence of social amenities such as
schools, markets, hospitals, roads, water, electricity, etc, also attracts people. Absence of forest
reserves and marshes create enough space for settlement and farming and laso easier construction of
roads and railways. This also improves and facilitates movement and accessibility.

LAND USE ON TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

Land can be used for various things on the topographic maps. Uses include cultivation, settlements
communication, quarrying or mining, forestry, tourist resort, industrial area, parks and game reserves
as well as industrial sites.
Activity: Suggest any two land use on the topographic map of Salima.

LANDFORMS ON THE TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

(a) Gorge
A gorge is a steep sided river valley whose floor is very narrow and almost flat. Mpatamanga gorge
along the shire river in Malawi, kafue Gorge in Zambia and the Pungue Gorge in the Inyanga
mountain in Zimbabwe are good examples of gorges.

(b) Bay
This is an indentation or curved in the coast line where the lake meets the land between two head
lands. Examples of bays in Malawi include: Domira, Chitimba, Monkey and Nkhata-bays.

(c) Beach
This is the lake related feature formed by sand or pebbles often found in many of the bays.
(d) An Estuary
This a drowned river mouth or the mouth of the river whether it meets a lake or sea.

(e) Peninsula
This is a piece of land almost surrounded by water but still joined to the main land by a narrow neck
called Isthmus. The word “Pen” comes from Latin word meaning “almost” and “insula” means
island, thus peninsula means “almost an insland.” The other name for peninsula is cape and Cape
Maclear in Malawi is a good example of such peninsulas.

(f) Strait
This is a narrow stretch of water which connects bodies of water. an example is the strait of Gibraltar
connecting the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.

(g) Lagoon
A lagoon is a shallow stretch of water which is partly or completely separated from the sea or lake
by a narrow strip of land. Chila lagoon in Malawi is a good example.

(h) Delta
This refers to the fan-shaped streams at the mouth of the river where load is deposited after entering
the lake.

(i) Swamp
This is an area of low ground that is always flooded. Bana and Limpasa swamps are examples of
such swamps in Malawi

(j) Confluence
This is where a contributory (branch of the river) joins the rain river.

(k) Headlands / points

A headland is part of the land which sticks out into the lake also known as a point. Every bay has
two headland one each side of the bay.

(l) Watershed or Water Divided or Water Parting

This is the land lying between the headwaters of a stream flowing in one direction and the
headwaters of the stream in another direction. The Viphya plateau in Malawi (between streams
draining to kale Malawi and those draining to Rukuru River) is a very good example.

(m) Spur
This is an area of high ground extending outward from a large mass of ground. It is shown by
wedge-shaped contours pointing away from the high ground.
 (n) Valley
This is an area of low ground whose contour lines are “V” shaped where the sharp points towards the
high land.

(o) Gap
This is the depression between two hill masses which may or may not contain a river. For example,
Mlenje and Mchesi mountains in the southern region of Malawi and Kafuwe gap in Zambia

(p) Pass
This is similar to, but generally narrower than, a gap and it is found at high altitudes. For example,
Munali pass in Zambia.

(q) Col or Saddle

this is rather similar to a gap or pass, and is generally rereerring to a slight depression in a ridge of
hills. Cols in the Zeze Hills in Zamiba and between Sapitwa and Nakodzwe peaks on Mulanje
Mountain in Malawi are good examples.

Note: It is important to know such land forms as well as the symbols and their meaning used
topographic maps.
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 Leong G.C. (1983), The New Oxford progressive Geography, Certificate physical and
Human Geography, Oxford University press, London, Britain.
 Phiri F.R.G., (2003), Human and Economic Geography, E and V Publications, Assemblies of
God, Malwi
 Phiri F.R (1999) Physical Geography – a school certificate course, Dzuka publishing
Company Limited, Blantyre Malawi.
 Naidoo et al. (2003), Strides in Geography Book 1, Longman, Malawi (Pvt) Ltd., Blantyre,
Malawi.
 Naidoo et al. (2003), Strides in Geography Book 2, Longman, Malawi (Pvt) Ltd., Blantyre
Malawi.
 Waugh D. (1994), The Wider World, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., United Kingdom.
 HUMAN AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

Unit 1 WORLD AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE

Figure 1.1 World Agricultural types

Agriculture
It is the activity of cultivating crop and rearing animals for human needs.
It refers to arable farming and livestock farming.

Factors influencing agriculture

1. Physical factors
a. Slope of land relief
 Terraces need to be constructed in steep slopes.
 Some crops thrive best on high lands with well-drained hill slopes for example tea and coffee.
 Contours on undulating land conserve moisture and reduce run-off.

b. Edaphic Factors/Soils
 Different crops grow well in specific soils. Rubber needs slightly acidic soil, sugarcane needs deep well
drained fertile soils and cotton needs soils rich in nitrates.
c. Climatic factors
 Farming depends on well distributed and reliable rainfalls, moderate temperatures, wind and sunshine.

d. Pest and Diseases

 Different areas are prone to different types of pests and diseases.

2. Economic Factors
 Enough capital is needed to meet operational costs for farm inputs, animal feeds, paying water, electricity or fuel,
hiring of extension and vertinary services.
 Favourable locations for plantations or grazing land close to roads and highly populated areas for demand and
supply of the products.

3. Socio-Cultural Factors
 Culture affects the type of crops grown and animals kept in an area. In West Africa, farm work is mainly done
by women. The farm input or output will depend on the population of women in a society.
 Religious traditions affect the types of crops grown and animals reared by the society. Muslims and Jews never
rear pigs for they are considered as unclean animals. Beef farming is underdeveloped among the Hindus since a
cow is regarded as a sacred animal.
4. Political Factors
 Land ownership influences the way in which land is used.
Types of Land ownership
(i) Company plantations and estates that own large areas of land.
(ii) Tenant land ownership.
 (iii) Owner or Individual occupied land ownership

5. Technological Factors
 Developing new breeds of crops and animals that will withstand harsh conditions i.e. droughts and resistant to
diseases and pest attacks.
 Chemical fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides and medicine for animal diseases facilitate increased production.
 New machines for ploughing, cultivation of land, planting crops, harvesting, collecting and storing farm
products and keeping farm records e.g. computers
 Use of green houses that allows crops to grow under controlled conditions.

Types of Agriculture
1. Subsistence Farming
It involves the growing of food crops for a family. A farmer owns a small piece of land on which the family
works.

Types of Subsistence Farming

a. Shifting Cultivation
 It involves slashing and burning of vegetation cover in a piece of land.
 Land is cultivated and abandoned or left uncultivated for a lengthy period of time to regain soil fertility.
 It is known as Chitemene in Zambia, Roca in Brazil, Poda or Bewar in India, Visoso in Malawi, Chena in Sri
Lanka, Tamrai in Thailand, Masole in DRC, Milpa in Zimbabwe, Humah in Indonesia, Caingin in Philippines,
Ladang in Maylasia, Taunngya in Burma and Conuco in Venezuela.
 Crops grown are maize, millet, sorghum, groundnuts, beans, cassava and sweet potatoes.

Characteristics of Shifting Cultivation

 Small plots in forested areas are used.
 Vegetation is cleared by cutting, slashing and burning and the ash is added to the soil.
 Cultivated areas are separated by thick forests.
 Simple tools are used e.g. the axe, cutlass and a hoe.
 Manual labour is required.
 Plots are left fallow over a long period of time. Cultivators leave a patch of land(swidden) for a few years.
The forest regenerates and humus is replenished.
 Few crops are raised e.g. tapioca, cassava or manioc, maize, corn, millet, beans, hill rise peas etc.
Farming Method of Shifting Cultivation
Forests or trees are cut using axes and cutlasses.
Seeds are sown by broadcasting method (scattering them about by hand)
Little or no wedding is done during the growth.
No application of artificial fertilizer but only ash which contains potash.
Harvesting is done using hands or sickles.
Root crops are dug with sticks and hoes.

Disadvantages of Shifting Cultivation

 The system leads to soil erosion or exhaustion.
 Destruction of natural vegetation.
 The system fails to provide food to a huge population.
 Loss of soil fertility i.e. nutrients are not replaced.
 Forest destruction leads to flooding.

Rotational bush fallowing

 Land is divided into permanent housing.
 Fields are cultivated in rotation

b. Intensive Crop and Animal Farming

 The land is intensively cultivated and crops are rotated to ensure maximum utilization of available land
resources in order to feed a high population.
 It is predominant in Asia, China, Japan, Korea, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

Characteristics of Intensive Farming dominated by Wet Padi

(It is called Wet Padi or rice because it is grown on land that is flooded from planting time to harvesting time)
 Plots are subdivided in very small areas or small holdings.
 It is monoculture in Korea, China, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan and Java.
  Farming is aimed at sustaining individual families.
 Labour is intensive during weeding time.
 Oxen are drawn or water buffaloes are used to cultivate the field.
 Farming is so intensive that double or treble cropping is practices in course of a year.
 Ploughing is done by drought animals.
 Manure is required to supplement soil fertility.
 Animal farming is little developed among the Hindus and Buddhists.
 Artificial fertilizers are used in Japan, India and China.
 Rice fields release quantities of methane gas into the atmosphere that is responsible for global warming.
Conditions or Requirements for Rice Growing
1. Minimum temperatures of 210C.
2. Annual rainfall of over 2000mm with at least 120mm.
3. Flat land to allow the soil to retain the water.
4. Heavy alluvial clay soils that have the ability to retain water.

Cultivation of Wet Padi

 Rice fields are leveled and earth walls called bunds are built to retain water.
 Irrigation canals are constructed to control the flow and amount of water on the fields.
 Ploughing and manuring of fields is done.
 During wet season seeds are sown in either the nurseries or direct in the fields.
 Young seedlings are then transplanted into nursery fields.
 Occasional weeding is required to reduce food competition.
 After three months the plants are ready for harvest.
 The fields are drained and rice is allowed to ripen.
Harvesting and Processing:
 This is done using a sickle or curved knife.
 It is labour intensive as every stalk is hand-picked.
 Threshing is done to separate the grains from the stalks.
 Winnowing, thus the removal of the unwanted particles from the padi grains. The grains fall to the mat
while the lighter chaff is blown away.
 Milling removes the yellowish husks from the padi in order to obtain white polished rice.
 Later rice will be packed and stored ready for sale.

The main rice producing regions of the World

a. China 36%
b. India 20%
c. Indonesia 6%
d. Bangladesh 5%
e. Japan 5%
f. Thailand 4%
g. Vietnam 3%
h. Burma 3%
i. Brazil 2%
j. S. Korea 2%
k. Philippines 2%
l. U.S.A 1%
m. Pakistan 1%
Figure 1.2 Rice growing regions in Asia
Problems associated with Intensive Subsistence Farming
 Limited resources to combat the setbacks caused by uncertainties in farming.
 Lack of technical know-how on new farming techniques.
 Chemicals, fertilizers are very expensive.
 Overpopulation results to lack of land
 Land holdings are fragmented or divided making it tedious to manage them efficiently.
 Under-utilization of animals due to religious beliefs and concentration on crop farming.
Advantages of Intensive Farming
 Higher yield of crop per unit land.
 Several harvests per year.
 Land is continuously used as manure replenishes soil fertility.

c. Nomadic Pastoralism
 It is the practice of rearing animals by moving them from place to place in search of water and pasture.
 It is a form of animal grazing that relies mainly upon natural vegetation for livestock fodder.
 The herders are forced to move their herds in search for pasture.
Transhumance: It is similar to nomadic herding since it involves the seasonal movement of animals in search for
pasture. It is different from Nomadic herding in that it is based on a permanent farm and is more intensive than
nomadic pastoralism. In Europe cattle or sheep from a farm or ranch may be kept in the valleys in winter and driven
on to the mountain pastures or Alps in spring when the snow melts. In winter they are stall-fed using the fodder
which grew during summer. In North America animals graze on the uplands in summer but they are brought down
to the valleys in winter.
Why such movements?
1. Seasonality of grass and water.
2. They escape from diseases and pests.
3. To comply with the custom of abandoning a place where an adult has died and is buried in some cultural arenas.

Examples of Nomads
Fulani of the Sahel in West Africa, Masai of East Africa, Nubians of Ethiopia and Sudan, Tuaregs of North Africa,
Bedouins of Saudi Arabia, the Lapps of Scandinavia and Kirghiz, Kazaks and Kalmucks of Central Asia, the
Mongolians, Tibetans, the Berbers of North Africa, the Yakuts, Chuckchees, Tunguses, Koraks, the Buryats, the
Khoi Khoi, Khoisan, Tsantu and Tswana of South Africa, Botswana and Mozambique.

Characteristics of Nomadic Pastoralism

 Keeping of large herd of animals that are mixed as an insurance of drought and disease.
 Seasonal migration of the nomads and their animals in search for water and pasture.
 Poor health of animals ie. cover long distance without veterinary services.
 Nomads depend on the herds for milk, meat, wool, hides, dung for fuel and transport.
 The land is communally owned hence at the risk of overgrazing.
Problems Associated With Nomadic Pastoralism
 Climatic hazards such as drought brings about scarcity of pastures.
 Cattle rustling fuel up animosity or enemity between the communities.
 Poor quality pastures resulting from unreliable and seasonal rains.
 Local breeds are of poor quality, slow to mature and produce low quality milk and meat.
 Diminishing grazing areas because arable or crop cultivation is spreading into the grazing zones.
 Loss of political control because nomads can easily cross regional boundaries without legal documents.
 There is uncontrolled breeding.
Ways of combating these problems associated with Nomadic Pastoralism
 Cross breeding of livestock to improve the quality.
 Regular vaccination and dipping of animals to control diseases.
 Provision of piped water to or boreholes to reduce seasonal migration of animals.
 Animals should be sold for slaughter in order to give income to pastoralists.
 Planting of drought resistant fodder crops to ensure sustainability of animal feeds.
 Introduction of ranching among conservative pastoralists.

Why Pastoral Nomadists keep Large Herds?

 Herds are regarded as man’s wealth or prestige.
 Nomads use the animals to pay bride price.
 Insurance against drought and famine.
 In a bad year many of them may survive.

2. Commercial farming
 It aims at the production of farm produce for sale or cash in order to generate a cash income i.e. cotton,
coffee, sisal, rubber, tea and pyrethrum.
 Food crops grown i.e. maize, wheat and beans may fall under cash crops.

Plantation Agriculture
 It is the commercial cultivation of cash crops on a very large piece of land called plantation or estate.

Characteristics of Plantation Agriculture

 One crop is grown i.e. tea, coffee, sugarcane, rubber, cocoa, sial, palm oil etc.
 Large areas are used.
 A crop takes a long period of time to mature for example, cocoa takes 5 years and rubber takes 6 years.
 Large amount of capital is required.
 Processing factories are located near the plantations.
 Multinational companies own and operate these plantations.

Advantages of Plantations
 Large profits due to high yields.
 Easier to manage especially with use of machines.
 Constant supply of produce.
 Products are exported and sold in the world.
 Generation of employment opportunities.

Disadvantages of Plantations
 Capital intensive to initiate and maintain plantations. Overseas technical expertise drains huge expenses.
 Soil exhaustion and erosion.
 Huge losses experienced if world market prices fall.
 Concentration on cash crops results to food shortages due to the neglect of food crops.
 Monoculture spreads diseases easily.
 Large quantities of manure and fertilizers have to be applied to replenish the soil fertility dwindled by
leaching problem due to heavy rainfall.
 Rubber, cacao, oil palm need high temperatures and high humidity. However these drain human energy and
reduce the amount of work people can do.
 During the long gestation period the plantation crops yield no income.
 Local winds such as harmattan, hurricane and typhoons cause severe damage to plantation crops. The
output is reduced in return.

MIXED FARMING
  It is a combination of arable farming and animal husbandry on the same piece of land.
 Crops benefit from animals and vise versa.
 It is practiced in highly developed countries for example in North-West Europe eg. Belgium, Berlin,
Denmark and USA.
Characteristics of Mixed Farming
 Involves a mixed economy of raising animals and growing of crops on a same piece of land.
 Crop rotation is practiced to maintain soil fertility e.g. legumes, potatoes, peas, beans and clover.
 Industrial crops are grown such as sugar-beet and tobacco.
 Animals are kept to enrich the soils with dung.
 Cattle are kept for beef and dairy products.
 Poultry provides eggs.
Factors influencing Mixed farming
 Mixed farming needs high capital expenditure on machinery and buildings.
 Needs high skills and expertise of the farmers.
 Good transport lines such as railways to send livestock to local markets.
 Availability of cold storage facilities and refrigerated ships to preserve the freshness of meat.
 A high and steady demand for livestock products.


Advantages of Mixed Farming

 Animals provide food for farmers and manure for crops.
 Crops and animals increase farm income through products.
 It takes care of risks since the farmer has an alternative source of income should one fail.
 Improved human nutrition i.e. animal proteins, cereals and root crops provide carbohydrates..
COMMERCIAL EXTENSIVE FARMING
Extensive farming is characterized by very large land holdings practiced in areas of sparse population.

Characteristics of Extensive Farming

 Farms are big such as 160 square kilometers.
 Cultivation is highly mechanized.
 Monocultural cropping is common.
 Low yields per hectare but high yields per man.
 Farms are individually owned.

Problems Associated With Extensive Farming

1. Any international price depressions can have devastating effects.
2. Droughts have devastating effects on the crop being cultivated because irrigation is not usually used.
3. Pest multiplication and loss of soil fertility due to growing same crop on the same piece of land.
4. It requires sparsely populated areas and a flat land for mechanization.

DAIRY FARMING AS AN EXAMPLE OF INTENSIVE LIVESTOCK FARMING

Dairy Farming
 Involves the rearing of livestock with the aim of producing milk.
 It is practiced in Netherlands (Holland), Denmark, Switzerland, Japan, New Zealand, France, South Africa,
Germany, Poland, USA and UK.
Factors favouring Dairy Farming
 Availability of highly nutritious fodder (high grade green pastures).
 Well managed co-operatives societies.
 Availability of both domestic and international markets.
 Availability of capital to invest in dairy farming.
 Advanced technology leads to improved preservation of the dairy products. Invention of modern milking
machines which simplify work.
 Low temperatures lead to the breeding of dairy cattle.
 Improved transportation system since milk is perishable.

