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CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

• All living organisms start their life from a single cell.
• Cycle of growth and division allow a cell to form a structure consisting of million of cells.
• Cell division is very important process in all living organisms.
• All the processes like cell growth, DNA-replication and cell division have to takes place in co-
ordinated way to ensure the correct cell division and formation of progeny cells with intact
genome. This is known as cell cycle.
✓ Cell growth (i.e. cytoplasmic growth) is a continuous process whereas DNA-
replication occurs only during one specific stage in the cell cycle.
✓ Replicated chromosomes/duplicated DNA distributed to the daughter cells during
cell division.
OR
The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesises the other
constituents of the cell and eventually divides into two daughter cells is termed as cell cycle.
• This cell cycle occurs under genetic control.
• Human cells divide once in every 24 hours approximately. Yeast cell divides in only about 90
minutes.
• Duration of cell cycle vary from organism to organism and also cell type to cell type.
• Human cell takes 24 hours approximately for a cell cycle.
✓ Interphase lasts more than 95% of the duration of cell cycle.
✓ Cell Division proper lasts for about 1 hour.
• Interphase can be defined as the time during which the cell is preparing for division by
undergoing both cell growth and DNA replication in an orderly manner.
• M-phase is responsible for
✓ Nuclear division (Karyokinesis)
✓ Separation of daughter chromosomes.
✓ Division of cytoplasm.

Three sub-phases of interphase:-

Gap-1/G1 Phase:-

✓ Protein synthesis (Mianly enzyme for DNA-replication)

✓ RNA synthesis.
✓ ATP synthesis.
✓ Size or volume of cell increases i.e. cell growth.
✓ Synthesis of other raw materials required for S-phase.

Synthesis phase/S-phase:-

✓ In most eukaryotic cells, S-phase lasts for 6 to 8 hours.

✓ DNA-replication.
✓ Centriole division/Centriole duplication (In animal cell only)
✓ Histone protein synthesis (for DNA packaging)
✓ Once the cell enters the S-phase, It has no point to return and has to undergo mitosis.

NOTE:- In animal cells, during S-phase DNA replication begins in the nucleus and centriole duplicates
in the cytoplasm.

Gap-2/G2 Phase:-
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✓ In most cells, this phase lasts for 2 to 5 hours.

✓ Protein synthesis.
o Mainly tubulin protein (for spindle fibre formation)
o Protein for plasma membrane synthesis(Which will be required for cell organelles
formation)
✓ ATP synthesis in sufficient quantity.(Required for movement of chromosomes during
anaphase)
✓ RNA synthesis.

G0 Phase/ Quiscent phase/ Resting phase:-

✓ Cells remain inactive for cell division but metabolically remain active.
✓ Most of the cells which join G0 Phase become specialised and become permanent cells.
✓ Very few cells again join the cell cycle after G0 Phase like heart cells etc.
✓ Eg:- Nerve cells, RBCs and skeletal muscle cells do not divide after their growth and
differentiation.

Some important terms:-

✓ DIFFERENTIATION:- Cells which leave the cell cycle in the Gap-1/G1 Phase of interphase and
undergo resting condition i.e. inactive for cell division but metabolically active.
✓ DEDIFFERENTIATION:- Differentiated cells again join the cell cycle.
✓ REDIFFERENTIATION:- Dedifferentiated cells further leave the cell cycle after few cell
division.

C-VALUE:- DNA content on one set of chromosome (n). It is expressed in pg (Picogram).

EXPLANATION:-

• Suppose, in the beginning of G1 phase:-

✓ Number of chromosome = 2n
✓ C-Value = 2C.
• At the end of G1 phase:-
✓ Number of chromosome = 2n
✓ C-Value = 2C.

There is no change in the C-value because DNA replication does nor occur during G1 phase as well as
no change in number of chromosome.

• At the end of S-phase:-

✓ Number of chromosome = 2n
✓ C-Value = 4C.

C-value i.e. DNA content become double because of DNA replication during S-phase but there would
be no change in the number of chromosome.

• At the end of G2 phase:-

✓ Number of chromosome = 2n
✓ C-Value = 4C.

C-value remain same like S-phase because of no DNA replication in G2 phase and number of
chromosome also remain same.
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• During anaphase of M-phase:-

✓ Number of chromosome = 2n
✓ C-Value = 2C.

C-value i.e. DNA content become half because of splitting of chromosome.

EXTRA:-

A cell (diploid) has a C-value 20 pg. What should be the C-value in egg and endosperm?

Solution:-

2n=2C= 20pg (in cell)

Egg (n) = 10 pg

Endosperm (3n) = 30pg.

NOTE:- Gymnospermic endosperm is haploid (n)

Angiospermic endosperm is triploid (3n).

MITOSIS:-

• Mitosis was first described by Strasburger (1875) in plant cells.

• Walter Flemming (1882) described mitosis in animal cells.
• In animals, mitosis is only occurs in the diploid somatic cells (diploid body cells)
Exception:- Male honey bees (mitosis occurs in haploid cells)
In plants, mitosis occurs in both haploid and diploid cells.
• One parent cell divides to produce 2 daughter cells.
• Mitosis is also called as equational cell division because the number of chromosomes in the
parent and progeny/daughter cells remain same.

