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 Advance Praise for Why We Forget and How
to Remember Better

“In Why We Forget and How to Remember Better, memory

experts Andrew Budson and Elizabeth Kensinger provide
readers with a practical and clearly explained masterclass on
how memory works and how to keep it working well as we
age. This is a must-read for anyone who wants to understand
and maximize their memory functions.”
—Wendy Suzuki, PhD, Professor of Neural Science and
Psychology, New York University and internationally
bestselling author of Healthy Brain, Happy Life and
Good Anxiety

“In this highly readable book, two authorities on the science

of memory and the brain unpack everything you could want
to know about memory and memory disorders. You will find
surprising answers here to fascinating puzzles—for example,
why we form false memories, why someone with Alzheimer’s
disease remembers how to play the piano but forgets the
names of family members, how to distinguish between
memory decline due to normal aging and disorders of
memory, and why sleep is so important for memory. In
addition, the authors describe evidence-based ways to
remember better and to defend against false memories.”
—Ellen Winner, PhD, Professor Emerita at Boston
College and author of the bestselling book How Art
Works: A Psychological Exploration

“Budson and Kensinger have done a marvelous job creating

an accessible summary of the wide-ranging field of memory
research. A perfect place to start for anyone interested in
understanding this fundamental human capacity.”
—Joshua Foer, BA, Author of the bestselling book
Moonwalking with Einstein

“This book delivers on all fronts. Written by two of the most

eminent memory scientists in the world, the book draws in
the reader immediately—engaging both the practitioners of
the science of memory as well as those who are new to
memory research. The reader is presented with many
relatable, everyday examples and practical tips, and with
concrete steps that unfold and explain complex theories of
memory and forgetting. The authors cover a wide range of
representative phenomena about when memory works and
when it fails. The book delves into the neuroscience of
memory and effects of aging at one end, strategies for
improving memory at the other, and many key topics in
between. I want this book for my memory course, and for my
family and friends who are curious about how memory
works.”
—Suparna Rajaram, PhD, Distinguished Professor of
Cognitive Science at Stony Brook University

“Everyone knows how memory works, we have our own

experiences of remembering and forgetting to go on. But the
science of memory, as Budson and Kensinger engagingly
recount, teaches us so much more—how it really works and
how it doesn’t. And how this scientifically grounded
knowledge enriches our understanding of our own minds.”
—Ken Paller, PhD, Padilla Chair and Director of the
Cognitive Neuroscience Program at Northwestern
University
 Why We Forget and How to
Remember Better
The Science Behind Memory

ANDREW E. BUDSON, MD
Neurology Service, Section of Cognitive & Behavioral Neurology, & Center for
Translational Cognitive Neuroscience, Veterans Affairs Boston Healthcare System
Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center & Department of Neurology
Boston University School of Medicine
Division of Cognitive & Behavioral Neurology
Department of Neurology
Brigham and Women’s Hospital
Harvard Medical School
Boston, MA
Boston Center for Memory
Newton, MA

ELIZABETH A. KENSINGER, PhD

Department of Psychology and Neuroscience
Boston College
Chestnut Hill, MA
 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the
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Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same
condition on any acquirer.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Budson, Andrew E., author. | Kensinger, Elizabeth A., author.
Title: Why we forget and how to remember better : the science behind memory /
Andrew E. Budson, M.D., Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Ph.D.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2023] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022027375 (print) | LCCN 2022027376 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780197607732 (hardback) | ISBN 9780197607756 (epub) |
ISBN 9780197607763 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Memory—Popular works. | Memory—Physiological
aspects—Popular works. | Brain—Localization of functions—Popular works.
Classification: LCC QP406 .B83 2023 (print) | LCC QP406 (ebook) |
DDC 612.8/23312—dc23/eng/20220720
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022027375
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DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197607732.001.0001
This material is not intended to be, and should not be considered, a substitute for medical
or other professional advice. Treatment for the conditions described in this material is highly
dependent on the individual circumstances. And, while this material is designed to offer
accurate information with respect to the subject matter covered and to be current as of the
 time it was written, research and knowledge about medical and health issues is constantly
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 Contents