Characteristics of Dairy Farming

 Dairy farms are small.
 Use of intensive working method.
 Main source of income is milk.
 Important Dairy Breeds of Cattle
 Jersey
 Guernsey.
 Friesian(Also for beef)
 Milk(dairy) Short horn(also for beef)
 Brown Swiss
 Alderney
 Ayrshire
 Important Fodder Crops for Dairy Cattle
 Hay clover or Alfalfa Silage( A mixture of grains and seed remains)

DENMARK DAIRY FARMING

 Europeans in United Kingdom and Switzerland drink half a litre of milk everyday.
 It is highly nutritious.
Figure 1.3 Main Islands and Jutland Penisula
Location of Denmark and Physical& Climatic
Conditions
 Located at latitude 550N and Longitude 100E.
 It is a small country in North-Western Europe
surrounded by water.
 It is a flat and low laying area that facilities free
movement of animals.
 It has a cool climate of between -30C to 190C.
 Light rains enable the yearly growth of grass and
other fodder crops.

Favourable Conditions for Successful Dairy Farming in

Denmark
 Existence of favourable climate for instance
moderate annual rainfall (500mm-1500mm).
 Moderate mean annual temperatures(12-150C)
 Scientific methods of farming or technological advancement that improves output.
 Efficient separation methods which extract cream from milk.
 Availability of markets for milk and milk products i.e. cheese, butter milk, cream etc.
 Addition of reclaimed land.
 Development of infrastructure for example a well-developed transport network, which facilitates easy
transportation of milk.
 Active co-operative societies in Denmark that assist farmers in various ways.

DAIRY CATTLE BREEDS

Ayrshire
 It is either white or brown.
 Long, sharp-pointed horns.
 Milked three to four times a day.
Guernsey
 It is smaller in size.
 Produce milk with high butterfat content.
 Milk important for cheese making.

Jersey
 The smallest breed of cattle.
 Weighs not more than 450kgs.
 Light yellow to dark brown or black in colour.
 High content of butterfat.

Friesian/Holstein
 Black to white in colour
 Heavy grazer.
 Weighs 675kg.
 A bull may weigh up to 900kgs.
Swiss Brown
 Brown in colour.
 Its milk is used for cream and chocolate making.
Cooperative Farming in Denmark
 Farmers work together for mutual profits.
 These form cooperatives.
 It is an advanced form of farm organization.
 This demands a literate population to comprehend the cooperative principles and business management.
Functions of Co-operatives
Purchasing
 Cooperatives buy farm inputs i.e. fertilizers, tools etc at cheaper rates than individual farmers.
 The production costs are reduced.

Marketing
 Cooperatives collect, grade and store the farm produce and sell later on.
 They work with the government marketing boards.
 High standards of products is therefore maintained.

Finance
Cooperatives gives loans to farmers when need arises. Loans are provided to farmers to purchase land, equipment and
other farm inputs.

Processing of dairy products

 Factories are owned by cooperatives i.e. creameries, bacon, egg collecting, fertilizer factories or slaughter
houses.
 Farmers get profits from such factories as a group.

Advice and Research

 Agricultural research by co-operatives help farmers to curb problems faced during farming operations.

Importance of dairy industry in Denmark

 Source of employment.
 Foreign exchange earnings through the export of milk, butter, cheese, eggs and bacon.
 Development of infrastructure.
 Promotes educational development through research.

A FARM CASE STUDY IN DENMARK ASSERHOIGAARD FARM

 This farm is located on Zealand Island one of the four islands of Denmark.
 The owner of the farm grows wheat, barley, oats, sugar beet, and grass for livestock.
 Cows are also kept.
 Pigs, chicken are also kept for pork and egg production.
 Pigs and chicken are kept as scavengers on the farm.
 They feed on decayed matter in the farm to reduce occurrence of animal diseases.
 They pick up pests that make attack dairy cattle.
 The skimmed milk is used to feed pigs.
 That is why pigs are reared in the dairy farm.
 The farmer uses tractors, reapers, combine harvesters, grass cutting machines, ploughs etc for his production.
 Barley, oats and grass are used to feed cattle and pigs.
 Sugar beet is sold to cooperative societies.
 Cattle are milked using machines.
 Cattle are fed using cattle cake to supplement their diet.
 Dairy animals are grazed on rich grass ie. Hays, silage and clover beet root and cereals.
 Cattle cake is made up of cereals like maize and vegetable oil.
 Spacious housing of animals promotes milk production.
Crops grown:
 Wheat, oats, maize and barley.
 These are used as fodder crops for animals.
 Dairy farming products: milk, butter,
 Cheese, eggs, pork, ham, bacon and sausages.
PROCESSING OF MILK
Milk processing passes through stages
The weighing of milk: Is done in order to know how much milk has been set by an individual farmer.
Testing of milk: to check the quality and quantity or certify the water content or diseases.
Pasteurization: liquid milk is heated for about 15 seconds at high temperatures to kill harmful bacteria.
Sterilization: Milk is heated to a temperature of 100 0C to kill any surviving micro-organisms. Milk is heated for about
60 minutes..
Homogenization: This involves the breaking up of the fat content of the milk to prevent the formation of a
top creamy layer.
Ultra-Heat treatment of milk: Is done in order to kill harmful bacteria in the milk. It is done for 20 seconds before
bottling the milk.
Cream Making:
Separation or extraction of cream from milk is also done. Milk is put in bowls and is allowed to settle for 12 hours to 24
hours. Cream collects on top and is skimmed off.
The milk can be processed to make condensed or sweetened milk.
It can be dried or powdered and later on tinned or packed.
Butter making
 The cream from milk is churned or stirred in a large container and solidified to make butter.
 Cold water is added to the cream and the churn is turned until butter granules become small. A muslin cloth
separates butter from the churned milk.
 The by-product of this process is the skimmed milk (an excellent feed for pigs).
 Another by-product of butter-making is casein: this substance is used to make drugs, plastics and other fibres.
Cheese making
 Lactic acid is added to fresh milk to coagulate milk proteins. Rennin( enzyme) is added to encourage curding of
milk. Whey(watery fluid) is left out.
 Moisture is drained of by putting the curdled milk in moulds with small holes.
 Salt is added to the drained curds.
 Salt improves the quality of cheese by withdrawing water from cheese.
 Cheese require ripening. Micro-organisms work on lactose and fats to give a good flavor and aroma.
 Cheese is then pressed into shapes.
 Milk is processed into fresh preserved milk, butter, powdered milk, ghee and cheese.
 Marketing of products to retailers is done by the cooperatives while governments monitor their quality.

Uses of Milk
 Milk is used in making cheese and butter.
 Skimmed milk is used as pig feed.
 Casein, a by-product in the making of butter is used to make drugs, plastics and synthetic fibres.
 Milk is used in the making of cream, ice cream and yoghurt.

FOLK HIGH SCHOOLS

 The school is popularly referred to as a folk high school (the Danish term is folkehøjskole, or more simply
højskole).
 These schools were initiated to serve almost exclusively the children of farmers. However, over past four
decades these schools have served even children from the urban milieu or class of Copenhagen.
 A Danish folkehøjskole, are open to all those above eighteen years of age.
 Folk high schools specialize in ecology and biodynamic agriculture, athletic instructions, music instruction.
 Other subjects offered are: Agriculture for men (November to April)
 Home Economics for Women (May to August)
 Men are taught latest Agricultural techniques.
Problems associated with Dairy Farming in Denmark
 Scarcity of land needed for expansion of dairy farming.
 Labour scarcity as many people opt for white-collar jobs.
 Harsh winters force farmers to keep their cattle indoors for six months.
Economic Benefits of Dairy Farming
 Dairy farming creates employment opportunities.
 It is a source of income to the farmers.
 It earns foreign exchange.
DAILY FARMING IN MALAWI
 Milk production is locally done at smallholder levels in Malawi.
Most important commercial dairy centers:
These are: Blantyre, Lilongwe and Mzuzu.
An extension to the existing dairy farming programme is going on and some achievements on this production can be
measured as the donor countries such as Denmark, Norway, Canada and Netherlands have projects with smallholder
farmers in rural areas.
The needs of smallholder dairy farmers in central and Northern regions are met by two main projects:
One located at Choma North of Mzuzu and Likuni west of Lilongwe city (Katete).
 These centres intensify the breeding of high yield milk areas.
 Malawi-Canada dairy project has aims to improve Katete and Ndata farm in Thyolo.
 The government of Malawi is making efforts to improve the industry through research at Bunda College of
Agriculture.
Problems faced by dairy farming in Malawi
 Pests and diseases may kill dairy animals.
 Mismanagement of co-operatives kills the farmers’ initiative and morale.
 Poor road conditions in the rainy season delay milk delivery.
 Importation of dairy products by traders interfere with the domestic market for locally produced dairy products
 Prolonged periods of drought lead to scarcity of grass and water hence affecting the health of animals.
 Concentration on the growing of cash crops especially tobacco discourages dairy farming.
 Shortage of dairy facilities i.e. big cold rooms.
EXTENSIVE WHEAT FARMING IN PRAIRIES
Wheat is an annual cereal crop. It is also known as ‘bread grain’.

Types of Wheat
a) Winter Wheat:
 Grown in autumn season in temperate lands.
 It is after winter moisture has been absorbed.
 It is grown in Australia, in Argentina, in central Chile, India and Pakistan.

b) Spring Wheat
In the Northern latitudes, the seed is planted in spring as the winters are severely cold. For example, Canada,
Eastern Europe and Russia.

CONDITIONS THAT FAVOUR THE GROWTH OF WHEAT

1. Warm and moist conditions in its early growth.
2. Temperature range between 160C and 200C.
3. Light to moderate rainfall between 300mm to 700mm.
4. Extensive flat grassland which encourage mechanization.
5. Frost-free climatic conditions such as a dry sunny period to enable the wheat to ripen.
6. A growing season of at least three months.
7. Deep, fertile, and well-drained soils e.g. the Chernozems that are less leached and not acidic loam soils and
volcanic soils.
8. Availability of a large local and international market in U.S.A, Europe and Asian countries.
 9. Well-established transport and communication facilities.
10. Dry sunny season for ripening and harvesting of crops.
Characteristics of Wheat Farming
 Large farms are required to embark on wheat growing.
 Cultivation is highly mechanized for example use of tractors, ploughs, drills and combine harvesters.
 Mechanization means that labour force is small while the yield per man is high.
 Lack of irrigation since wheat does not require heavy rainfall.
 Individual ownership of farms.
Economic importance of Wheat farming
a) Source of food as foreign exchange is saved for importation of food.
b) Industrialization e.g. Wheat mills, distilling and brewing industries.
c) Initiated development of infrastructure.
d) Foreign exchange earner when wheat is exported to foreign countries.

Processing Of Wheat
 Combine-harvesters reap and harvest the wheat.
 Harvested wheat is milled and sieved to obtain wheat flour.
 The wheat flour is packed and ready for sale.
 Wheat flour is used for baking bread, biscuits, cakes, breakfast cereals like semolina, spaghetti, macaroni and
vermicelli.
 Wheat waste (wheat bran) is used as animal feeds.

THE PRAIRIES PROVINCE

A Prairies is an extensive, treeless grassland in North U.S.A and Canada. It is characterized by high summer
temperatures and low winter temperatures. The dry continental airmass and Chinook winds have a great influence on
climate in Prairies.

Figure 1.4 Wheatlands of Canada

Three Regions of the Prairies:
1. Albert
2. Saskatchewan
3. Manitoba

The population density of Canada is 5 people per km2.

Prairies land covers about 26 million hectares.
Land use on Prairies
 Land is cleared, ploughed and harrowed (left bare)
 The harsh winters kill insects and pests in the field.
 Framers sow by broadcasting method on a small farm.
 On a large farm, farmers sow by use of tractors or planting drills.
 Manure is done at the time of sowing.

Example of annual activities on Brookedrin farm

Month Farm activities
April-May
Sowing wheat and growing
potatoes.
June-July
Light weeding and chemical
spraying
August-September Harvesting wheat and transporting it
to the elevators for storage at nearby
railway stations.
September-
October Potato harvesting
October-
November Ploughing the field and applying
fertilizer
November-March Repairing and general maintenance
of farm structures and equipment.
Snow impedes work on the land.

Table 1.1 Annual Activities on Brookerdrin Farm

Favourable Conditions for Wheat Cultivation on the Canadian Prairies

 Flat land that allows easy mechanization.
 Good infrastructure extended into prairies for example, good railway lines.
 Suitable climate that allows the growth of wheat.
 Rich dark brown chernozem soils are essential for wheat growing.
 Market availability due to a well-developed transport network.

The Routes through which wheat is exported from the Canadian Prairies
 Wheat is transported by Lorries to the railway stations.
 Inspection is done at Calgary, Edmonton Winnipeg.
 Wheat is then transported to Ports Arthur and William in the great lakes region.
 Wheat is then shipped through elevators to the great lakes and St. Lawrence Seaway.
 It is taken to big ships known as Whale bocks or by railways to ports Halifax, Montreal, New York and Buffalo.
 From there it goes to European countries.
Main Railway Lines in Canada
1. The Canadian National Railway line.
2. The Great Canadian (Intercontinental) Pacific railway line.
Transportation is done in summer season when there is absence of snow. Panama Canal is used.
Problems associated with Wheat growing
 Fluctuation of international market prices.
 Drought, hail, wind and frost affect wheat production.
 Mice, grasshoppers and some pests may damage the crop.
 Transport difficulties when wheat export routes are closed during winter, because both the Hudson Bay and the
St.Lawrence River are frozen.
 Soil exhaustion: Soils lose their fertility and the nutrients have to be replenished.
Solutions to Problems affecting Wheat production
 Farmers turn to crop diversification in case wheat production fails.
 To curb climatic hazards, hailstorms are predicted earlier through storm warning systems so that farmers harvest
the wheat quickly.
 When routes are frozen during winter, ports that are open all year-round are used such as New York and West
Coast Ports.
 Frequent manuring, and application of fertilizers to improve yields is done in areas where a wheat variety has
exhausted nitrogen.

Uses of Wheat
 It is used for making bread, cake, pasta and noodles.
 It is an excellent livestock feed for poultry.
 It is used for distillation of alcohol, preparation of glue and adhesives.
  Straw is used for making paper and straw boards.

CASE STUDY 2: RANCHING IN ARGENTINA

Ranching: Refers to all activities taking place in the raising of livestock on a ranch or rearing of animals on large piece
of land at large scale for commercial purposes. Animals are reared in a ranch or cattle estates called Estancias.
 It is practiced in the cool humid temperate grassland belts of Northern and Southern Hemisphere i.e. prairies of
North U.S.A, steppes of Russia, Pampas of South America, Dawns of Australia and High Veldt of South Africa.
 Denmark and Netherlands.
Example of annual activities on Ita Caabo Estancia

MONTHS ESTANCIA ACTIVITIES

January-February Ranch fences are repaired and
rye is sown
March-May Cattle dipping
May-June Sheep dipping and branding
July-August Lambing and lamb marking
September-October Sheep shearing
October-December Hay making and fence
repairing
Table 1.2 Annual activities on Ita Caabo Estancia
Differences between Ranching and Pastoral Nomadism
Livestock Ranching
 Animals are raised for sale
 Scientifically managed.
 There is no migration of animals.
 Vegetative cover is continuous.
 Low stocking ration.

Pastoral Nomadism
 Vegetative cover is seasonal.
 There is seasonal migration of animals.
 Land is held communally or collectively although livestock are owned on an individual basis.
 Animals kept for subsistence or prestige.
 The pastoralists have no permanent shelter.
 Large herds of animals like donkeys, goats, sheep and cattle are kept.

Characteristics of a Ranch
 Animals kept in divided plots.
 One type of animal is kept.
 Dependence on natural vegetation mainly for pasture.
 Ranches are close to good road networks.
Cattle types raised on a ranch
 Shorthorn
 Aberdeen Angus
 Hereford
Activities in a Ranch
 Receiving or buying of the animals and feeding of animals.
 At the frigorifico animals are weighed, cleaned and let into slaughtering rooms.
 Slaughtering, removal of offals and skinning of animals and meat freezing i.e. frigorificos (slaughter-houses) in
Buenos Aires and Rosario.
 Hides are dried and fats are extracted and then exported.
 Washing of carcasses and processing them accordingly or freezing them ready for to be loaded onto refrigerated
ships.
Parts of a cow and their uses
 Tongues, livers, heart and other offals are collected, cleaned and packed.
 Polish and fertilizers come from the blood of cows.
  Bones are used for making handles of knives, buttons and fertilizers.
 Bones can be crashed and made into fertilizers.
 The animal fur can be used for making cushions.
 The fat form the animals is used in margarine making and as cooking fats.
 Hides for making leather materials like shoes, bags and belts.
 Horns and hooves are used in glue making.
 Meat is cooked and tinned and sold to local butcheries called saladeros.
Argentina is the world’s major exporter of beef.
Meat is exported to U.S.A, Canada, Germany, France, Spain, and Israel.