Karyokinesis:- Division of nucleus.

PROPHASE:-

• Longest and most complex phase of mitosis (Lasts for about 50 minutes)
• Prophase is marked by the initiation of condensation of chromosomal material (means
untangling of chromatin)
• Chromosomal material condenses to form compact mitotic chromosomes.
↓
Chromosomes are seen to be composed of 2 chromatids attached together at the
centromere.
• Centriole duplicated during interphase. They begin to move towards opposite poles of the
cell.
• Each centrosome radiates out microtubules called as asters.
✓ The 2 asters together with spindle fibres form mitotic apparatus.(initiation of
assembly of mitotic spindle)
• Nuclear envelope start to disintegrate/disappear.
• At the end of prophase, cells do not show golgi complexes, ER, nucleolus and nuclear
envelope.

METAPHASE:-
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• It lasts for about 2 to 10 minutes.

• Starting of metaphase is marked by the complete disintegration of the nuclear envelope.
• Condensation of chromosomes completed by this phase.
✓ Thus, this is the stage at which morphology of chromosomes can be studied most
easily. (Chromosomes are clearly visible under microscope)
• Metaphase chromosome is made up of 2 sister chromatids held together by centromere.
• Small disc-shaped structure at the surface of centromere which serves as the site of
attachment of spindle fibres to the chromosomes is called as kinetochores.
• Spindle fibres attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are moved to equator and get aligned along metaphase plate through spindle
fibres of both the poles.
✓ The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at the equator during metaphase is
known as metaphase plate.

ANAPHASE:-

• It occurs for very short duration 2 to 3 minutes only.

• At the onset of anaphase, each chromosome splits simultaneously and two
chromatids(chromosomes) migrate towards two opposite poles.
✓ Centromere splits and chromatids separate.
✓ Chromatids move to opposite poles.

NOTE:- During migration towards opposite poles from equatorial plate, the centromere of each
chromosome is towards the pole (i.e. towards the leading edge) and chromatids (arms) trailing
behind.
Centromere faces opposite pole.

Chromatids faces equatorial plate.

TELOPHASE:-

• At the beginning of telophase, chromosomes reached their respective poles then

decondense and lose their individuality.
• Nuclear envelope reforms around the chromosomes cluster.
• Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER refoem.

CYTOKINESIS:- Division of cytoplasm.

IN ANIMAL CELLS:-

In animal cells, cytoplasm divides by invagination of plasma membrane on the equator called as
furrow.

Formation of furrow in the plasma membrane

Furrow gradually deepens

↓
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Join in the centre

Divide the cytoplasm into two.

IN PLANT CELLS:-

Plant cells cannot undergo cytokinesis by furrow formation because of presence of rigid cell wall.

Wall formation starts in the centre of the cell.

It grows outward from centre of the cell to meet the existing lateral walls.

From cell plate (Represents the middle lamella between the walls of two daughter cells)

At the time of cytoplasmic division, organelles like mitochondria and plastids get distributed
between the two daughter cells.

NOTE:- In some organisms, cytokinesis does not occur after karyokinesis which results in the
formation of multinucleated condition called as syncytium. Eg:- Liquid endosperm in coconut.

SOME IMPORTANT TERMS:-

INTRA-NUCLEAR MITOSIS:- The mitosis which occurs within the nuclear membrane is called intra-
nuclear mitosis. Eg:- In unicellular organisms like Amoeba.

EXTRA-NUCLEAR MITOSIS:- The mitosis which occurs without the nuclear membrane is called intra-
nuclear mitosis. Eg:- Multicellular organisms.

ANASTRAL MITOSIS:- The mitosis which occurs without the formation of spindle fibres (asters) is
called anstral mitosis. Eg:- Plant cells.

AMPHIASTRAL/ASTRAL MITOSIS:- The mitosis which occurs with the formation of spindle fibres
(asters) is called amphiastral/astral mitosis. Eg:- Animal cells

COLCHICINE:- It is alkaloid obtained from Autumn crocrus, Colchicum autumnale of family Liliaceae
which inhibits cell division and works as a poison for cell division.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS:-

1. GROWTH:- It helps in growth and development of multicellular organisms.

2. CELL SIZE:- Mitosis helps in maintaining cell size. Mitosis induces a full grown cell to divide in place
of growing further. Cells divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio.

3.REPAIR/REGENERATION:- The cells of upper layer of epidermis, cells of lining of gut and blood
cells are being constantly replaced.

4. GENETIC STABILITY:- Mitosis maintain the same/equal number of chromosomes in daughter cells
as the number of chromosome in parent cell.

5. REPRODUCTION:- It is a means of reproduction in unicellular organisms i.e. asexual reproduction.

In multicellular organisms, mitosis plays an important role in both asexual and sexual reproduction.
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6. EVIDENCE FOR COMMON ANCESTRY OF ALL LIVING FORMS

MEIOSIS:-

• It was first reported by Van Benden in egg of Sea Urchin.