Foreword by Daniel L. Schacter

Preface

PART 1: ALL THE WAYS TO REMEMBER

1. Memory is not one thing
2. Procedural memory: Muscle memory
3. Working memory: Keep it in mind
4. Episodic memory: Travel back in time
5. Semantic memory: What you know
6. Collective memory: What we remember together

PART 2: MAKING MEMORIES

7. Do you need to try to remember?
8. Get it into your memory—and keep it there
9. Retrieve that memory
10. Associate information
11. Control what you forget and remember
12. Are you sure that’s not a false memory?

PART 3: WHEN THERE IS TOO LITTLE MEMORY—OR TOO MUCH

13. Just normal aging—or is it Alzheimer’s disease?
14. What else can go wrong with your memory?
15. Post-traumatic stress disorder: When you can’t forget
16. Those who remember everything

PART 4: DO THE RIGHT THINGS

17. Exercise: The elixir of life
18. Nutrition: You are what you eat
19. This is your brain on alcohol, cannabis, and drugs
20. Sleep well
21. Activity, attitude, music, mindfulness, and brain training

PART 5: TECHNIQUES TO REMEMBER BETTER

22. Memory aids
23. Basic strategies
24. Remember names
25. Advanced strategies and mnemonics

Afterword
Tips to remember better
Appendix: Medications that can impair memory
References
About the authors
Index
 Foreword