Factors favouring beef farming

i. The flat and gentle Pampas plains provide good natural grazing land.
ii. Fertile soils (loess) support the growth of good pasture.
iii. Adequate annual rainfall of 1000mm ensures constant supply of pasture for animals.
iv. Average temperatures of 10 degrees Celsius in winter and 24 degrees Celsius in summer favour the breeding of
beef animals.
v. Temperate grasslands called Pampas encourage beef cattle rearing.
vi. Introduction of exotic breeds from Europe e.g. the Shorthorn and Hereford improved the quality of beef
products in Argentina.
vii. Well developed transport and communication network makes transportation and exportation of products easy
and fast.
viii. Well organized and fairly mechanized cattle ranches increase beef production.
ix. Availability of capital that has led to mechanization of beef farms.
x. Natural grasses like alfalfa, desmidian are of high nutrient content hence increase productivity.
Features or characteristics of beef farms in Argentina
 Ranches called Estancias are large covering over 200 square kilometers.
 Mixed farming involved e.g. wheat, barley and rye growing.
 Utilization of natural grass called Pampas while Alfalfa is given to the animals in ranches.
 Farm manager’s houses called ‘prestos.’
 Stores for grains and cattle food.
 Water supplied to the ranches for animals.
 Cross-breeding is done to improve the quality of livestock.
 Inspections of the farms by the cowboys called gauchos.
Importance of Beef Farming to the Economy of Argentina
 Industrial growth for example the existence of frigorificos.
 Urban growth for example towns like Buenos Aires, Rosario and Bahia Blanca.
 Source of employment in the estancias has improved standard of living.
 Source of foreign exchange for example Argentina exports about 15% of its beef to Europe and other countries.
 Improvement in a network of roads and railways.
Processing and marketing
 Cattle are slaughtered on farms.
 Packed in tins or cold containers
 Later transported by train.
 About 15% of the beef products are exported to USA, Europe, Chile, Brazil and East Indies.
PROSPECT OF BEEF FARMING IN MALAWI
 In 1982 cattle in Malawi was estimated to be 1,267,000
  The year to follow there was a great increase.
 Artificial insemination centres and sub-centres are located in Blantyre, Lilongwe and Mzuzu.
 The establishment of vertinary departments has reduced diseases for example East Coast Fever.
 Cattle are moved to markets by rail in the south and motor vehicles from North to Centre even by foot.
 Cattle ranching in Malawi is mainly done in Dzalanyama range, South West of Mzimba and lower Shire
between N’gabu and Nchalo.
 The most common cattle type raised is the Zebu. It is resistant to ticks, high humidity and drought. It adapts to
high temperatures. Fats are concentrated in the hump at the back.
Problems of Beef industry in Malawi
1. Diseases: Most common disease affecting cattle in Malawi is Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) spread by
tsetseflies), east coast fever, red water fever and fall sickness.
2. Remoteness of the land: Rearing animal’s areas are where there is no good road, and railway system. This
makes it uneconomical to fatten cattle in rearing areas for when they reach slaughtering plants they are either
thin or underweight.
3. Hot Climate: Hot summer and dry winter causes shortage of pasture and death to many animals.
4. Financial Constraints: Lack of enough capital for running the industry; despite other NGO, involvement in
the industry lead to poor management of cattle.
5. Stealing: Presently robbery is on the greatest increase leading to many people keeping few or none of cattle.
6. Cultural altitudes: In most parts of the Northern region people keep cattle for prestige and a form of marriage
dowry.
Suggested Measures to be undertaken by the government of Malawi to improve beef farming
 The ministry of Agriculture must ensure that the animal disease control section is active in trying to reduce
animal diseases through animal vaccination.
 The government must establish meat canning and processing factories to enable Malawi export her beef
products overseas.
 Implementation of wildlife compensation scheme whereby ranchers whose animals are destroyed by wildlife
are compensated.
 Livestock farming advisory services to be provided through field extension officers.
 Roads should be improved to ease marketing of livestock.
 Research into animal diseases, breeding and better livestock management should be funded by the government.
 Heavy taxation on imported meat products protects the local farmer.

LAND RECLAMATION IN THE NETHERLANDS

Polder: It is a reclaimed land from swamps, lakes, deserts and seas. It is the land that has been drained.
Figure 1.5 Polders of Netherlands
Landscape of Polders.
 The land should be flat or leveled.
 Reclaimed land is below the sea level.
 Land to be marked to maximize land use
Problems of Land reclamation
 The land dries out and Salination results.
 Costly to maintain the dykes, pumps, drainage canals e.t.c
 When a dyke breaks it causes flooding.
 Land subsides or sinks when it dries out.
 Land reclamation: It is the process where land is restored to its original productive state after it has lost its fertility.
It is the turning of water-logged land or areas of shallow lake into a dry land.
 In 1929, the government of Netherlands, under the Zuider Zee and Delta Plan projects reclaimed land that was
below the sea level.
 Dykes and dams protect the reclaimed land.
 It is occupied by more than of the population.
Factors that facilitated land reclamation in Netherlands
 Shortage of land for settlement, farming, roads and development of towns.
 Frequent floods.
 Creation of fresh water lakes e.g. Lake Yasser.
 Poor drainage system hence improved drainage system.
 High salinity along the coastlines.
THE ZUIDER ZEE PROJECT
 Zuider Zee means the Southern Sea.
 A dyke was constructed between the province of Hollas and Friesland.
 Polders (low lying land reclaimed) from the sea enclosed by a dyke were created.
  A polder is a low lying reclaimed land below the sea level which is surrounded by dykes that protect it against
high water tides.
 Removal of salts from the reclaimed polders is called desalination.
 To reclaim the land or empolder, water is pumped from the sea and channeled into channels or ditches then
directed into pumping stations.
 Grass is grown in the reclaimed land to bind the soil together.
 Chemicals are used to remove salts.
Benefits of the Zuider Zee project
 Shortened the road between Northern Netherlands and Friesland.
 Availability of fresh water.
 Creation of land for settlement.
 Growing of horticultural crops i.e. flower and vegetable growing hence improved economy.
 Arable farming i.e. growing of wheat, rye, oats and barley.
 Dairy farming is now practiced in the polders.
 Employment opportunities were created.
 Dykes controlled by the dykes.
 Fresh water from Lake Yssel reduced salinity.
Possible areas for land reclamation in Malawi
Lake Chilwa, Chiuta and Kazuni: Elephant, Ndindi, Vwaza and Lake Chilwa marshes.

IRRIGATION FARMING IN THE WORLD

Irrigation
It is defined as the supplementation of rainfall or the artificial supply of water from a source other than rainfall, to crops
in order to enhance their growth and yields.
Background Information
Archaeological investigation has identified evidence of irrigation in Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt and Ancient
Persia(modern day Iran as far back as the 6 th Millenium BCE where barley was grown in areas where the natural rainfall
was insufficient to support such a crop. Irrigation systems existed in the Tigris-Euphrates valleys as along as 4000BC.
Major world locations on irrigation
These areas include: Indus Valley, Ganges Plain, Nile Basin, Central Valley of California and places of Multipurpose
river dams, California and Nile valley
 Rice in India and China
 Wheat in USA and Israelite Kibbutzim
 Vegetables in Denmark, Netherlands and Britain
 Sugarcane in Cuba, Mexico and Japan.
Two Main types of Irrigation
1. Perennial Irrigation: Water is supplied to cultivated areas throughout the year. Huge dams are constructed
across the rivers so that reservoirs are created to store water. Sluice gates control the flow of water into the
fields. Examples are the Aswan dam project, the Grand Coulee Scheme project and the Indus Valley project.
 2. Annual Irrigation (Basin Irrigation): It depends on the annual flooding of a river during the period of heavy
rainfall. The flood plain is leveled and banked by mud walls to distribute the flood waters during the season.
Examples are the Ganges valley flood plain and the Nile valley.
Other types of irrigation
a) Traditional types e.g. Shaduf, Sakia and Channel irrigated methods.
b) Modern types: e.g. Sprinkler, Furrow and Drip Irrigation.
Factors that determine the Irrigation Methods
1. Soil type: Sandy soils have a low water storage capacity and a high infiltration rate. They need frequent but
small irrigation applications. Clay soils with low infiltration rates are ideally suited to surface irrigation.
2. Slope: Sprinkler or drip irrigation are preferred above surface irrigation on steeper or unevenly sloping lands
as they require little or no land leveling.
3. Water: Sprinkler or drip irrigation when water is in short supply.
4. Type of Crop: Surface irrigation can be used for all types of crops. Sprinkler and drip irrigation, because of
their high capital investment per hectare, are mostly used for high value cash crops, such as vegetables and fruit
trees.
Drip irrigation is suited to irrigating crops such as vegetables and sugarcane.
5. The type of technology: The purchase of equipment requires high capital investment per hectare in case of
drip and sprinkler irrigation. Regular supply of fuel and spare parts may require foreign currency.
6. Previous experience with Irrigation
 The choice of an irrigation method also depends on the irrigation tradition within the region or country.
 Introducing a previously unknown method may lead to unexpected complications.
 The servicing of the equipment may be problematic and the costs may be high compared to the benefits.
7. Required Labour inputs
 Surface irrigation often requires a much higher labour input for construction, operation and maintenance.
 Sprinkler and drip irrigation require little land leveling, system operation and maintenance are less labour-
intensive.
8. Hydro-electric Power:
It is important in order to pump water.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

a) Basin irrigation
(Flooding Irrigation)-Traditional
 Water moves over and across the land by simple gravity flow in order to wet it and to infiltrate into the soil.
 It is often called flood irrigation when the irrigation results in flooding of the cultivated land.
 Banks are built across the river and across the valley. Flood water is held between when the river flows
forming basins.
 Water flows back to the river after several days. It is commonly used in Egypt (Nile valley) Iran and India.
 Figure 1.6 Basin Irrigation
Advantages of basin irrigation
 Maintains soil fertility by deposition and sedimentation of silt.
 After harvesting the land is left furrow until next flooding season allowing it to gain fertility.

2. Shaduf (Traditional)
 Buckets full of water are lifted from a deep well.
 A rock is tied to a rope that is lowered into the well.
 This method is common in Egypt, Iran and Iraq.

Advantages of Shaduf
 Low requirements for infrastructure and technical equipments.
 Can be used all year around.

Figure 1.7 Shaduf Irrigation method

3. Sakia (Traditional method)
 Water is lifted using a wheel or a pulley.
 Animals like donkeys, horses or even manpower is used.

4. Wells and Channels (traditional)

 Wells are sunk to enable water to be obtained from saturated rocks.
 Channels are constructed to lead water into the garden.
 Few wells can be sunk into the ground to avoid shortfall of underground water.

5. Sprinkler or Overhead Irrigation (Modern)

 In sprinkler or overhead irrigation water is piped to one or more central locations within the field.
 A system utilizing sprinklers, sprays, or guns Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are
driven by a ball drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism.
 Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle.
Figure 1.8 A traveling sprinkler at Millets Farm Centre, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom.
 Sprinklers use engine pumps to pump water, under pressure through pipes e.g. Upper Nile, Israel, Iraq, Iran and
U.S.A.

6. Trickle or Drip Irrigation (Modern)

Figure 1.9 Drip Irrigation - A dripper in action

 Grapes growing in Petrolina is possible in this semi arid area due to drip irrigation. Water is distributed to the
plant stations by pipes. Perforations or holes are made in the pipes. This type of irrigation saves water.
 Water is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop by drop through perforations.

Advantages of Trickle Irrigation

 Minimization or evaporation and runoff.
 Large area is irrigated at once.
 Operates well in low water pressure.
Disadvantages of Trickle Irrigation
 Very expensive to establish and maintain.
 Difficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes.
 Computerised set of valves need high-tech solutions.

7. Canal/Furrow Irrigation
 Canals lead irrigation water from rivers or storage lakes.
 These provide water all the year round.

Why Irrigation is an Intensive type of farming?

 Demands high labour.
 Needs high capital for maintenance of the dams.
 Heavy application of chemicals.
 High yield per unit area.
 Several harvests per year may be produced.

Problems associated with Irrigation

 Fluctuation of river water during the dry season.
 During the dry season, high evaporation rates cause soil salinization making the soil poor for farming.
 Capital shortage makes it impossible for farmers to employ a form of mechanization.
 Farm inputs are too costly for farmers.
 High costs are incurred during pumping of water.
 Constant supply of salty water from lakes or rivers increases salinity of the soil.
 It causes siltation of a dam and leaching of minerals.
 Depletion and exhaustion of the soil’s fertility by maize crop.
 Monoculture has resulted to farmers abandoning other crops.
 It results to silting of a dam and leaching of plant nutrients.
 Stagnant water provides a conducive environment for breeding of mosquitoes and snails which infect farmers
with diseases.
Advantages of Irrigation Farming
 It leads to urbanization and development of towns.
 Irrigation schemes improve water supply in the region.
 Controlled supply or use of water prevents soil erosion.
 It is possible to diversify crops.
 Irrigation facilitates the development of other social amenities such as schools and hospitals.
  Irrigation schemes have created settlements of thousands of people.
 Source of employment, income and livelihood for farmers.
 Increased production of food hence reducing the country’s food imports.

ISRAEL IRRIGATION

The State of Israel

 The creation of the State of Israel was declared in 1948.

 Israel’s relief consists of the mountain range between the river Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea.
The Southern Region
 There are no rivers in the south where Negev desert is situated.
 Annual rainfall is less than 25mm.
 The soils are the aridisols which are shallow and have low humus.
 These soils lack moisture due to rapid evaporation(2100mm)
The Central Region
 Has steppes grasslands or shrubs.
 Has semi-desert conditions.
 Soil is badly eroded.
 Receives annual rainfall between 25mm to 75mm.
Galilee Region
 Galilee Sea is in the North and the Dead Sea is in the South.
 Israel is a small arid country depending on collective farming.
 Has dry summers and wet winters.
 Has evergreen trees and shrubs.
 Receives more than 75mm of rainfall annually.
 Evaporation rate is less than 1200mm.

Climate of Israel: (Mediterranean Climate)

 Winter rainfall is experienced from (November to March)
 No rains are experienced in summer.
 Israel has mild and wet winters
 The southern part of Israel receives rainfall less than 127mm annually .

Figure 1.10 Map of Israel and irrigation works

Types of Soils
Fertile soils exist in the North. Israel
Alluvial heavy clay
Sandy areas
Desert soils
Sources Of Irrigation Water
 Jordan river boreholes
 Lakes Galilee (Tiberias) wells and sprigs.
 Artificial lakes
 Open streams and dams constructed.

Methods of Irrigation in Israel

a. Drip irrigation
b. Sprinkler irrigation
Reason for using Pipelines instead of Canals.
 Pipelines prevent large qualities of water from being lost through evaporation.
 The altitude of Lake Tiber is about 212m below the sea level.
 Thus water control moves into canal by gravity since altitude is very low.

Important crops grown

 Cotton
 Citrus fruits
 Grapes
 Vegetables
 Wheat
Problems facing irrigation farming in Israel
 Long distance between Jordan river and Negeb desert where water is needed.
 Rapid evaporation of water in the desert.
 Lake Tiberius is 212m below the sea level making it difficult to pump water.
 The water from the sea is salty which is not good for irrigation

Solutions to the problems

Use of electrical pumps.
 Installation of pipelines eases the problem of evaporation.
 Desalination of water.
 Use of fertilizers to restore the soil fertility.

How is water desalinized?

 Water is poured in the desalination plant or tank where it is boiled.
 The steam from the tank is led into the pipes where the salt remains in bottles to condensation tank.
 In the condensation tank the water becomes pure as it cools.
 The pure water is carried through pipes to al parts of the country.
 In Israel, the main desalination plants are found at Cilat and Itaifa.

Problems faced with desalination of water

 It is very expensive.
 Distilled water is not good to our bodies because it does not contain minerals required by our bodies even
essential minerals for crop growth.
 Use of distilled water influences use of more chemicals and manure for high productivity.

Kibbutzim or Israel system of farming and settlement

Kibbutzim are successful co-operative communities in Israel.

Principles of Kibbutzim

 Its members live in a single community and share the work.

 The word kibbutz is the Hebrew name for such a community.
 Property such as land, buildings and equipment, factories and tools, is owned by the kibbutz, is owned jointly
(collectively) by the community.
 The kibbutz looks after all the needs of its members and their families and usually provides communal dining,
laundry and other services.
 Kibbutzim now owns and operates factories,hotels and restaurants.
 The General Assembly decides policy and allocates responsibilities (work)
  They produce something like 50 per cent of Israel's agricultural produce and about 9 per cent of its industrial
goods.

NCHALO SUGAR CAN IRRIGATION SCHEME

Location of Nchalo Sugarcane Scheme
 Lies on the western terraces of the Shire river in Chikhwawa district.
 The estate is checked by Ndindi and Elephant marshes which absorb flood waters from the wetlands.

Factors influencing the establishment of the scheme

Soils
 Alluvial soils comprising of sand, silt and clay are common.
 Grey to dark brown soils are also common.

Climate
 Temperature range is between 240C to 320C.
 Low annual rainfall of about 800mm necessitates irrigation or sugarcane plantations.
 Sugarcane requires 1270mm of rainfall.
 Too much rainfall makes sugarcane not to be sweet enough.
Land
 The land is naturally fertile with potash and phosphate.
 The land is generally flat.
 Water flows easily from Shire river.

Figure 1.11 Nchalo Sugarcane plantation

Methods of irrigation
 Sprinkler irrigation system.
 Furrow irrigation system.

Growing activities of sugarcane

Land Preparation:
 Includes ploughing, harrowing (leveling and
removal of soil lumps by scrappers and construction of
shallow ditches)

Planting Sugarcane:
1st Method:
 The cane is cut in lengths of 60cms
 It is dipped into hot water (520C) or fungicides to
kill organism which may cause diseases.
 Stems of cane (setts) lay horizontally in loose soil
on shallow ditches.
 They are buried beneath 7.5 cm of soil.
 Nitrogenous fertilizer is applied in advance.

2nd Method:
 It is called Ratoon( after cutting or harvesting, the
root regenerates to produce ratoon crop)
 Generating shoots are removed and planted.
 Fertilizer is applied in advance.

Harvesting of sugarcane
 Irrigation is stopped to enable the land to dry.
 It speeds up maturity for instance sucrose and moisture content.
 It is called a dry off period.
( 3weeks before harvesting)
 Sugarcane matures when it is 18-24 months old.
 The fields are set on fire a day before cutting.
 This is done in order to:
  Kill dangerous snakes and animals and
 Reduce the weight of sugarcane.
 Prevent sucrose from deteriorating because sucrose deteriorates greatly in fresh canes than burnt ones.
 Canes are cut by hand knives or pangas.
 Harvested canes are piled in heaps and transported by lorries and tractors to the factory.

Sugar processing in general

1. Preparation:
At the factory, sugarcane is weighed.
Canes are cleaned by warm water to remove trash. Canes are chopped by ratting knives called shredders.

2. Juice extraction or pressing:

Canes pass through rollers to be crashed and squeezed in order to extract juice. Bagasse is left out after juice has
been squeezed out.
Clarification: It is also known as defecation process (thus the removal of both insoluble and soluble impurities). Juice is
poured into large containers called clarifiers where screening takes place. Milk neutralizes the natural acidity of the juice.
Lime helps in the sinking of non-sugars to the bottom. The filtered material called mud is returned to the field as
farmyard manure.

4. Evaporation
Juice enters an evaporator where it is boiled to form thick concentrated syrup. In a vacuum pan, the syrup undergoes
evaporation process that results to molasses and sugar crystals known as massecuite.
5. Crystallization: The massecuite are stirred in open tanks called crystallizers where sugar crystals develop.
6. Centrifugation: Massecuite is led into centrifuges(revolving machines(baskets) which separate the white sugar
crystals from the molasses..
Once the sugar is centrifuged, it is sent to a granulator for drying.
7. Drying and Packaging

 Damp sugar crystals are dried by being tumbled through heated air in a granulator.
 The raw sugar is melted and filtered in the refinery where the brown substance is removed by further use of
lime to produce white sugar.
 The dry sugar crystals are then sorted by size. Sugar is weighed then sent to be packed in the familiar packaging
we see in grocery stores, in bulk packaging, or in liquid form for industrial use.