• The term meiosis was given by Farmer and Moore in 1905.
• 4 daughter cells form from one parent cell.
• Occurs in reproductive cells/germ cells.
• Reductional cell division
• Cells which undergo meiosis are called as meiocytes.

Types of meiosis

Sporogenetic OR sporic
Gametic Meiosis meiosis
It occurs at the time of Zygotic meiosis It involves in the
gamete formation. formation of haploid
Occurs in lower organisms.
It occurs in higher spores.
Occurs in organisms having haplontic life
organisms.
cycle. Generally occurs in
Generally, occurs in pteridophytes.
Two organisms which are haploid (n) in
organisms having
nature behave like gamete during sexual
diplontic life cycle.
reproduction.
They fuse and form zygote.
This zygote divide meiotically and form
haploid structures which lead normal life.
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• Prophase – I is typically longer and more complex than prophase of mitosis.

LEPTOTENE OR LEPTONEMA:-

• Nuclear membrane is intact.

• Centrioles are not moving now.
• Chromatin fibres condense,
✓ Condensation of chromatin fibres occurs at intervals i.e. not continuously.
✓ It forms beaded structures on chromatin fibres.
• In this stage, chromatin fibres remain attached with nuclear membrane and give Bouquet
appearance. So, this stage is also called as Bouquet stage.

ZYGOTENE OR ZYGONEMA:-

• Nuclear membrane intact.

• Centrioles not moving.
• Pairing of homologous chromosome takes place → SYNAPSIS
✓ Such paired chromosomes are called as HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES.
✓ A pair of chromosomes (Homologous chromosome) together called as DIAD.

NOTE:- Each chromosome of homologous pair has double DNA i.e. one old DNA and one newly
formed DNA during S-phase.

• A complex protein forms between 2 homologous chromosomes to hold them together. This
protein is called as SYNAPTONEMAL COMPLEX.
• When one chromosome shows 4 arms → TETRAD OR BIVALENT.
• Crossing Over begins in zygotene.
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NOTE:- The first 2 stages of prophase-I are relatively short-lived compared to the next stages.

PACHYTENE OR PACHYNEMA:-

• Bivalent chromosomes are clearly visible as tetrad in pachytene stage.

• Nuclear membrane intact.
• Centrioles not moving.
• Chiasma/ Chiasmata/ recombinant nodules formation occurs.
• Crossing Over takes place.
✓ Enzyme is needed for fusion of 2 chromatids during crossing over (Enzyme -
Recombinase)
✓ Nicking occurs. It means breakdown of non-sister chromatids and exchange of
genetic materials.
✓ Broken fragments join with the help of Ligase Enzyme.

DIPLOTENE OR DIPLONEMA:-

• Nuclear membrane intact.

• Centrioles not moving.
• Synaptonemal complex breaks. It represents the beginning of diplotene.
• Homologous chromosomes start to separate → Dysjunction.
• Terminalisation starts.
✓ Unzipping of cross-over chromatids from chiasma point to the end.

NOTE:- In Oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene can lasts for months or years.

DIAKINESIS:-

• It is marked by Terminalisation of chiasmata.

• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
• Centrioles move towards 2 opposite poles.
• Centrioles radiate to form asters.
• Spindle fibres form.
• Chromosomes are visible and attached with spindle fibres.
Note:- Each chromatids has double DNA, formed during S – Phase.
• Chromosomes are fully condensed.

METAPHASE – I:-

• Bivalent chromosomes (tetrad) align on the equatorial plate.

• Centromere are attached to the chromosomal fibres of the spindle.

NOTE:- Unlike metaphase of mitosis, the arms of chromosomes are rested on the equator and
centrioles are directed towards the pole.

ANAPHASE-I :-

• The homologous chromosomes separate, while sister chromatids remain associated at their
centromere.
• The centromere of homologous chromosomes move towards opposite poles and reach the
opposite pole.
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NOTE:- Unlike anaphase chromosome of mitosis, these chromosomes still consists of two
chromatids attached to the single centromere.

TELOPHASE-I:-

• Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, followed by cytokinesis. This is called as Diad of
the cells.
• The chromosomes uncoil and form chromatin net.
• Two haploid daughter nuclei have formed.

CYTOKINESIS-I:- SAME AS CYTOKINESIS OF MITOSIS.

INTERKINESIS-I:-

• Interval between first and second meiotic division.

• It is generally short-lived.

MEIOSIS-II IS SAME AS MITOSIS.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS-I:-

• Reduces number of chromosomes in the daughter cells to one half (2n to n). It is essential
for sexual reproduction.
• Recombination of genes results in variation in offspring.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS:-

• Formation of gemetes:- Meiosis produces haploid gametes for sexual reproduction.

• Maintenance of chromosome number and stability of species:- Meiosis produces haploid
gametes for sexual reproduction. These gametes fertilise to form diploid zygote and restore
the definite number of chromosomes.
• Introduction of variation:- Crossing over causes exchange of genetic materials between 2
non-sister chromatids and form new combination i.e. variation in the population.
• Meiosis conserve the specific chromosome number of each species across the generations
in sexually reproducing organisms although meiosis results in reduction ofchromosome
number by half.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CYTOKINESIS IN ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS:- (Srijan 10.10)

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