In Christopher Nolan’s gripping 2000 film Memento, protagonist

Leonard Shelby seeks to find the man who he believes murdered his
wife during a violent home invasion. Shelby’s search is hampered by
a head injury he suffered during the attack that resulted in a loss of
his ability to remember ongoing events, making him dependent on
handwritten notes, photographs, and even tattooed messages to
himself in order to conduct the manhunt. Part of the film’s genius is
that Nolan presents the main plot by showing scenes in backwards
order, so that the audience’s experience is similar to Leonard’s:
Events unfold, but we have no idea what happened in the past that
led to the present moment, requiring us to try to piece together the
identity, role, and motives of the people we encounter.
Fortunately, watching Memento is about as close as most of us
will ever come to experiencing life with a profound and unrelenting
memory impairment. As someone who has spent his entire career
studying memory, one of the reasons why I find Memento so
compelling is that the film helps us to appreciate the enormous role
that memory plays in our everyday lives, which we are liable to take
for granted given how seamlessly our memory systems often work.
Often—but not always. And that is why Andrew Budson and
Elizabeth Kensinger’s new book is so valuable. Memory can fail us in
a variety of ways, with consequences ranging from mildly annoying
to life-changing. If we can’t recall the name of the actor who played
Leonard even though we saw Memento and can picture the actor,
we may be frustrated, but not much harm is done (the actor’s name:
Guy Pearce). Yet it is an entirely different matter if we forget to take
an essential medication, can’t recall information that is necessary to
perform well on an exam, or incorrectly identify an innocent person
as the perpetrator of a crime.
 Psychologists and neuroscientists have built an impressive body of
knowledge regarding the nature of remembering and forgetting,
especially during the past few decades, and this scientific knowledge
is essential for understanding how to combat the assortment of
memory failures that can plague us. Budson and Kensinger are
intimately familiar with this body of knowledge, and both of them
have carried out research that has helped to expand our
understanding of memory. Equally important, both have observed
first-hand the everyday consequences of clinically significant
forgetting. As a neurologist with expertise in Alzheimer’s disease and
other kinds of age-related memory impairments, Budson has seen
up close what kinds of disruptions these impairments can cause in
daily life. Kensinger is a psychologist who has worked with the most
famous case of memory loss known to science—Henry Molaison,
referred to in the research literature by the initials H.M. The
forgetting that Henry experienced after surgical removal of brain
regions that are now known to be essential for memory was so
pervasive that he became the gold standard for memory impairment
in the scientific literature, and likely a model for Leonard Shelby’s
character in Memento.
Building on their combined experiences, Budson and Kensinger
are not only able to offer practical advice on how to combat various
kinds of forgetting, but they also explain in easy-to-understand
language why these lapses occur. By reading this book, you will
come to see that some—perhaps many—of the ideas you had about
memory are incomplete or flat-out wrong. You will see that memory
is not a single thing, but instead composed of several distinct
systems, each associated with a particular brain network. You will
learn research-based strategies for making new memories and
studying more effectively. You will gain insight into how emotion,
exercise, sleep, and diet impact remembering and forgetting. You
will become familiar with the differences between normal age-
related forgetting and forgetting that results from Alzheimer’s
disease, and you’ll understand why you should never tell anyone
with Alzheimer’s disease something that isn’t true. You’ll come to
appreciate that forgetting isn’t always a negative—we reap some
significant benefits from forgetting.
You will also learn about one of the more fascinating aspects of
memory, something that scientists have only come to fully
appreciate in recent years, and an idea that my colleagues and I
have worked on intensively: Memory isn’t just about recalling the
past; it also plays a crucial role in allowing us to imagine and plan
for the future. This important function also underscores that memory
is not simply a literal replay of past experiences; it is a far more
dynamic constructive process that supports numerous cognitive
functions. Memory’s role in supporting these functions—ranging from
planning to problem-solving to creative thinking—requires flexible
processing; that is, the ability to use past experiences in new ways
and in novel contexts. Memory is well suited to such tasks, but that
same flexibility may also contribute to errors and distortions in
remembering. As Budson and Kensinger discuss, these and other
complexities of memory are intriguing and sometimes surprising, but
researchers are studying them and are making progress in
understanding their nature and basis.
Attempting to describe his strange mental condition to others,
Leonard Shelby explained that although he could recall past
experiences from before his head injury, he could not make new
memories. “Everything fades,” he mused. Alas, we are all susceptible
to fading of memory over time, albeit to a much lesser degree than
Leonard was. Understanding why it happens, and how to reduce or
even stop forgetting when it interferes with our ability to perform
everyday tasks, constitute important steps toward becoming a good
steward of your own memory. Budson and Kensinger are just the
right guides to take you on that journey.

Daniel L. Schacter, PhD

William R. Kenan Jr. Professor of Psychology, Harvard University
Author of The Seven Sins of Memory, Updated Edition: How the Mind
Forgets and Remembers (2021)
Newton, Massachusetts
January 2022
 Preface

If you’re like most people, you probably think you have a good, basic
idea about how your memory works. After all, you use it daily to
remember everything from your favorite childhood memory to last
night’s dinner—and all the “yesterdays” in between. You also use it
to remember facts, like who Cleopatra and Harriet Tubman were,
and what happened on July 4, 1776. And, of course, you use your
memory when you practice piano scales and type on your phone
with your thumbs without looking at the letters. So, if we asked you
some basic questions about how memory works, your answers might
include:

• My memory works like a video recorder; I record the information through my

eyes and ears and then play the recording back in my head when I want to
remember something.
• Memory evolved to remember information verbatim.
• When we forget things, it is a weakness of our memory system.
• When someone has amnesia, they typically cannot recall their name or
identity.
• If someone can remember their childhood in vivid detail, they cannot be
suffering from Alzheimer’s disease.
• If one can play a musical instrument from memory without sheet music—and
play it perfectly—they don’t have dementia.
• When preparing for an exam, highlighting and re-reading important
information is the best method of studying.
• Computerized brain-training games are an effective way to keep my memory
strong for everyday activities.