Uses of sugar byproducts

 Molasses are used as animal feed.
 Molasses are distilled into ethanol and alcohol (rum, Malawi gin)
 Baggase is used for fuel (generating steam in factories) and fertilizers.
 Bagasse can also be used as cattle fodder.
 It is used for paper making and is ploughed in the fields to enrich the soil.
 Bagasse is used for insulating boards, and hardboards.
 Sugar used for sweetening of beverages, for example, tea and coffee.
 Sugar is used for making confectionery, bread, cakes, sweets, jams etc.
 It is used in pharmaceuticals, paper, polish and plastics manufacturing.

Problems associated with sugarcane industry

 There is power failure at the factory due to unreliable rains that affect water level in the Shire river.
 This is checked by use of generators or thermal electricity
 Wild animals and snakes endanger the lives of the workers.
 This is checked by burning before harvesting.
 There is a problem of transport which is checked by letting wholesalers use their own transport for distribution.
 Diseases affect the quality of cane.
 Diseases such as Ratoon stunting, mosaic yellow with leaf spots and pests or stem borers and rats are solved by
planting several varieties at the same time to reduce the impact of the diseases.
 Sugarcane plantation can also be sprayed with chemicals.
 Regular inspection of the plantation to spot the infected areas curbs the problem of pests and diseases.
 Poor seed types and lack of varieties results to low yields.
 A delayed payment by sugarcane millers to the farmers discourages them.
 Fire outbreaks in sugarcane estates cause loses to farmers.

Importance of Nchalo scheme

  Source of employment as people get employed in estates and factories.
 It earns the Malawi government foreign exchange..
 Malawi sugar is exported to Zambia, Zimbabwe, Burundi, therefore brings income.
 It has improved other sectors of national economy for example Sobo Company and Distillery Industries. .
 Sugar is consumed locally thereby saving the use of foreign exchange to import sugar.
 Sugar industry has led to the development of towns like Nchalo in Chikhwawa and Dwangwa in Nkhota-
kota.
 It has contributed to the development of a better transport network.

TEA PLANTATION IN MALAWI

 Tea is a non-alcoholic beverage shrub. Apart from Malawi Tea is grown in China, India, Sri-Lanka,
Indonesia, Japan, South America, Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda and Tanzania.

Conditions necessary for the growth of Tea

 Uniform temperature is required ranging from 18 0C to 200C.

 Cool and humid weather stimulates leaf growth.
 Availability of shade from strong sunlight or violent winds.
 High rainfall is required of about 1150mm to 2000mm.
 Tea does best in high altitude areas between 1000mm-1700mm above the sea level.
 Well-drained fertile soils are preferred to avoid water logging with gentle slopes.
 Soil must have humus and moderately acidic with potash.
 Well established transport network.
 Availability of labour.
 Availability of both international and local market.

Seasonal activities on the tea plantation

 Clearing the Land
 Removal of Stump rings or barks to prevent diseases affecting tea e.g. Armillas.
 Nursery Seed Planting Seeds are put in wet sand where after germination are transplanted into nurseries
and open fields after 1 or 2 years.
 The seedlings are transplanted on the land at the height of 20-30 cm.
 They are planted in straight rows 1.5 apart and 15cm deep holes.
 Weeding is done at regular intervals.
 When the plant is about 1 m high, pruning is done to stimulate growth.
 It also ensures that the branches grow thick.
 It is done during the first four years.
 Falling tree leaves keep ground moisture and provides ums for tea plants when they decay.
 Plucking or picking of tea begins after 2-3 years.
 On Makwasa Estate it is done in November to April.
 Tea is picked every 5-7 days in the rainy season and 10-14 days in the dry season.
 Tea is taken to the shades for sorting and weighing.
 The leaves are then transported to the factories for processing.

Makwasa Tea estate

 Located in the Shire highlands.

 It is in West of Luchenza in Thyolo district.
 The estate was established in 1936.
 It employs 2000 people during picking season among them the General Manager, Assistant Managers,
technicians and factory engineers.
 Over 5% of the working population lives on the estate.

Tea processing
Tea factories in Malawi are located in Chombe in Nkhata Bay, Makwasa in Thyolo, Limbuli and Kasembereka in
Mulanje.
a. Weighing: The leaves are weighed and spread on troughs through which hot air is blown.
b. Withering: The leaves are left in withering lofts for 20 hours with hot air to extract moisture.
c. Sifting: Tea leaves are crushed into smaller pieces by machines called rollers. This promotes fermentation.
 d. Fermentation: The leaves are then dried and fermented by passing still warm air and high humidity over them.
The leaves turn brown and acquire a taste or aroma of tea.
e. Firing: The leaves are put on the conveyor and through a hot oven over 104.0 0C. The tea leaves are dried for 16
to 24 minutes. The tea leaves turn black.
f. Grading: Tea leaves pass through strainers with holes of different sizes so as to get tea of various grades.
Leaves fall through air current. The poorest quality tea made up of heavier stems fall quickly through
centrifugal forces.
g. Packaging: Tea is packed in wooden boxes called “chests” ready for export. The chest is lined with aluminum
paper to preserve tea flavour.
h. Blending: It is the mixing of different grades of a product together. This mainly is done by experts in different
countries where tea is exported. Some blending is done in country for home consumption eg. Chombe Tea
Factory, Banja Tea leopard.
i. Transporting and Selling: Trains and large Lorries carry tea to Beira and Dar Es Salaam where it is shipped to
London where there is world tea market. Tea is further exported to Great Britain, Canada, U.S.A, South Africa,
Netherlands, France and other countries.
Mimosa Tea research
 This has been established in order to improve the production of tea and control the amount of produce for better
prices at the world markets.
 Finds better methods of controlling pests and diseases.
 Train tea growers.
Tea plantation problems in Malawi
 Competition from other crops like tobacco and maize has reduced the total area of land under tea.
 Population explosion or boom has reduced the area covered by plantations.
 Soil exhaustion due to mono-cultural farming lowers the yield hence need for a lot of fertilizer for successful
growth of tea.
 Prolonged drought leads to withering of tea hence lowering the harvest.
 The production cost of tea is high yet farmers lack adequate capital.
 Fluctuation of world market prices causes losses to farmers hence affecting farm operations.
 Transportation is very costly as Malawi is a land locked country.
 Tea plantation work, demands large labour force, with low wages paid. Many workers opt for greener pastures
e.g. tobacco fields.
 Pests like the black tea thrips, weeves that damage young tea plants, and diseases like Armillaria root rot
reduced the quality and quantity of the field.
Small Holder Tea authority
 This was formed in 1967 in the southern region in order to encourage Malawians to grow ea on small holder
scale basis.

This was formed in order to:

 Let Malawians utilize the knowledge acquired from the estates after working for some time, by establishing
their own tea gardens.
 To provide income to Malawians supplementary to bananas.
 Tea yields are high therefore a small holder does not need much land as farming land is scarce.

Assessment on Small Holder Tea Authority

 The authority provides 2,800,000 Tea plants every year to small holder farmers on long term loan basis.
 Since its establishment to 1977 there were 307 hectares in Mulanje and 338 hectares in Thyolo.
 In 1975 a modern tea processing factory was established in Mulanje by the authority.

Importance of Tea to Malawi’s economy

 Tea contributes 25% of Malawi’s export earning thus second from tobacco.
 It is the largest single employer with over 34,000 employees. Malawi is the second largest producer of tea in
Africa.
 Tea estates are sources of tourism.
 Establishment of small holder authority, farmers have increased the production of tea hence the improvement of
living in areas like Thyolo, Mulanje and Nkhata Bay.

COCOA PLANTATION IN GHANA

Historical Background
 Cocoa comes from a tropical tree called theobroma cacao. It is used as a beverage.
 Cacao tree produces pods that contain seeds called beans.
 It was an indigenous plant in the rain forests of Central and Southern America.
  It was very expensive.
 The royalty of Inca or Aztecs were permitted to eat it.
 The Swiss were interested in developing chocolate products as an expensive luxury food.
 The Swiss Missionaries who came to the Gold Coast in the early nineteenth century, and to Kwawu in 1888,
wanted to convert the local people to cash cropping so as to monetize their economy.
 By that time it was grown in Sao Palme, introduced there by the Portuguese.
 Ghanaian oral history relates that Tetteh Quarshi went to Sao Palme and stole some live beans to bring back and
cultivate in the Gold Coast.
 Cocoa was introduced in Nigeria in 1874.
Location:
 Cocoa is extensively grown in Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Cameroon and Ghana.
 Ghana is the largest producer of the world cocoa beans. It is seconded by Nigeria then Brazil.
 Principle cocoa regions in Ghana are: Ashanti Province around Kumasi, Agogo and Awaso, on the western part
of the country.
Factors Favouring Cocoa growing in Ghana
 Well distributed annual rainfall which is at least 1500mm.
 Temperatures of about 250C.
 Thrives best in high humid areas.
 Cocoa tree requires protection from direct sunlight and strong wind hence need for tree shades. Unripe pods
may be blown off by strong winds.
 Favours lowland areas and plains.
 Requires deep well drained loamy soils rich in iron and potassium. Light clays are also a favourable condition.

Figure 1.12 Cocoa growing regions in Ghana

Cultivation of Cocoa
Planting
 Seedlings and sown in nursery and are transplanted to the farms and planted in rows.
 Tall forests are left in the farms to protect the plants from the strong equatorial sun and wind.
 Cocoa plant takes five to eight years to mature.
 The first harvest takes place when pods turn yellow-orange in colour.
 The trees grow to a height of 8-10m.
Figure 1.13 Cocoa tree with yellow pods growing on it.
Cocoa pods growing on trunks
Harvesting
 Harvesting is done between September and February and between May and August.
Drying of Cocoa beans

 They are dried in the hot sun till they turn browns.
 They are then packed in sacks and taken to the government agent for weighing and grading.
 Farmers are paid according to grades.

Processing of Cocoa

 Traditional methods

 The pods are split open using a sharp knife, panga or machete.
 Cocoa beans are scooped out using hands.
 The beans are heaped on a mat covered with a broad banana leaves.
 This allows the juicy pulp to drain away.
 It also facilitates fermentation process in order to remove the bitter taste of the fresh beans and stop beans from
germinating.
 Fermentation process also improves the flavor of cocoa.
 Fermented beans are dried in the sun in order to turn brown.
 Beans are then grade, weighed and packed ready for export.

Figure 1.14 Women turning cocoa beans on a mat

Importance of Cocoa
 Beans are cleaned and roasted.
 Cleaned beans are cracked to remove the covers called husks.
 The wastes may be used in the garden as manure.
 The removed fats produce cocoa butter which is used for production of cosmetics e.g. perfumes, ointments.
 Paste is dried and into cocoa powder which can be used to make a cocoa drink (mixed with sugar and milk
chocolate cakes. Etc.
 Beans are cleaned and roasted.
 The husks of the beans are crushed to form fatty cocoa butter and nutritious powder.
 The powder is used to make chocolate and other cosmetics like cocoa butter.
Problems facing cocoa production in Ghana
 Political instability: Ghana experienced coup d’états that resulted to the decline of cocoa production.
 Migration of farmers to towns like Accra, Takoradi and Sekodi caused labour shortage hence negligence of
cocoa.
 Destruction of cocoa farms by drought, bush fires and strong winds
 Poor transport network.
 Cocoa is affected by pests, insects and diseases like swollen shoot and black pod which lowers the yield.
 Lack of government incentives to improve cocoa production.
Economic importance of cocoa in Ghana
 Source of employment.
 Source of foreign exchange.
 More farmers earn a living through cocoa growing.

UNIT 2 WETLANDS IN MALAWI

 A wetland is a place which has more water almost
throughout the year for example swamps and marshes.
 It contains wild and aquatic life species.
 Examples of Wetlands in Malawi are:
 Vwaza Marsh in Rumphi
 Ndindi Marsh in Nsanje.
 Elephant Marsh in Chikhwawa
 Dedza and Bana swaps in Nkhotakota.
 Chombe swamp in Nkhata Bay
 Limbe Marsh in Zomba around Lake Chilwa.
 Lake Chilwa is about 2,000 square kilometers.
 Fishery is the most valuable asset of Lake Chilwa.
 Between 1973-1986 the Lake used to produce 8,000 tonnes of Chambo fish but now it is less than 2,000 tonnes.

Importance of wetlands
 They are habitants for wild and aquatic animals.
 They are source of attraction to tourism industry as they contain over green and beautiful plants and animals.
 Hardwood in these lands is a source of timber production.
 Cultivation of crops like rice is done around Chilwa and Chombe swamps.
 Play an essential part in the regulation of river flow.
 They filter pollutants and fertilizers
 Alluvial deposits act rather like sponges which absorb surplus water before releasing filtered water.

Figure 2.1 An example of a Wetland

Threats to Wetlands
 Cultivation around wetlands might lead to dryness or extinction of a wetland eg. Lake Kazuni.
 Aquatic animals are prone to water pollution due to flooding of industrial areas.
Management of wetlands
 Avoid cultivation of wetlands to maintain its beauty.
 Declaration of inhabited areas by the governments or legislature of wetlands to protect the species.
 Authorization from the responsible people before visiting wetlands.
 Conservation of trees to maintain the scenery of the wetlands.

UNIT 3 ENERGY FROM NATURAL RESOURCES

Energy:
Is the power of fuel, sun, wind, nuclear, water etc needed to run machines or assist humanity in production.
Types Of Energy
 Solar energy
 Fossil fuels
 Wind energy
 Hydro-Electric Power
 Geothermal Power
 Nuclear Energy
 Biogas energy
a. H.E.P
 This is power produced from water.
 It is generated from moving water using turbines.

Figure 3.1 Hydroelectric Dam

H.E.P. is produced as water passes through a dam and into a river. The more water passes through a dam, the more
energy is produced. Water from the reservoir enters the penstock and turns a device called turbine. Turbines contain
metal coils surrounded by magnets. Turbines are connected to the generator. When the magnets rotate rapidly over metal
coils, electricity is produced. Electricity is transmitted to the consumers through long distance power lines.
Advantages of H.E.P
 Cleanest form of energy.
 It is an inexhaustible source of energy as long as there is rainfall.
 Can be transmitted over a long distance to millions of consumers.
 It is relatively easy to use requiring only a switch.
 It is the most reliable and versatile form of energy.
 It can be used for several purposes.
Disadvantages of H.E.P
 Power supply fluctuates with fluctuation of water levels or during droughts.
 Silting of dams due to soil erosion reduces the water holding capacity of the reservoirs.
 Building of dams and power plants is very costly.
 It is expensive to transmit H.E.P over long distances.
 Once H.E.P. is generated , it cannot be stored.
Importance of H.E.P Projects in Malawi
 Electrical power is used for Malawi’s industrial development.
 The scheme controls floods along Shire River to some extent.
 Nkula falls attract tourists that attract foreign income.
 Creation of employment in H.E.P stations and ESCOM Company.
 Provision of electric power has led to development of urban and rural centers.
 The stations attract tourist attractions hence bringing in foreign exchange.

TIDAL OR WAVE ENERGY

Oceans contain potential energy in form of tidal and wave power.Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon
and sun, and the rotation of the Earth.

Types of Tidal Energy

1. Kinetic Energy: Harnessed from the ebbing and surging tides.
2. Potential Energy: Harnessed from differences in the high and low tides.
Generation of Tidal Energy
 A simple generation system for tidal plants involves a dam, known as a barrage, across an inlet.
 Sluice gates (gates commonly used to control water levels and flow rates) on the barrage allow the tidal basin to fill
on the incoming high tides and to empty through the turbine system on the outgoing tide.
 There are two-way systems that generate electricity on both the incoming and outgoing tides.
 A high barrier dam on the continental shelf is constructed. The sea is separated from an estuary by a barrier dam. In
the barrier dam is turbine and a passage going to the estuary that allows the movement of water. Water turns the
turbines as it goes back and forth to generated electricity.

Advantages
  Cheap source of energy as tidal waves are free.
 It is a clean source of energy.
 Tidal power is more predictable than wind energy.
Disadvantages
 It is only available along the sea where tidal waves are high.
 Generating plants may be destroyed by hurricanes or strong tidal waves.
 Limited knowledge about tidal waves.
 Requires a lot of capital to install the plant.
 Tidal barrages can affect the movement of marine animals.

Geothermal Power
 It is energy derived from the heat in the earth’s interior.
 The core of the earth is very hot with very high temperatures.
 Convectional heat currents heat up rocks which when in contact with water, turn it into steam and super heat
water.
 Through cracks, the stem manifests itself in form of geysers.
 This steam is then transmitted to the station where it is used to turn turbines that generate electricity.
 Any left over water is pumped into the reservoir.

Figure 3.2 Geothermal plant

Advantages of Geothermal Power
 It is a cheap source of energy as only steam is used to drive the turbines.
 The generation of power is continuous as water can be pumped back underground to generate more steam.
 It is the clean form of energy
 Cost production is low.

Disadvantages of Geothermal Power

 Generation of geothermal power causes noise pollution.
 The geysers are confined to few areas.
 Advanced technology is expensive and technical “know how.”
 Geysers may be accompanied by harmful gases like sulphur dioxide, ammonia and methane.
Thermal Energy
 Produced using diesel steam and gases. It is energy produced from ancient microscopic plants and planktons.
Microorganisms are buried in silt and sand. Sediments settle over them. The sediments build up, mud is
compressed and heated. It forms petroleum.
 The oil flows and accumulates in thicker porous limestone or sandstone. Oil is burned to produce heat energy
that converts water to steam.
 The steam turns a turbine and a generator and produces electricity.
 Thermal energy is not as widely developed as H.E.P power generation.
Advantages of Thermal Energy
 Affordable
 Effective
 Little emissions of carbon dioxide unlike coal.
Disadvantages of Thermal Energy
 Produces carbon dioxide which is one of the greenhouse gases causing global warming.
 Non-renewable resource.
 Rising fuel costs.
 Damages marine ecosystems in case of accidents of crude oil tanker ships.

BIOMASS ENERGY
 It is produced from organic matter from plants and human and animal wastes found on the earth’s surface.
 Burning of organic materials produce heat energy.
 Biogas is a combustible gas which is generated by fermentation of biomass (plant and animal remains)
  Biogas comprises of methane and carbon dioxide.
 The biogas plant has a digester (or fermentation tank) and a gas holder.

Figure 3.3 Generation of biogas energy

 The digester is a cylindrical waterproof container with an inlet into which the fermentable mixture is introduced
in the form of liquid slurry.
 The gas holder is an airproof steel container that collects the gas being generated.
 It is also equipped with a gas outlet, while the digester is provided with an overflow pipe to lead the sludge out
into a drainage pit.

Advantages of Biomass

 It is an inexhaustible source of energy.

 It is not pollutant.
 It is a cheap source of energy as it makes use of waste materials.
 Requires little skills to produce.

Disadvantages
 It cannot be transported over a long distance.
 It produces little energy therefore limited for commercial purposes.
 Lack of necessary technology for the exploitation of biogas in developing countries.
 It’s a pollutant if the materials are burned directly.

NUCLEAR ENERGY
 It is energy produced by the alteration of atomic structures(splitting of the atomic nuclei) using uranium.
Uranium U-235 undergoes fission( a free neutron bombards a U-235) nucleus. The free neutron will be
absorbed by the U-235 nucleus causing the atom to be unstable and splits immediately)
 In a nuclear reactor an atom splits and releases 2 to 3 neutrons and a huge amount of energy in form of heat and
gamma radiation. This energy released within the reactor is capture by water pipes. The water passes through
the heat exchanger, which transfers heat from the reactor water to fresh water.
 The heat released produces steam that drives the turbines which produces electricity.
 These nuclear power stations are common in Britain, France, Germany, Canada, China, USA and Japan.
Figure 3.4 Nuclear energy plant
Advantages of Nuclear Energy
 A reliable source of energy due to its long lasting
supply.
 Generates large amount of energy or electricity.
 Very little fuel or uranium needed to generate
electricity.
 Power if free from pollution.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

 Construction of nuclear stations and reactors is
expensive.
 Wastes from power reactors are radioactive hence
harmful to the environment.
 Reactors can also be used to produce dangerous weapons to mankind.
 Requires high technological and scientific know-how to install the stations.
Wind Energy
 Windmills generate energy as they are connected to the turbines.
 Wind makes the turbines rotate. In return generators which are connected to the turbines generate electricity as
well.
Advantages of Wind Energy
 No air pollution.
 Operational costs are relatively low.
Disadvantages of Wind Energy
 Can only be harnessed in places of strong winds.
 Wind fluctuates with atmospheric changes.
 Large number of turbines is needed.
 Windmills cause visual and noise pollution.
Solar Energy
It is energy derived from the sun rays. Tropical countries have a high potential of generation of solar energy because they
experience longer hours of sunshine. Direct production of electricity using sunlight is accomplished through photovoltaic
cells or also known as solar cells.
Advantages of Solar Energy:
 Conducive for rural areas where H.E.P or tidal wave energy is not available.
 It is the cheapest form of energy.
 Does not cause pollution.
Disadvantages of Solar Energy
 Frequent energy fluctuations since the stored solar energy lasts for few hours.
 The cost of production is high.
 Lack of technology to produce the equipment for solar energy.
ENERGY AND DEVELOPMENT
Energy Crisis
 Energy crisis is a condition of demand and supply uncertainties and imbalances and the rapid depletion of fossil
fuels.
 There is high demand and a low supply of energy.
 Prices tend to increase and people rush for the scarce commodity

Causes of Energy Crisis in the World

 Limited resources being depleted by other countries.
 Improvement in technology results into many machines that consume a lot of energy leading to shortage hence
causing a crisis.
 Over exploitation of available energy resources that can fit in the position of oil.
 Prolonged droughts lower H.E.P. production leading to energy crisis.
 Political disagreement e.g. the Arab-Israel War, Gulf war, the current Anti-Government Revolutions in the Arab
countries. The producing countries can withhold oil.

Negative impacts of energy crisis

 It leads to an increase in prices of imports and locally manufactured goods.
 Third world countries spend huge sums of money on importation of crude oil.
 Affects balance of trade since earnings from exports will be lower than imports.
 Causes inflation rates.
 Oil crisis lowers the GDP of third world countries since there will be more expenditure than investments.
 It causes recession making an economy unable to create more jobs.
 Causes a rise in the living standards of the people.

Solutions to Energy Crisis.

 Control of the importation of vehicles with heavy engine capacity
 Importing public transport vehicles to encourage more people to use them hence reducing the number of small
vehicles on the road.
 Educating people through the media on energy conservation.
 Proper planning of the road network in urban centers to reduce traffic jams and to curb fuel wastage.
 Rationing of power by the distributing company.
 Encouraging people to put off electricity when not in use.
 Ensuring the development of energy saving devices e.g. jikos or mbaulas which use wood or charcoal.
 Reduction of taxes on gas and solar panels to cut down on the use of wood fuel.

UNIT 4 MINERALS AND MINING

Definition of Minerals:
These are inorganic substances made up of the chemical elements and physical properties.
Characteristics of Minerals
 They have chemical properties, for example carbon, iron oxide, potassium and aluminium.
 Minerals are hard.e.g. Diamond is the hardest.
 Crystal shape-crystalline minerals have distinct shapes e.g. quart is 6 sided.
 Variation of colours.
 Differences in degree of transparency.
 Differences in soil texture.
 Tenacity-the ability to withstand breaking, crushing or tearing hence brittle, elastic, ductile or flexible
 Variations in taste-some minerals have salty taste eg. Halite while others are tasteless.
 Attraction to magnets: some minerals are attracted to magnets like magnetite (iron oxide) while others not.

TYPES OF MINERALS
Metallic Minerals
 These may contain iron and are called ferrous or they may not. Examples are silver, iron, copper, aluminium,
uranium and gold.
Non-metallic minerals
 Like sulphur, potash and diamond.
Mineral fuels or fossil fuels
 Petroleum, coal, and natural gas.
 They are derived from organic materials.
Rock minerals
 Include granite, limestone, sandstone and marble.
 Used for construction.

MINING
Definition: It is the extraction of valuable minerals from the ground or earth’s crust.
Factors influencing the occurrence and exploitation of minerals
Value of the mineral
Minerals of high economic value e.g. uranium, gold and diamond are mined at high cost as they fetch high profits.

Size of the Mineral deposits

1. Large mineral reserves require installation of expensive equipment.

Quality of the ore

 High grade ores yield a large amount of good quality minerals unlike poor ores.

Mining Method
 Open-cast mining is cheaper than shaft mining.
 The method depends on the occurrence of the minerals.
Level of Technology
 Technical skills and modern skills speed up the mining process.
Capital
 Inadequate capital retards mining exploitation.
Transport Cost
 Coal, Petroleum is bulky and costly to transport.
Market
 If the demand for a particular mineral is low, then its deposits may remain unexploited.
Political factors
 Political hostility and wars influence the mining of deposits located at the border of two countries.

Methods of Mining

Surface Mining: Mineral deposits lie at or near the surface of the earth.
Examples of Surface Mining
Open-Cast Mining: It involves stripping or removal of overlying
unwanted material e.g. limestone mining, extraction of clay for
bricks, excavating coal.
Hill slope Boring: It is used to extract minerals that outcrop or
appear on the side of a hill like coal.
Effects of Surface Mining
  Causes land dereliction.
 Voids and holes on the ground may be filled with stagnant water hence encourage the breeding of mosquitoes
which cause malaria.
 It results to ugly landscape that causes visual pollution.

Underground mining
 Minerals occur at great depths of the earth crust.
Examples of Underground Mining
Shaft Method
 Vertical shafts and galleries are dug deep in the earth’s crust to the mineral deposits.
Drift/Adit Method
 Horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnels(adits/drifts) are used to extract minerals in gently sloping areas e.g.
copper mining in Uganda and Zambia.
Solution Method
 A network of pipes are sunk at great depths below the earth’s surface to the mineral deposits.
 Superheated water is passed through the pipes to dissolve the minerals.
 High pressure is introduced into the pipes to pull the dissolved minerals to the surface.
 This method is applied when extracting potash, Sulphur and salt.
Drilling Method
A drilling bit is used to drill a passage through the earth and rocks.
 Minerals are pushed out due to pressure.
 Oil and natural gas are extracted in this manner.

Figure 4.1 Methods of Mining

Effects of underground mining
 Blasting leads to rock falls and collapse of tunnels which may result to death.
 Mining sites are susceptible to flooding.
 Poisonous gases may be released.
 Miners are exposed to health hazards as they inhale poisonous dust.
Problems facing mining industry in developing countries
 Competition from developed countries.
 Insufficient capital.
 Control of mining operations by foreign countries.
 Some minerals occur in small quantities and are uneconomical to exploit.
 Poor transport networks makes the mineral sites inaccessible.
 Collapse of mines causing death of miners.
 Environmental impact of mining.
Effects of mining to the environment
 Pollution of air, water, soil and noise due to blasting and excavation process.
 Collapse of the ground due to mining activities result in loss of life and property.
 Mines lower the local water table as ground water is pumped out of the mines.
 Land dereliction.
 Disturbs life in the ecosystem.
 Degradation of the soil.
 Blasting triggers landslides.
 Mining pits when filled with water become breeding grounds for mosquitoes that cause malaria.
 Other waterborne diseases may emerge.
Significance of minerals in developing countries
 Minerals are a base for industrial development e.g. limestone deposits promote cement industry.
 Minerals are used to make rails, electric cables and pipes hence promoting infrastructure development.
 Creation of employment opportunities.
 Generation of foreign exchange earnings from minerals export.
 Establishment of urban centres.
 Social amenities like hospitals, schools, housing, water, churches and mosques have been established in mining
regions.
 Enhancement of trade as items of trade like jewelry and money (coins) are made from minerals.
 Aluminium is useful in making electronic appliances like electric belts, kitchenware like cooking pans and also
parts of automobile.
PETROLEUM
 It is a mixture of various hydrocarbons (chemical composition of hydrogen and carbon)
 It is mineral oil found in the sedimentary rocks called oil reservoir rocks.
Formation of Petroleum
 It is derived from organic materials of animals, plants, fish.
 When the above-mentioned living things die and decompose. Their remains sink to the ocean floor.
 They mix with the sediments brought down by the rivers.
 They accumulate over millions of years.
 Under increasing pressure from the crust and temperature, the organic compounds decompose chemically.
 Clays and mud deposited in a chemically reducing environment where oxygen is lacking matter is buried, it is
converted into Hydrocarbon compounds of type related to those found in petroleum.
 Heating at great depth plays an important role in this chemical conversion.
 A second phase involves the maturation and migration of petroleum from the source rock to a reservoir rock.
 Petroleum moves both upwards and laterally/horizontally out of the compacting sediment layers and eventually
becomes concentrated in porous rock mass.
 The hydrogen and Carbon compounds change into oil and natural gas.
 Some oil and gas may be trapped in the pores and cracks of rocks.
 Earth movements squeeze the oil and gases out of the original sediments and drive them in porous rocks i.e.
sandstone and limestone.

 Well A will draw gas, Well B will draw oil and Well C will draw water. The cap rock is shale, the reservoir
rock sand stone.
Figure 4.2 Oil reservoir rock
Types of Oil traps
 Oil is located in oil traps.
 These are named after the shapes and characteristics
they have.
3. Anticline Trap
 Located along long dome of land.
 Layers, or strata, of rock have been pushed up into an
arch.
 Anticline traps hold most of the world's oil

Figure 4.3 Anticline Traps

4. Fault Trap
 A fault is a place in the earth's crust where layers of rock slide up against each other.
 These layers can contain permeable and impermeable rock.
 If oil is migrating through the impermeable rock and the layers begin sliding up or down against each other,
then the migrating oil can be cut off by an impermeable layer and trapped against the fault.

Figure 4.4 Fault Trap

5. Salt Trap
 Masses of salt form underground and are pushed up by pressure inside the earth to form a salt dome.
 The salt dome breaks through and pushes layers of rock aside as it rises to the surface.
 When it crosses layers of permeable rock, it blocks the path of the migrating oil much like a fault would, and
causes the oil to accumulate up against the pillar of salt.
 Figure 4.5 Salt Trap

6. Stratigraphic Trap or Pinch-Out Traps.

 It accumulates oil due to changes of rock character rather than faulting or folding of the rock.
 The term "stratigraphy" basically means "the study of the rocks and their variations".
 Sandstones make a good reservoir because of the many pore spaces contained within.
 On the other hand, shale, made up of clay is a poor reservoir, because of its low porosity.
 If oil migrates into the sandstone, it will flow along this rock layer until it hits the low-porosity shale.
 A stratigraphic trap is born.

Oil refining or Hydrocracking process

 Oil is extracted using drilling method.
 A derrick machine is used for the extraction process.
 Soil, muds, rocks are sent out before reaching level of gas which is found on top of oil.
Oil refineries are located
a) Near the oil fields(small refineries)
b) Near a port
(Cheaper for the importers such as Beira and Durban for Malawi)

 Oil is refined by the use of Fractional Distillation method.

 Oil that comes from the underground is thick and black called crude oil.
 Crude oil is heated in a furnace and is turned into vapour.
 As the vapourised oils enter the fractioning tower, vapour rises, cools and condenses.
 The lighter fractions such as Petrol, Paraffin or Kerosene and Benzene will be evaporated and condensed first at
lower temperatures below 380C.
 Heavier fractions like diesel, lubricants and heavy fuels will condense later between 40 0C-4300C.
 At the end of the line is the residue comprising of the heaviest fuel oil as well as wax, Vaseline and asphalt.
Figure 4.5 Fractional Distillation Column
Oil transportation
It is done through:
Oil Pipelines
 These are constructed from the oil field to either the
sea ports or refineries. Pipelines may pass from town to
town.
 For example, Baghdad to Damascus or from Saudi
Arabia, Iran to Tel Aviv.
Sea Tanker Vessels
 They transport oil from port to port.
Electric Train Tankers
 Commonly found in the developed countries. e.g.
U.S.A and South Africa.
Uses of oil
 Used to fuel automobiles in the form of petrol, diesel, oil and aviation fuel.
 A source power for industries.
 For lighting, heating and cooking.
 Used as a lubricant.
 Making candles and polishes.
 Road surfacing and water proofing.
 Manufacturing of petrochemicals. e.g. fertilizers, insecticides, medicine, dyes, paints, printing ink, carbon
paper, perfumes, plastics and synthetic textiles.

Oil production in Middle East

 World’s major producers of Oil are Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait and United Arab Emirates.
 It is mainly exploited by foreign companies from America,Britain, Canada, Brazil, China, South Korea and
Japan.
 Most of the oil comes from the Persian Gulf fields.
 These countries are members of OPEC
  (Organization of Oil Producing and Exporting Countries)
 Algeria, Gabon, Libya, Nigeria, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain (located between Qatar Peninsula
and Saudi Arabia), Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Ecuador and Venezuela.
Saudi Arabia
 It is the world’s largest producer of oil.
 Oil was first tapped in 1938 at Damman oil field.
 Other productive oilfields are situated at Ghawar, Abagaig, Dar and Safaniya.
 It is piped to the Persian Gulf and refined at Bahrein and Ras Tanura.
 The bulk of the petroleum is exported to Western Europe, Japan and USA.
 She produces 22% of the world’s oil.

Iraq
 The first oil field was discovered in 1927.
 The main oil fields are around Kirkuk and Mosul.
 Has new oil fields at the Gulf Coast around Basra, Zubair and Rumilia.
 The oil is piped to the Mediterranean ports of Banias, Syria, Tripoli and Lebanon for refining and export.
 She produces 4% of the world’s oil.

Iran
 The first oil field was discovered in 1908.
 Oil was first drilled in 1923.
 The Iranian government nationalized the oil industry in 1951.
 Oil fields are located in Bahnegan, Lali, Naft-I-Shah, Maijidi-Sulaiman and Agha Jari.
 Oil is refined at the Persian Guld.
 Iran produces 8.5% of the world’s oil.

World main producers of minerals

Coal:
 USA, China, Germany, Russia, Poland and Great Britain.
Oil:
 Saudi Arabia, USA, Russia, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Nigeria, Libya, Venezuela, Indonesia,China.
Copper:
 USA, Russia, Chile, Canada, Zambia, Peru, DRC.
Iron Ore:
 Russia, Australia, USA, Brazil, Canada, China, India.
Bauxite:
 Australia, Guinea, Jamaica, Surinam, Guyana, Serbia and Monte Negro(Yugoslavia), Hungary, Greece, France,
India.
Diamond:
 Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Botswana, Ghana, Namibia, Sierra Leone, Venezuela.
Uranium:
 USA, Canada, South Africa, France, Niger, Gabon

BAUXITE
 It is the ore or metallic rock from which Aluminium is obtained.
 It is the main ore from which aluminium is obtained.
 It contains hydrate oxide of Aluminium. It also contains impurities of silica and iron.
 Large amounts of bauxite are found in the tropical and subtropical latitudes e.g. Jamaica, Guyama, Surinum,
Brazil and USA.
 Bauxite is formed by the decomposition of a variety of rocks rich in alumina, silicates and limona.
 Under heavy rainfall and deep weathering, silica is drained away leaving alumina and iron hydroxide in the
tropical reddish reyoliths.

Processing of Bauxite
Concentration
 It is first crushed.
 Then put into hot caustic soda solution.
 The ore dissolves on being heated.
 The undissolved iron is filtered out.
 Silca and aluminium oxide is left out.
  Aluminium precipitates to produce alumina.
 The alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite and electrolysed to produce aluminium.

Smelting
 In the smelter, Aluminium is separated electronically from the oxygen in the alumina by a hall.
 To produce one tonne of Alumminium by electrolysis needs two tones of alumina and half tonne carbon,
18000kwh of electricity, certain quantities of cryolite and flourspur and involves sixteen man hours of labour
using H.E.P in full.
 Once smelted, the Aluminium is made into inputs cuts of sheets for its lightness.
Properties of Aluminium
 It is malleable(can be made into sheets)
 It has a high melting point of 6590C.
 It is light in weight.
 It is a good heat and electric conductor.
 It is non-corrosive.
Uses of Aluminium
 Being strong and light it is used for aircraft making.
 Aluminium paint.
 Overhead electrical cables.
 Utensils such as kettles and saucepans.
 Aluminium foils for packaging food and other products.
 Highly pure Aluminium is the best material for making headlight reflectors and mirrors and is used in
telescopes.
Bauxite in Malawi
 There are about 28,000,000 deposits of bauxite on Mulanje Mountain.
 The mountain is characterized by igneous intrusions.
Problems facing mining of Bauxite
 Our Hydro-Electric Power is inadequate to allow the exploitation of bauxite.
 Transporting of ore is costly from the mountain.
 The mining process will result in the pollution of the environment and air. Wild animals will run away from the
place.
 This will lower down the number of tourists visiting Mulanje Mountain.

GOLD IN SOUTH AFRICA

Appearance
 It is a brilliant/shiny, yellow-reddish mineral.
Location
 The main mines are concentrated in Witwatersland area, Odendaalrus, Lydenburg and Welkom.
 South Africa is the largest gold producer worldwide.

Figure 4.6 Main goldfields of South Africa

Occurrence
 Gold occurs in quartz veins(metamorphic rocks) and in reefs.
 The sediments were deposited millions of years ago and metamorphosed, then folded and uplifted.
 The reefs were later exposed through erosion. The rock reef is the one that is mined.
 Gold is found in the alluvial deposits.
Extraction of Gold
 It is extracted using underground mining.
 Vertical shafts and horizontal tunnels are sunk to the gold bearing rock.
 The rock is drilled and blasted.
 The ore is hauled to the surface by the shaft.
Processing of Gold
Crushing
 The ore is ground into powder in crushing mills.
Stirring
 With a solution of cyanide to dissolve finer gold particles.
Mixing
 With Zinc dust to precipitate gold and put in
 Sulphuric tanks to separate it from Uranium.
Melting
 To remove impurities.
Moulding
 Into bars of gold
Characteristics of Gold
 Very shiny.
 Scarce and does not lose its brightness.
 Very ductile, for example 340g of gold can be drawn into a wire 2km long.
 Very malleable, for example 340g of gold can be beaten into a sheet of gold leaf over half a square metre in
area.
Uses of Gold
 It is the basis of the world’s currencies as a medium of exchange.
 Making jewelry and ornaments.
 For making gold tooth fillings.
 In the chemical industry it is used for making of photographic materials.
 Making gold paints for crockery.

Contribution of Gold to South Africa

 Earns foreign exchange.
 Creates employment opportunities.
 Improved the living standards of over half a million people in South Africa and her neighbouring countries.
 Small amount of Uranium is obtained together with gold.
 Uranium is a source of atomic energy.
 Other secondary industries have been set up e.g. footwear and engineering.
 Stimulated the growth of conurbation such as Witwatersrand.
 Provision of social amenities e.g. schools and hospitals.
 Establishment of a good transport network of roads and railways.
Problems facing Gold mining
 High mining costs due to deepening of mines.
 Depletion of mines as gold is a non-renewable resource.
 High labour costs.
 Insufficient water supply used for gold processing.
 Death of workers due to the collapse of mines as they grow deeper.
 Workers suffer from respiratory problems.
 Low quality gold as mines get deeper.
 Expensive to cool mines which are very deep.

UNIT 5 INDUSTRIES
Definition
  It is an activity or business enterprise that is involved in the productions of goods and services which
satisfy human needs.
Manufacturing
 It is the process by which raw materials are processed to better forms of products for consumption.
An industry is an open system because:
 It receives inputs or energy.
 Converts these inputs into outputs.
 Discharges its outputs into the environment.

Classification Of Industries
An industry can be classified under the following criteria
Size
 Small scale industries or light industries e.g. Dakeries
 Large Scale Industries or heavy industries i.e. Motor Vehicle
Types of Products
 Processing Industries.
 Service Industries.
Level of Production

“Types of industry”
a. Primary or Extracting industries
 They convert natural resources into primary products that are mainly raw materials for other industries eg.
Farming, fishing, forestry, mining and quarrying industries.
b. Secondary or Manufacturing industries
 They use output of primary products as raw materials to manufacture finished goods e.g. Automobile, iron
and steel, engineering and metal work, tobacco and brewing industries.
c. Tertiary or Service Industries.
 Provide services to other businesses and final consumers.
 Do not manufacture goods.
 Examples are transport, marketing, education, postal services, banking, tourism, health etc.

Factors influencing the location and development of Industries

1. Capital: Capital will facilitate the acquisition of premises and salaries for workers.
2. Availability of raw materials
Constant supply of raw materials will keep the industry running.
3. Market availability: Produced goods will be sold to earn some profits.
4. Availability of Power: In order to run machines
H.E.P is needed.
5. Water availability: Constant water supply is needed for processing.

6. Suitable transport and Communication system: Facilitates constant flow of raw materials to the industry or
finished products to the market.
7. Labour force: Sufficient skills are needed for an improved productivity.
8. Type of Land: Big land is needed for further expansion.
9. Government policy:
 Some policies motivate private ownership.
 It lets market forces to control pricing and wages.
 In the state owned policies the government owns and controls all industries ie. China and Russia.

Major Industrial areas of the world

1. Western Europe: Has high level of technological advancement in engineering, chemicals textiles and
electronics etc.
2. North America: Has a rich mineral resource.
3. Japan: Is highly industrialized.

Other areas: South Africa, South Korea, Brazil and Argentina.

Negative impacts of Industries

 Industries lead to urbanization that has introduced western values. The traditional cultures have been
eroded.
 Industrialization leads to displacement of people to other settlements.
  Pollution of the air and noise pollution.
 Formation of acid rains.
 Industrialization leads to unemployment as human labour is replaced with machines or robots.
 Food shortage in the country as strong emphasis on industrialization leads to neglect of agriculture.
 High influx of population in urban areas (Rural-Urban migration)

Importance of Industries
 Source of socio-economic development in a country.
 Source of foreign currency
 Source government revenue
 Source of employment
 It provides import substitution to a country hence export of products.
 Leads to development of an area.

 Leads to pollution, hence enhances people to find ways of preventing pollution itself.

CEMENT INDUSTRY IN MALAWI

Cement is made from limestone and shale.
Areas where it is mined:
Changalume in South West Zomba.
Balaka.
Types of Cement
 Rapid hardening cement.
 Low Heating cement.
 Sulphate Resisting Cement.
 White Cement.
 Portland Blast Furnance Cement.
 Masonry Cement

Factors influencing the Cement Industry in Blantyre

 Easy access to transportation by railway and roads e.g. Chiradzulu(Njuti) Mwanza, Chikhwawa and
Zomba(Changalume)
 Presence of large and easy supply of power.
 Presence of skilled and unskilled labour force.
 Access to advertisement medias e.g. newspaper prints, Malawi Broadcasting Cooperation, Television
Malawi etc.
 Market availability (High demand) of cement by Blantyre as a commercial city.

Cement Making
Blasting of rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are the recommended rocks for cement making.
 They are quarried by blasting after drilling and exploding.
 Large rocks are loaded into the trucks to the cement plants e.g. Changalume plant or Blantyre Portland
Cement
Crushing and Grinding
 The quarried limestone is dumped into Primary crusher.
 This smashes the large rocks into pieces.
 The secondary crusher or hammer mills or breaks the rocks into smaller particles about 2cm wide.
 Silica, iron oxide, sand, alumina and chalk are mixed with the crushed rocks to make Portland cement.
 The mixture is ground in the rotating ball into fine particles.
 Water is added during grinding until soupy mixture called slurry is formed.
 Burning (Heating)
 The slurry is fed into a kiln ( a huge cylindrical furnance) made of steel and lined with fire bricks.
 A cement kiln rotates about one turn in a minute. It takes about four hours for the materials to travel
through the kiln.
 Oil or powdered coal is burned at the lower end.
 This produces a flame that heats the material at more than 100 0C.
 The heat changes the materials into a substance called clinker in pieces about the size of marbles.
 Finisher; Large fan cools the clinker after leaving the kiln.
 A small amount of gypsum is added to the clinker before grinding.
  The final grinding produces Portland cement that is stored in silos or bagged.

MOTOR VEHICLE INDUSTRY IN USA

Car-making industry is well developed in USA. It requires iron and steel and aluminium as its raw materials.
These are available in :
Youngtown, Pittsburg
Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Gary and Chicago, Sparrow’s Point and Bethlehem.

THE THREE MAIN MOTOR VEHICLE INDUSTRY IN USA

1. General Motors Corporation
2. Ford Motor Company
3. Chryster Motor Company
Factors influencing the growth of Car Industry in Detroit
 Presence of iron and steel industries which provide different car parts.
 Presence of technicians who provide enough labour for the industry.
 Presence of markets provided by USA’s large population with a high purchasing power and demand from
consumers all over the world.
Availability of hydroelectric power which has led to the growth of the industry.
Government support through provision of loans and carrying out research.
The Great Lakes provide cheap transportation of cars parts and the assembled cars.
Problems associated with Motor Vehicle Industry in USA
 High competitions with other countries like Japan, China, Germany.
 Most countries designs are much more improved and preferred by other countries away from USA.
 There is high exhaustion of raw materials because of over production hence depends on imported raw
materials from overseas.
 This results to high production costs.
 Presence of more motor vehicle producing plants has led to shortage of labour force.

FISHING INDUSTRY
Fishing is the exploitation and management of acquatic animals undertaken for both commercial and subsistence
purposes.
Fish may be caught in the sea or fresh waters in only part of the world.
The total weight of fish catch yearly is about 70% of the world’s annual production of meat.
Fishing is a major activity and economy in some countries e.g. Finland and Japan.

Figure 5.1 Major fishing grounds of the world

Reasons for More Fishing Grounds in the Northern Hemisphere
Nature of Coastline: bays or indented coastlines provide sheltered waters used as habitants for fish.
Cool Climate: Marine life like fish species like salmon, mackerel, cod or herring, planktons thrives best in areas
with cool temperatures less than 200C.
Supply of planktons: Oceans and seas rich in plankton have plenty of fish.
Depth of Water: The water should be of a considerable depth which will allow light to penetrate to the seabed
hence encouraging of planktons.
Nature of Ocean currents: The meeting of warm and cold currents encourage the growth of planktons.
Presence of land-derived minerals: Brought in by inflowing rivers nourish the planktons.
Salinity of the water: Highly saline water encourages the growth of planktons.
Labour: Needs for high labour at the sea and the processing industries.
Market availability: availability of a large population with a fish-eating culture and vibrant fish market also affects
fishing e.g. Japan, China, Europe and North America.
Capital: Highly mechanized fishing fleets are capital intensive.
Temperate forests: Provide both soft and hardwood for construction of fishing boats barrels and pitch.
 Poor development of animal farming:
Which can supply protein to feed on large population.

TYPES OF FISH
i) Freshwater fish:
Found in streams, rivers, ponds and padi-fields.
Fished for domestic purposes.
Fish caught include herring, trout, sturgeon, carp and eels.
ii) Salt Water fish:
found in oceans and seas.
Pelagic fish
They live and breed near the surface of the sea or ocean. For example, herring, mackerel, tuna, pilchard and sardine
species.
Demersal fish
They live in cool waters at the bottom of shallow seas with depths of about 40 metres.
Found in shoals e.g. cod, sole, halibut and haddock.
Anadromous fish
Live deep in the oceans and seas but come back to freshwater rivers to spawn or lay eggs e.g. the salmon.
Major Fishing Grounds of the World
1. North-East Atlantic e.g. Norwegian fisheries, German, French and British fisheries and North-East Coast of
North America
2. North-West Atlantic e.g. around Newfound land, Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal.
3. North-East Pacific e.g. USA and Canada fishing grounds.
4. North-West Pacific e.g. China, South and North Korea, USSR and Japan fishing grounds.
5. South Africa near Agulhas bank with shallow waters. Fishing ports include Cape town, Port Nolloth, Durban,
Saldana bay and Port Elizabeth.
6. Peru: Upwelling waters of the Humbolt current create good conditions for the growth of planktons. Most fish
are used for making fertilizers.
Factors favouring fishing in the North-West Atlantic Fishing Grounds
 A vast continental shelf with an abundant supply of planktons.
 The cold Labrador Current meets the warm Gulf Stream (North Atlantic Drift) resulting in the growth of
planktons.
 Icebergs brought by the cold currents contain minerals for the nourishment of planktons.
 The area is suitable for agriculture and has few minerals.
 Temperate forest provide timber for making fishing vessels, corks for floating nets and boxes for
packaging.
 The cool temperature favours commercial fishing and preservation.
 The region has an indented coastline, with good natural harbours.

METHODS OF FISHING
a. Drifting:
Nets hung vertically in the water.
Pulled by drifters.
Weights are attached on the lower side and floats on the upper side of the net.
Gills become entangled in the mesh of the nets.

Figure 5.2 Drift Net

b. Trawling
Fish are caught using a trawl net(a large bag-like net which is conical in shape)
The mouth is open an has weights at the bottom and floats at the top.
The net is dragged along the sea bottom by a trawler vessel at 8km/hour.
 Figure 5.3 Trawl Net
c. Seining
It involves using a seine net. It resembles trawl net.
It is categorized in two:
Purse Seining: It has weights below and corks on top to keep it afloat.
When a shoal of fish is detected, the net encircles it. The net is drawn tight like a purse, catching fish such as
sardines inside.
Haul Seining: The net is stretched between two fishing boats.

Figure 5.4 Seine Net

Significance of Fishing Industry
 Source of food rich in oils, animal proteins and minerals(iron, iodine, phosphorous, magnesium and
calcium) for human growth.
 Creation of employment opportunities in the fishing industry.
 Fishing industry stimulates the growth of other industries like ship building, net making, canning industry
and making of fertilizers, glues, lubricants, medicines, cosmetics, soaps and margarine
 Foreign exchange earner if exported.
 Sport fishing promotes tourism and generation of foreign exchange for governments.
Problems and Possible Solutions facing Fishing Industry.
Overfishing and indiscriminate fishing-depletion of fish in coastal areas.
Solution
Strict rules should be imposed on the size of nets and limits of the fishing season.
Restocking of over-fished waters by transferring small fish from areas well populated with new fish species.
Pollution: Sewage, industrial wastes and chemicals and domestic litter in rivers, seas and oceans, affect both the
fresh and salt water fisheries.
Solution
Monitoring and controlling of the inflow of such materials.
Offenders must be fined once found.
Inadequate capital: fishing is capital intensive and funds are required to purchase fishing equipments.
Civic education on effects of pollution.
Solution
Fishermen’s loan schemes to be introduced.
Lack of adequate market
Many inland communities apart from the coast do not consider fish as an acceptable form of food.
Solution
People should be sensitized on the value of fish.
They should diversify their eating habits.
Lack of advanced fishing technology:
Many developing countries suffer from acute shortage of manpower trained in fishing technology.
Solution
Manpower should be trained on fishing technology.
Transport problems: difficulty in transporting fish from fishing areas to the markets.
 Solution:
Road upgrading is needed to ease the distribution of fish.
Lack of preservation facilities: Fish are perishable and need proper preservation.
Solution:
Cold storage facilities for both fresh water and marine fisheries are needed.
Other Resources from the Sea
Salt, prawns and shells, oil, natural gas and metals (tins, diamonds, iron, aragonite, gold, phosphorites, sulphur etc)
Seaweeds used for making of ice cream, malted milk, cheese, chocolate milk, puddings, mayonnaise, salad dressing,
jellies are also found in the seas.

FISHING IN MALAWI
Malawi has lakes and other water bodies.
The area covered by these water bodies is 20%
Although Malawi is a landlocked country it produces meat more than Mozambique.
This is because meat in Malawi is short supply.

The Main Fishing Grounds in Malawi

Lake Malawi: South West and South East arms. Nkhotakota, Nkhata Bay, Likoma Islands.
The lake has 225 fish species.
Tilapia fish is the most important one.
Lake Chilwa has 12 fish species.
The other fishing grounds include
Lake Chiuta, Malombe, river Shire, river Lilongwe, Ruo, Elephant Marsh, Vwaza Marsh, Lake Kazuni.
The most important riverine fish is the cat-fish.
Methods of Catching Fish in Malawi
Ring-netting, trawling, long lines, fishing baskets, engine-powered boats and dugout canoes and nylon nets.
Problems facing Fishing Industry in Malawi
 Water hyacinth locally known as namasupuni, makes fishing difficult.
 Over-fishing.
 Lack of cold storage facilities.
 Lack of capital to purchase the fishing equipments.
 Lack of innovation in Fishing industry.
 Attempts made to curb the problems facing Fishing Industry
 Removal of water hyacinth from the fishing grounds.
 Fishing is closed during breeding season.
 Fishermen are encouraged to use large gill nets.
 Beach Village Committees have been established to monitor and sensitize the community on problems
associated with fishing.

UNIT 6 SETTLEMENT AND URBANISATION

A settlement is a place where people live and have built homes.
It is a created unit of space where group of people live together either temporarily or permanently.

In this definition there are four elements involved in Settlements

. People
. What the people do
. Buildings and their functions
. Transport linkages
Types of Settlements
a. Rural Settlement:
People are engaged in primary agricultural production.
b. Urban Settlement
People are engaged in secondary and tertiary activities i.e. trade and industry.
Settlement is described using site and situation.
Site refers to the point or actual place where the town is located influenced by water supply, relief and soils.
Situation describes the location of a settlement in relation to its surroundings features.

Factors influencing Settlements

 Availability of Water supply e.g. rivers, lakes and springs for domestic use, industrial, irrigation, farming etc.
  Relief features: Mountain peaks and steep rugged slopes are sparsely populated while gently sloping lands and
low lands attract settlements.
 Diseases and Pests: the infested areas discourage human settlement.
 Political factors: People tend to settle close to hills, mountains and islands to avoid attacks from other
communities. Introduction of Ujamaa policy in Tanzania and Kibbutzim in Israel influenced human settlement.
Religious factor: People tend to settle near worshipping centres.
Soil conditions: infertile soils are thinly populated than fertile soils.

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
1. Nucleated/Clustered settlement pattern
Houses are closely packed to one another, compact and concentrated on the land are to form a cluster.
Farmers own very small pieces of land.
Population density is high.
i.e. in villages, around oases or irrigation schemes
2. Dispersed or Scattered settlement pattern
Few family residences are scattered in isolated places. Farmers own very big pieces of land.
Population density is low.
3. Linear settlement pattern
Homesteads are built along lines of communication e.g. road, railway or transport facilities such as river banks.

Factors influencing Patterns of Settlement

Topography: valleys encourage linear settlement, islands result to nucleated settlement.
Climate: low and unreliable rainfall, low temperatures lead to disperse settlement.
Lines of Communication and transport: Roads, railways and rivers form linear settlement.
Soils: Poor infertile soils give rise to disperse settlement.
Pests and Diseases: Areas prone to pests and diseases have dispersed settlements.
Presence of minerals: areas with minerals attract nuclear settlements.

Functions of Rural Settlements

 Engaged in agricultural activities.
 Housing the rural population
 Having minor shopping centres with one or two shops.
 Provision of fishing activites.
 Provision of religious activies, schools, recreation and other minor social services
 Provion of local industries like art and craft, sculpture, weaving and pottery.
Functions of Urban Settlements
 Towns and cities form the chief trading centres.
 Administration or public control i.e. districts, states or cities.
 Defence of the country is centralized in towns.
 Colletion centres for raw materials to be processed or refined.
 Cultural centres: Such as provision of education arts, galleries or religious buildings e.g. Museum in
Karonga and Blantyre.
 Production centres: Manufacturing industries are based in cities i.e. Kanengo Industrial centre and
Ndirande Industrial centre.
URBANISATION
It is the process whereby an increasing proportion of the total population becomes concentrated in towns.

Important Terms to note under United Nations Definitions

Town: a densely populated area with many buildings but smaller than a city.
It has above twenty thousand people but less than a hundred thousand.
City: an extensive build-up area where large numbers of people live and work.
It has high population density. It mans Regional, national administration of activities.
International airports and sea ports are available.
Conurbation: A large urban area created when neighboring towns aggregate into one large continuous towns
Metropolis: A very large city often the capital or chief centre of a country, state or region. E.g. Mumbi, New York,
Tokyo, Shanghai, Los Angeles, Seou, Mexico city and Sao Paulo.
Megalopolis: An extremely large, spreading thickly populated are comprising many cities joined together to form a
continous urban region e.g.

Factors responsible for Urbanisation

 Presence of employment opportunities.
  Availability of better housing facilities and accommodation.
 Growing population results in the struggle for land in rural areas. Hence people migrate to towns and
cities.
 Cultural factors: Allurement of city life, bright lights, education, stadiums, recreation halls, good pubs, and
community grounds.
Factors for the growth of Blantyre city
 Founded in 1876 as a base for missionary expansion.
 It was a centre of trade and tea planters in Mulanje and Thyolo.
 It is a commercial and industrial centre of Malawi.
Lilongwe City
 Declared a capital city in 1975
 It has rich agricultural land.
 The growth of the city is due to:
 Extension of residential areas due to immigration of people from other countries as well as from rural areas.
 Extension of trade facilities such as market stores and vending.
 Extension and introduction of factories.
 Settlement of some refugees in some areas.
 Transfer of capital city from Zomba to Lilongwe.
Mzuzu City
 It is the largest commercial and health centre in Northern region.
 The growth of the city is due to:
 The migration of traders from Tanzania, refugees from Rwanda and Burundi.
 Growth of industries i.e. Timber production.
 Growth of administrative offices and residential areas.
URBAN LAND USE
Urban centres are zoned on the basis of land use ad functions into:
Central Business Distric:(CBD)
 Centralized in the urban centre.
 Easily accessible.
 Contains offices of both local and international organizations, commercial and financial premises.
 Absence of residential activities.
 Absence of manufacturing activities.
 High land values

Transitional Zone:
 Land value is moderate.
 Contains small scale industries like jua kali industries, hotels, and shopping malls.
Low income residential area Zone:
 Poor living conditions characterized by slums.
 Low class and middle class residents occupy such residents.
 Slums are common.
 High Income Residential Zone:
 Land has high value.
 High class and some middle class people occupy this land.
Industrial zone:(Suburb Zone)
 Most heavy and light manufacturing and processing industries are found in this zone
 Warehouses and company stores are located in this zone.
 Land value is low.

Figure 6.1 Urban Concentric Zones

Positive Effects of Urbanisation
 Enhances social cohesiveness through interaction of various ethic groups.
  Eases provision of social and infrastructural facilities.
 Creates employment opportunities in upcoming towns.
 Formation of large market centres.
 It encourages industrial development.
 Creation of residential areas.
 Tourist attraction which earns foreign exchange for the country.
Negative Effects of Urbanisation
 Imbalance between population growth and industrial development leaves people unemployed.
 Inadequate housing facilities due to over-population which leads to development of slums and shanties.
 Urban centres suffer from traffic related problems like jams and inadequate parking in CBD.
 Air and land pollution.
 Urban sprawl: Expansion of towns reduces land for agriculture.
 Overpopulation results in the overexploitation of social, educational, health facilities and water supply.
 High unemployment rates, result in high crime rates.

Solutions to Urban Problems

 Encourage the growth of informal sector of the economy to ensure self-employment in rural areas.
 Repatriation to rural areas of urbanities though decentralization of industries and establishment of multi-
purpose schemes.
 The government can construct low cost houses to
cater for the low income population.
 Instead of using private transport, public transport
or construction of underground trains will reduce
traffic jams.
 Social amenities like schools and hospitals need to
be increased and improved.
 Building of skyscrapers to create space and reduce
congestion of buildings in a limited space.
 The Green belt policy restricts new buildings in an
area around the main towns in an attempt to restrict
the rapid expansion of urban sprawl.

UNIT 7 WORLD HUMAN POPULATION

Human Population: It is the total number of people living in a given geographical area at a specific time.
Population Density: It is the average number of people living in a unit area.
Population Distribution: The manner I which people living in an area are spread out across the land.
Population Change: It is the decrease or increase of population in an area due to migration of people.
Population explosion: is a sudden large increase of population within a short period of time due to different
circumstances.
Population Structure: It refers to the composition of the population in a given area at a particular time, in terms of
age, sex and number.
 The population structure of a given population is represented by a population pyramid.
 A high population has a high proportion of young people. A low population growth rate is mainly
composed of adults or old people.
 A youthful population has a wider base than of ageing one.
Figure 7.1 Population pyramid of a developing country
Analysis of the Population Pyramid
It groups the total population into cohorts of five-year age group, with the youngest age group at the base and oldest age
group at the top.
The length of the groups represent the number of people of a particular age group.
Women are shown on the right side of the pyramid while men to the left.
X-asis shows the population in percentage or numbers in millions.
Y-axis shows the ages.
The higher the growth rate, the broader the base of the pyramid will be and the vice versa.
Increased death rates will make the top of the pyramid to be narrower.
Most of the developing countries have a population structure like that of Malawi.
The reasons are:
 Low education levels of women.
 Low employment opportunities for women as a result they tend to specialize in child-bearing.
  High mortality rates forces couples to continue bearing children in the hope that others may survive.
Figure 7.2 Population pyramid for a developed country
 Lack of family planning services.
 Lack of old age and other social security
systems force couples to have more children as security in
their old age.
 Children are source of labour.

Infant Mortality rate: This refers to the number of deaths

among babies below the age of one year, per a thousand
people of the population.
Life expectancy: It is the average number of years that a
new born child is expected to live.
Birth rate: Refers to the number of live births per year per
a thousand people of the population.
Death rate: The number of deaths per year per a thousand
people of a population.
Life expectancy: It is the average age of which people die
in an area or country.
Dependency ratio: Is the ratio of unresourceful people(too
young or too old to work) to resourceful people who support them.
Dependency ratio=Non-economically active population/Economically active population
Developing countries have a high dependency ration compared to the developed countries.
Developed countries have high life expectancy than developing countries.
Causes of Rapid Population Growth
 High fertility rate: the ability of a woman to give birth to live children
 Desire for a large family sizes
 Better nutrition and increase in food supply.
 High living standards.
 Expanded access to health services.
 Traditional beliefs e.g. children are regarded as a sign of virility or wealth.
 Or the belief that male children are superior to female children.
 Religious beliefs e.g. the Catholics and Muslims do not advocate for the use of artificial family planning
and control methods.
 Polygamous practices.
 Migration of people due to political instability or economic and social constraints.
Positive Consequences of Rapid Population Growth
 A large population constitutes a large manpower.
 It necessitates innovations in an attempt to cater for the large population.
 Agricultural and industrial developments are stimulated.
 It facilitates urbanization and modernization.

Negative Consequences of Rapid Population Growth

 High dependency ratio which lowers the income per capital.
 A heavy financial burden results to poor living standards.
 Over-utilisation of resources.
 Rampant unemployment.
 Leads to stunted economic growth.
 Leads to poor housing like slums.
 Exploitation of medical and educational facilities.
STRATEGIES OF CONTROLLING POPULATION GROWTH
 Establishment of family planning methods.
 Imposing financial penalties for having children beyond a set limit.
 Establishing minimum age child labour laws.
 Eliminating maternity leaves and benefits.
 Persuading people to have smaller families through sensitization via mass communication media i.e. radios,
TV and newspapers.
POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Development is a process which involves holistic changes in structures, attitudes and institutions.
In development there is an acceleration of economic growth, reduction of inequality and eradication of poverty.
WORLD POPULATION POLICIES
 India:
 Has family planning campaigns.
 Contraceptives are used in families.
 Gifts and money are given to the people who volunteer to be sterized.
Great Britain:
 Family planning campaigns.
 Limiting marriageable age for girls.
 Provision of old age social securities.
Egypt:
 Family planning schemes.
China:
 Widespread and active family planning campaigns.
 Encouraging late marriages.
 Legally 2 to 3 children are allowed per couple.
 Contraception, sterilization and abortion are used in rural China.
Nigeria:
 Government-backed family planning clinics which provide contraceptives and encourage smaller families.
Kenya:
 Strengthening family planning clinics.
 Mass media support for family planning inter-personal communication through local campaigns to
publicize opening of new services delivery points and dispel misconceptions on family planning.
 Kenya Catholic Secretariat (KCS).The council promotes better understanding of the Christian marriage, the
dignity of married persons, the natural methods of family planning and the meaning and protection of
human life.

Malawi
 Advocacy of late marriages.
 Discouraging child labour.
 Encouraging education for the girl-child.
 Family planning methods through Banja Lamtsogolo, Non-Governmental Organisations(NGOs) and Print
and Electronic Media.

UNIT 8 STATISTICAL METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY

Statistics: can be defined as a collection of numerical facts summarizing information that has been collected from
several observations.
Uses of Statistics
 Statistical data is used in Government planning.
 Statistical data is used to show and compare the relationship between rainfall and productivity for instance.
 Statistical data is used in predictions.

Methods of Collecting Data

1. Observations:
 This is a method of data collection whereby one goes to the field and observes using the eyes the
geographical phenomena.
2. Questionnaire:
 A questionnaire is a written document comprising a list of questions used to instruct a listener or reader
to answer one or more questions.
 The person who answers the questions is called the respondent.
Types of Questionnaires:
 Closed questionnaire
 And Open questionnaire.
3. Interviews:
 This is the collecting of information by asking questions directly and recording the answers given.
 It is a face-to-face interview.
4. Measurements:
 It is the collecting of data by use of measuring instruments such as tape measures, thermometers, rain
gauges and barometres.
5. Experiment:
  The data can be collected by use of experiments, for example in soil or rocks.
 One can collect the data on the sizes of particles by experiments in a laboratory or by carrying samples
and analyzing them in a class.

Analysis of Data
Data can be organized and analyzed through the following ways:
1. By calculation for example; measures of central tendency, the mean, mode, median, percentage and range.
2. Discussion of data collected from the field.
3. By classifying the data into different groups.
4. By groups reporting their findings through their group leaders.
Methods of Data Presentation
Data presentation gives the data more meaning.
These are:
1. Drawing graphs like bar graphs, line graphs, and polygraphs.
2. Drawing of pie charts and age-sex pyramids.
3. Drawing of maps such as density maps and dot maps.
4. Drawing of flow diagrams.
5. Writing of reports.
6. Drawing of the photographs taken from the field and samples.
Statistical Presentation
Data can be analysed and be presented for easy understanding and interpretation. Data can be analysed by: (i) Simple
Line Graphs (ii) Simple Bar graphs (iii) Polygraph(combined bar and line graph) (iv) Pie Charts
Measures of Dispersion
Range: It is got by finding the difference between the lowest and highest observations. It tells one how the values in a
set of data are scattered around the mean.

Table 2.1 Example quantities of Soya Beans export in the year 1999 to 2002
Year 1999 2000 2001 2002
Tea 71,581 86,982 63,608 49,479
The range is the highest value which is 86,982 subtracted the lowest value which is 49,479.
In this case the range is: 86,982-49,479=37,503
Y-axis
Dependent variable-Temperature

X-axis
Independent variable-months of the year
Figure 8.1 Temperature graph
1. Simple Line Graph: It is the most common method used to represent statistical data. It consists of a series of
straight lines which represent the values. Values are plotted and later joined with a series of straight lines.

Steps to Follow:
 Draw the x and y axis on graph paper.
 Choose a suitable scale for the vertical axis and horizontal axis. In this case the scale is got by looking at the
lowest export which is 45,618 and the highest export is 103,994. Plot the values for each year using very small
dots starting with the year 1998 and end with the year 2002.
 Join the dots with straight lines using a ruler as shown in the graph below.
 Label the vertical axis and the horizontal axis.
 Complete the graph with a title as shown below.
 Line Graph showing Diamond
120000 exports

100000
Quantiy of Tonnes

80000

60000
Tonne
40000 s

20000

0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Years of Export
Figure 8.2 Line graph
2. Simple Bar Graphs: Consists of bars drawn
proportional to the values. The bars are drawn either vertically or horizontally. Bar graphs can be drawn to show
exports, imports, production of crops, volume of trade, production of minerals and annual rainfall.

A Bar Graph showing rainfall of an Equatorial Climate

Table 2.2 Annual rainfall
300

J F M A M J J A S O N D 250
Rainfall( 65 85 150 250 225 125 75 75 75 112 125 125
mm)
200

150
Rairnfall in mm

100

50

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Months of the year

Vertical Scale: 1cm rep: 50mm

Horizontal Scale: 1cm rep: 1 month

Figure 8.3 Rainfall graph

Steps to follow:
 Choose suitable horizontal and vertical scales. The vertical scale is reached by looking at the highest rainfall
which is 250mm and the lowest rainfall which is 65mm. Therefore the vertical scale is 1 cm represents 50mm.
Decide on the horizontal scale. In this case it is 1cm represents 1 month.
 Bars showing rainfall should touch each other.
 Draw the vertical and horizontal axis.
 Draw the outlines of all bars as indicated above.
 Complete the graph with a title and scale.
 Label the vertical axis and the horizontal axis and shade the bars.

Pie Charts (Divided Circles)

A pie chart is a circle drawn and divided into sectors representing a given proportion of the data. Each sector is a portion
of the part of the whole. It can be expressed as percentage of the whole. The raw data can be converted to degrees.
Table 2.3 Areas covered by some of the National Parks in Malawi
Name of National Park Area Covered(km2)
Nyika National Park 3200km2
Kasungu National Park 2100km2
Lengwe National Park 900km2
Liwonde National Park 580km2
Total area 6780km2

Steps to draw a Pie Chart

 Get the total area of National parks in Malawi in this case
 Convert each of the components into degrees. (Divide each of the components by the total and multiply by 360
as shown below)
 Nyika National Park
 3200÷6780×3600 =169.90
 Kasungu National Park
 2100÷6780×3600 =111.50
 Lengwe National Park

900÷6780×3600 =47.80
 Liwonde National Park
 580÷6780×3600=30.80
 Draw a reasonable circle on a plain paper. Use a pair of compasses to draw the circle.
 From the centre of the circle, measure the angles which have been calculated and draw each of the sectors as
shown below.
 Always start with the lowest value. In this case start with 30.80.
Figure 8.4 Pie Chart of National Parks

UNIT 9 THE ENVIRONMENT

 It is defined as the sum total of the conditions within which non-living and living things exist.
 Abiotic things are non-living things while biotic things are living things.
 Environmental management: A process of enhancing the relationship between the environment and human
beings to improve the quality of both.
 Environmental Conservation: The wise use, without wastage, of our natural environment and resources.

Objectives of Environmental Management

  To promote agricultural production.
 To enhance scenery and habitats.
 To protect wildlife by setting up national parks and game reserves.
 To check and control desertification.
 To protect water resources.
 To protect and conserve the atmosphere.
 To raise the standards of living of human beings.
 To encourage proper utilization of resources while ensuring their availability for the future generations.

Human Activities that endanger the Environment

 Poor agricultural practices like overstocking of animals leading to overgrazing, shifting cultivation (the slash
and burn method), making ridges along slopes etc.
 Careless cutting down of trees which encourage soil erosion at a larger scale.
 Overuse and misuse of insecticides, herbicides, and fertilizers.
 Pollution and poor waste disposal.
 Disruption of food chain.

Forestry
A group of trees growing together and covering a large tract of land. Trees are grown for commercial value. Forests can be natural or
planted.
Importance of Forests and Forests products to Malawi
Industrial use: Pulpwood is used for production of paper, gums and resins for use in the chemical industry.
Local and domestic consumption: Forests provide fuel wood and charcoal for cooking, house construction etc.
Protection of Catchment areas: Trees intercept and retain moisture on their leaves or absorb it into their roots and stems. Trees
reduce soil erosion by acting as windbreaks and shelter belts.
Wildlife conservation: Forests are a home to many wild animals, making excellent parks and promote tourism.
Balance the amount of gases in the atmosphere: Vegetation absorbs carbon dioxide and releases oxygen in turn.
Influence on Climate: Trees have a great influence on climate through the process of transpiration that releases water vapour into the
atmosphere that fall as rain at a later stage.
Forests promote educational and research visits.

Problems facing Forestry in Malawi

 Most of the forests have intermixed species, most of which are of no commercial value.
 The cost of production is very high.
 Lack of capital to maximize exploitation of these forests.
 Lack of machinery needed to cut logs and hardwoods.
 Forest fires started by human beings destroy thousands of hectares of forests. This hinders forest
regeneration for example, Chikangawa forests.
 Increased demand for fuel wood, land for settlement, agriculture depletes forests.
 Wood poaching and charcoal burning depletes forests.
 Endemic corruption in the forestry department leads to heavy losses of forests.
 Lack of emphasis on the importance of trees in education programmes and in the public awareness campaigns.

Forest Management and Conservation in Malawi

 Afforestation: It involves the replacement of every tree cut by a new tree.
 Forests must be protected from pests and diseases to reduce wastage at industrial plants.
 Agroforestry must be encouraged. This involves close association if trees or shrubs with crops, animals or
pasture.
 Preservation of natural forests including establishment of National Parks.
 Providing alternative fuels such as solar and wind energy instead of fuel wood.
 Involvement of local communities in forest conservation. This enhances sense of ownership and responsibility
of forests.
 Educational and awareness promotion campaign on the need for forest conservation and proper management.
 Training in Forestry Conservation and Management.
 Creation of Forest Conservation Trusts by local communities and other interested groups to improve forest
management in Malawi.
Desertification
It is the encroachment of desert-like conditions onto marginal and more productive regions. It is a process that creates
desert conditions by downgrading the land surface. It is a steady process that turns good and fertile land into a barren
one.

Causes of Desertification
The underlying cause of desertification is human interference with nature.
1. Soil degradation leads to flooding of an area.
2. Cutting trees without replacement.
3. Poor agricultural activities like shifting cultivation, overstocking, excessive irrigation, ploughing
down the slope and the excessive use of fertilizers.
4. A great need for more land for agriculture and settlement due to population explosion.
5. Global warming due to air pollution. The CFCs depletes the ozone layer leading to global warming.

Characteristics of Hot Deserts

a) Some lie on the rain shadow of mountains.
b) Most of them lie along coasts washed by cold currents where dry onshore winds blow, picking up
moisture from the land.
c) Hot deserts lie in the trade wind belts where the winds blow towards the equator. These winds take
up moisture from an area.
d) Most of them lie on the western side of the continents where we have cold current occurring.

Effects of Desertification
1. Soil degradation due to persistent aridity.
2. Water shortages makes people and animals move in search for water.
3. Strong winds and sand storms bury roads and human settlements.
4. Uncontrolled emigration of people in search for food and shelter.
5. Food shortages created by crop failure.

Suggested Solutions to control Desertification

(a) Application of irrigation method in infertile desert lands.
(b) Afforestation and re-afforestation to keep the desert away from productive land and stop advancing aridity or
dryness.
(c) Introduction of drought resistant crops to alleviate poverty and hunger in marginal lands.
(d) Education awareness or civic education of the masses on the dangers of forest depletion and desertification.
(e) Provision of alternative sources of energy like solar, wind, geothermal or nuclear energy.
(f) Controlling rapid population growth that may put more pressure on forests and land resources.
(g) Controlling the industrial emissions or fumes into the atmosphere that increase global atmospheric
temperatures.

POLLUTION
It is unfavourable alteration and contamination of the natural conditions of our environment.
Classes of Pollution
1. Air pollution
2. Water Pollution
3. Land Pollution
4. Noise Pollution

Air Pollution: It is caused by the emission of harmful gases into the atmospheric air e.g. sulphur dioxide, carbon
dioxide, smoke etc.
Causes of air pollution
 Sprays, farm chemicals and other cosmetic products.
 Burst sewages.
 Automobile exhaust fumes.
 Rotting garbage and domestic wastes.
 Smoke from burning garbage and rubber wastes.
 Volcanic eruptions(gases and dust particles)
 Problems caused by air pollution
 Reduction in soil moisture.
 Acid rains destroy vegetation, crops and corrode buildings
 Causes gum inflammation, internal bleeding , pneumonia and lung cancer.
 Depletion of the ozone layer hence rising the temperatures.

Controlling Air Pollution

 Carrying out campaigns and creating awareness on the dangers of air pollution.
 Installing devices in factories to control the level of air pollution.
 Use of alternative means of transport e.g. using solar powered cars and not fossil fuel powered cars.
 Installing filters in vehicle exhaust pipes to reduce the degree of air pollution by exhaust fumes.
 Legislation: Thus coming up with strict regulations and rules where anyone causing air pollution is
heavily punished.

Water Pollution
It is the contamination of water sources and water bodies with toxic soluble chemicals, industrial wastes, dust and salts,
sewage and garbage.
Problems caused by Water Pollution
 Spread of epidemics like cholera, typhoid and diarrhea.
 Death of aquatic organisms (both plants and animals).
 Reduction in agricultural production due to polluted water.
 Death of micro-organisms such as nitrogen fixing bacteria due to polluted water.
 Polluted water with sediment loads interferes with irrigation.
 Water contaminated with salts increases alkalinity of the soils.
 Water pollution in form of oil leaks causes massive deaths of marine organisms.
 Water pollution from the discharge of radio-active materials from nuclear plants.
 Water polluted with heavy metals such as mercury and lead cause diseases such as Minamata disease
and madness.

Ways of Controlling Water Pollution

 Educating and creating awareness on the dangers of water pollution.
 Avoid throwing human, animal and other solid wastes into water bodies.
 Treating sewerage and industrial effluents before discharging them into water bodies.
 Use of appropriate agricultural practices e.g. preventing run-off of fertilizers and biocides into water
bodies.
 Controlling soil erosion.

Land Pollution
This is the alteration of the natural state of occurrence of the land or soil.

Causes of Land Pollution

 Excessive use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides and fungicides.
 Careless dumping of urban and industrial solid wastes.
 Extreme cases of soil erosion due to poor agricultural practices.

Problems caused by Land Pollution

 Reduction in agricultural productivity due to death of plants or crops.
 Diseases in human beings and animals.
 It causes land dereliction (non- biodegradable solid wastes make the landscape look ugly hence
destroying the aesthetic appeal of the environment).

Measures for Combating Land Pollution

 Wise use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides and herbicides.
 Controlling soil erosion.
 Practicing proper land use and crop management practices.
 Recycling of solid wastes.
  Open fire burning of solid wastes.
 Imposing a ban on the use of inorganic materials like plastic paper bags and containers.
 Burying of the wastes though mechanical or open window composing methods to produce useful
manures.

Climate Change
Is defined as a process by which a new climate is established in a place. It refers to the slow variations of climatic
characteristics over time at a given place.
Causes of Climate Change
1. Orbital position of the earth: The earth during the year is closest to the sun, a position known as perihelion (147
million kms) on 3rd January. The amount of solar radiation received into the earth’s atmosphere is greatest. When
the earth is farthest from the sun, the position is known as aphelion, it receives the lowest amount of solar
radiation. It happens on 4th July.
2. Amount of Carbon dioxide in the air: A cloud of carbon dioxide in the air raises the global temperatures. It
absorbs and holds heat in the atmosphere. This results to the warming up of the atmospheric air.
3. Volcanic Eruptions: Large volumes of ash, dust and gases released during volcanic eruptions has an influence on
the atmospheric temperature. Sulphur dioxide lowers the atmospheric temperatures by reflecting back the sun’s
rays, preventing them from reaching the earth. The accumulation of Carbon dioxide and other chlorofluorocarbons
contribute to global warming. These gases allow sunlight to reach the earth and heat it. Once heated, the earth
loses the heat in long waves, which are readily absorbed by these gases. CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) damage the
ozone layer, allowing the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun to reach the earth. These rays increase the earth’s
atmospheric temperatures and are harmful to human and animal life on the earth.

Consequences of Climate Change

 Increase evaporation of oceans and sea water, hence heavy rainfall. Other places would become dry due to
longer drought periods.
 Extensive melting of glaciers or icebergs would result to a rise in sea level.
 A rise in temperatures would increase the prevalence of agricultural pests hence the prevalence of food
shortages.
 A drier climate would lead to a shortage of water resources such as rivers and lakes.
 Climate change would lead to extinction of some animals seeking for a better environment.
 Higher levels of ultraviolet rays damage the phytoplanktons on which the fish feed.
 The ultraviolet rays cause skin cancer, accelerate ageing and wrinkling of the skin and also reduces the body’s
immunity.
 Increase in diseases such as malaria as the parasite develops faster in higher temperatures.
 High temperatures melt glaciers of Kilimanjaro mountains.
 Coral reefs are damaged making tourism industry be affected.

UNIT 10 TOURISM IN AFRICA

Tourism: It is defined as the visiting of places of interest for recreational purposes.
Types of Tourism
Domestic Tourism: Involves the local people visiting tourist attractions that are within their own country.
Ecotourism: It involves the traveling to destinations where the fauna, flora and cultural heritage are the primary
attractions.
Importance of Ecotourism
 It promotes environmental conservation and sustains the ecology.
 It has discouraged poaching
 It has equipped local people with education and skills.
 Offers employment opportunities to the local people hence increasing incomes and alleviating poverty.
 Ecotourism focuses on local culture and wilderness adventure.
 International tourism: It is the traveling of people to places outside the country of residence for leisure to
see wildlife in the national parks and game reserves.

Factors that attract tourism in Africa

 1. Wildlife: It is the main source of income in Africa. Examples of common animals are lions, elephants, rhinos,
leopards and buffaloes.
2. Beautiful scenery:
Spectacular landscape that influences tourism e.g. the Great Rift Valley of East Africa, the snow-capped
volcanic mountains, hot springs and geysers.
Beautiful sandy and coral beaches, mangrove trees and swamps attract tourists.
3. Climate:
The warm sunny climate of Africa favours tourism as the tourists come from Europe when it is winter in their
countries.
4. Historical sites:
Africa has many historic and pre-historic and archaeological sites that attract tourists.
5. Infrastructure:
The high-class international hotels provide accommodation for tourists.

Positive impacts of tourism to Malawi

1. Creation of employment opportunities
For tour guides, and other workers in hotels, lodges and camp sites.
2. Source of foreign exchange
Tourists pay for the services using foreign currency which is essential for international trade.
3. Source of revenue for the government through entry charges
To the national parks and game reserves etc.
3. Development of infrastructure for example roads and other transport networks leading to the areas of attraction.
4. Creation of markets
Tourism has promoted markets for industrial and agricultural goods i.e. demand for goods such as
local handicrafts, clothings, souvenirs and postcards.
There is a high demand for food in lodges and hotels.
5. Cultural exchange: People learn cultural values of different countries reflected in music, dance, fashion,
decorations and craft.

Problems associated with Tourism Industry

1. Poaching of wild animals.
The wild species become extinct and causes a decline in the influx of tourists.
2. Insecurity:
Ethnic clashes in African countries may reduce the number of tourists in the Africa.
3. Breakdown of infrastructure
Poor road networks and railway lines, irregular supply of electricity and telecommunication networks affect
tourism.
4. Degradation of the environment
Tourists exert pressure in the conservation areas. There is overcrowding of minibuses, fuel wood collection,
problem of waste disposal, water pollution, the sewerage dumped (i.e. dry cell batteries) may threaten wildlife.
NOTE: Malawi also may encounter similar problems.

UNIT 11 TRANSPORTATION AND TRADE

Transportation: This is the movement of people and goods from one place to another.
TYPES OF TRANSPORT
a) Land Transport
b) Water Transport
c) Air Transport
i) Land Transport: This involves movement of people or goods on the surface of the earth or land.
ii) Air Transport: The movement of goods and people by use of the aircrafts like aeroplanes, helicopters and
hot-air balloons.
iii) Water Transport: This is the movement of goods and passengers over waterways.
Figure 9.1 Major Sea and Air routes of the world
Demerits and Merits of Different types of Transports

Advantages of Land Transport

 Readily available even in remote parts of the country.
 Very convenient means of transport for it can be used any time e.g. bicycle cyclists e.g. zobandukas,
sacramentos, kabaza etc.
 Roads are a faster means of movement compared to railway, human and water transport.
 It is cheap to construct a road than a railway construction.
 Availability of a wide variety of automobiles e.g. lorries, trucks, buses, cars.
Disadvantages of Land Transport
 Roads are more prone to accidents.
 Roads are prone to traffic congestions or jam in urban centres.
 Road transport is expensive when transporting bulky goods over long distances.
 Fog and heavy rainfall interfere with transportation.
Advantages of Railway Transport
 Trains can carry bulky goods over a long distance.
 Trains travel on a fixed time schedules hence travelers can plan their journeys.
 It experiences no congestion.
 Accidents are minimal.
 Cheaper mode of transportation.
 Disadvantages of Railway Transport
 It is slow hence not suitable for perishable goods except electric trains.
 Rail lines are expensive to construct.
 Rail lines cannot provide door-to-door services.
Advantages of Air Transport
 It is efficient and fast means of transport.
 It is comfortable.
 It is highly secure.
 It moves according to time schedule.
 Does not suffer from congestion and jams.
 Suitable for transportation of highly perishable goods, glassware and other fragile goods.
Disadvantages of Air Transport
 Air freight charges are high.
 High capital is required.
 Highly trained personnel to manage the stations and operate the planes.
 A major target for terrorists’ attacks.
 It is sensitive to weather conditions like pressure, wind, precipitation and temperature.
 There are high risks and losses involved if accidents occur.
 Offers limited carrying capacity.
 Airports are expensive to construct.

Advantages of Water Transport

 The routes are naturally established e.g. rivers, seas, lakes and oceans.
 Water transport is a cheap means of transporting bulky commodities.
 Water transport has no traffic congestion.
 It offers maximum security to the cargo being transported.
  Loading and unloading is easy due to availability of machines, roll-roll and roll-off facilities or cranes at
the ports.

Disadvantages of Water Transport

 Freezing of waters during cold seasons may affect navigation.
 Obstacles in the rivers may obstruct transportation i.e. rock outcrops, floating vegetation, water hyacinth,
vegetation and rapids.
 Water vessels are slow and time consuming.
 Heavy initial capital for purchasing of ships, construction of ports etc.
 There are high risks and losses involved if accidents occur.
CANALS
 These are channels constructed to join rivers, oceans or lakes.
 Examples of canals include Jonglee Canal in Sudan that (connects Bor and Malakal), Suez Canal
that(connects the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea) and the Panama Canal that(connects the Caribbean
Sea to the Pacific Ocean)

Importance of Canals
 Provide water for irrigation.
 Used in draining swamps.
 Used to divert a river’s course.
 Provides a waterway.

THE GREAT LAKES AND ST.LAWRENCE SEAWAY

 This waterway penetrates into the interior of North America and serves the North America and serves the
Northern part of U.S.A and Southern Canada.
 It covers 3800km.
 It stretches from the mouth of St.Lawrence rier on Atlantic coast to Port Duluth on Lake Superior.
 The seaway is served by Lake Superior, Lake Michigan (has Chicago and Gary), Lake Huron(has Detroit),
Lake Erie and Lake Ontario(have Toronto and Prescott).
Economic Benefits of St.Lawrence Seaway
Source of employment.
Production of electricity for example, Niagara Falls and Sault St. Marie dams for the generation of electricity.
Development of the town e.g. Chicago, Gary, Cleveland and Buffallo towns.
Ease in transportation of goods.
Increased trated between the coast and the interior of America.
Tourism attraction e.g. Niagara Falls.
Water supply for domestic and industrial use.

OTHER IMPORTANT SEA ROUTES

North Atlantic sea route-Serves North America
North America produces
Wheat, cotton, paper, woodpulps, timber etc
Europe produces
Textiles, chemicals, wine, steel, fertilizers etc

Mediterranean Asiatic sea route

Europe produces:
 Textiles, chemicals, wine, steel, paper, fertilizers
 Africa and Far East produces
 Petroleum, cotton, tea, coffee, sugar, hides, etc)

Panama Canal-West Indies-Central America Route

 Far East and Pacific Estates produces:
 Oil, copper, tin, gold, sugar, timber, dairy products e.t.c.
 Europe and Atlantic Estates produces:
 Machinery, mining, equipment, cars, drugs, textiles, newsprint, chemicals

 South America-Europe Route

 South America produces
 Cocoa, coffee, wheat, flax and meat.
 Europe produces manufactured and semi-finished goods.
Factors influencing Oceanic Trade Routes
 Supply and demand.
 Availability of oceanic terminals.
 Absence of physical barriers such as icebergs and strong winds.
 Nature of cargo.
Problems facing Transport and Communication in Africa
 Hostile environments that discourage construction of roads or railway lines eg. Sahara, Kalahari, and
Namib deserts which experience arid conditions and mobile sand dunes.
 Most of the rivers in Africa do not support commercial navigation.
 Lack of skilled labour and technical support.
 Political instability due to long wars in some African countries.
 Inadequate capital for infrastructure etc.
 Physical barriers like mountains, rapids and the rugged terrain hampers the construction of transport and
communication infrastructure.
 Fluctuation of water levels.

Possible Solutions to the Problems above

 The construction of Trans-African highways across the continent. egThe Great North Road(from Gaborone to
Cairo), Trans-African highway(from Mombasa to Dakar), Trans-Sahara road from Lagos to Tripoli.
 Taking serious action against poor road uses.
 Use of grants and loans from large International financial bodies in oreder to establish transport routes.
 Establishment of other types of transport like air to reduce the pressure on land transport.
 Construction of international railway networks to land locked countries in Africa for transporting bulky raw
materials to coastal seaports e.g. the TAZARA railway.
 Encouraging regional economic development through establishment of regional trading blocs.

TRADE AND TRADING BLOCKS

Trade: It is the buying and selling of goods and services.
Types of Trade
International Trade;
It is the trade that is carried between a country and the rest of the world.
Forms of Trade
(i) Bilateral Trade: It involves the exchanging of goods and services between two countries.
(ii) Multilateral Trade: It involves the exchange of goods and services between many countries.

Figure 9.2 Bilateral and Multilateral Trade

Factors influencing Trade
a. Difference in natural resources:
the need to satisfy the demand for goods and services that are not available.

b. Population factor-the size of a population relates to the size of the market of a given
commodity.
c. Stage of economic development-Industrialised countries export manufactured goods while less developed countries
export agricultural products and raw materials.
d. Government policies- a government can determine who to trade with, what to trade in and the volume to trade in
through imposing trade restrictions like tariffs and quotas, taxation system and banning of trade in some
commodities.
e. Creation of trading blocs or common markets
This encourages trade between the various member countries.

REGIONAL TRADING BLOCS

A regional trading bloc is an organization of various countries within a given geographical region which is aimed at
achieving similar economic goals for each member state.
It is also an inter-governmental association that manages and promotes trade activities for a specific region of the world.

Examples of the Regional Trading Blocs

a) Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa(COMESA)
Established on 8th December, 1994.
COMESA Objectives
 To create a conducive environment for both domestic and foreign investment.
 To enhance peace, security and stability for economic growth.
 To promote agricultural production and ensured food security in the member states.
b) Southern African Development Community(SADC)
It was established in 1992 in Windhoek, Namibia.
It consists of Malawi, DRC, Lesotho, Tanzania, Zambia, Swaziland, South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe,
Angola, Mozambique, Seychelles and Mauritius.
SADC Objectives
 To set up common political values, systems and institutions.
 To achieve sustainable utilization of natural resources.
 To alleviate poverty.
 To promote and defend peace and security.
 To establish a common market for the member states.
c) Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS)
It was established on May 28, 1975 by the treaty of Lagos.
It consists of Chad, Nigeria, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Mali and Ivory Coast
Objectives of ECOWAS
 To enhance economic co-operation.
 To improve the living standards of the member states.
 To promote free movement of member states within the region.
 To achieve and maintain economic stability of member states.

d) The European Union(EU)

EU was formed in 1993 from the former European Economic Community (EEC)
It is an economic cum political bloc.

Objectives of EU
 To lessen the negative aspects of globalization by making sure that developing countries benefit from
free trade.
 To eliminate all duties and quotas for products originating from the Least Developed Countries.

Importance of Regional Trade Groupings or Blocs

 Improved quality of production due to increased competition.
 Improvement of living standards in member countries.
 Unrestricted flow of goods, services and people.
 High and increased demand increases the volume of trade among member states.
 Attainance of political co-operation and international relations within member states hence promoting peace
within the region.
 Improvement of transport and communication networks within the region.
 Elimination of trade barriers hence increased opportunities for trade.
 Establishment of a common currency which is acceptable to all member states. This makes the trading easier.
BOOK AND JOURNAL REFERENCES
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Press, London.
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