Right? What if we told you that you’re wrong? What if we told you
that every one of those statements is completely wrong?
Don’t worry if you were wrong; you’re in good company. In 2011
the researchers Daniel Simons and Christopher Chabris found that
most people they surveyed provided incorrect answers to questions
like these.1 It turns out that many aspects of our memories—and
what happens to them when they break down—are simply not
intuitive. Misunderstandings about memory can lead us to accept as
true information that might really be false! That’s one reason why
distortions of memory—and outright false memories—occur so
frequently even in perfectly healthy individuals.

WHY NOW?
Over the past 25 years, the fields of experimental psychology and
cognitive neuroscience have revealed much about how memory
works. We can now answer questions such as:

• Why did memory evolve? (Hint: It isn’t simply to remember things.)

• How reliable is eyewitness testimony—and what influences its reliability?
• Why do false memories occur so commonly?
• How can a person with Alzheimer’s disease remember how to play the piano
but not their grandchildren’s names (or even that they have any children)?
• What are the diets, physical exercises, and mental activities that have been
scientifically proven to help keep your memory strong? (Hint: There are
lifestyle changes anyone can make, and they don’t need to cost a thing.)
• What are the most effective—and experimentally proven—ways to study for an
exam?
• And how can you better remember daily information such as the name of the
person you just met and where you parked your car?

FIVE PARTS
To provide you with the answers to these questions, we’ve divided
this book into five parts.
In Part 1 we begin by explaining how memory is not actually a
single ability but rather a collection of different conscious and
nonconscious abilities. It turns out that remembering a phone
number in your head, what you had for breakfast, the temperature
at which water boils, and how to ride a bicycle use four different
memory systems. We’ll go through each of these systems, explaining
how they work in your daily life. We’ll finish with a discussion of
collective memory, and what it means for a group of individuals—or
even our whole society—to remember.
In Part 2 we focus on the heart of memory: how we remember
the events that make up our lives. Here we dive into how we create,
store, and retrieve memories of these events. We review the impact
of emotion on memory. We discuss whether you can actually control
what you remember and what you forget. And we discuss some of
the interesting—and ordinary—circumstances in which memories can
become distorted or just plain false. We also consider the
relationship between confidence and memory, and how even if you
are 100% certain of exactly where you were and what you were
doing when you heard about the assassination of John F. Kennedy,
the September 11th attacks, or the results of the 2016 presidential
election, you may be mistaken.
Part 3 begins with how different neurologic and medical disorders
like Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, Parkinson’s
disease, brain tumors, concussions/traumatic brain injuries, COVID-
19, medical problems, anesthesia, hormone changes, and
medication side effects can disrupt memory. We also review how
psychiatric and psychological problems affect memory, such as
anxiety, depression, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We end this part by
discussing individuals who represent the other extreme—those with
remarkable abilities to retain and recall information.
In Part 4 we review the changes to your lifestyle that can
strengthen—or weaken—your memory, including the latest evidence
regarding exercise, nutrition, alcohol, cannabis, drugs, sleep, social
activities, music, mindfulness, as well as brain-training and other
activities. We also talk about what doesn’t work, including fad diets,
phony medicines, and brain games that don’t live up to their
advertisements.
In Part 5 we discuss a variety of different memory aids and
strategies to help you remember everything from your shopping list
or French vocabulary to that presentation you need to memorize for
work or the name of your colleague you haven’t seen in 10 years.
We’ll explain how Mark Twain taught his children to remember the
English monarchs and show you how to build your very own memory
palace and remember 50 digits of pi.
We end the book by boiling it all down to some tips to help you
remember better.

BUILT-IN SCIENCE FOR EVERYONE

To help you remember the main themes of this book, we’ve
considered the science of learning when writing it. As we will
discuss, repeating key ideas spaced out over time and interleaving
different but related topics will facilitate your memory for
information. For this reason, you might notice that some of the
important topics are mentioned more than once. Rest assured that
this minor repetition is intentional. We also use metaphors that can
be concretely imagined—another strategy known to boost retention.
Spacing out your learning—and ideally sleeping in between
learning sessions—can be helpful for optimal memory. So, if
retaining the content in this book is a primary goal for you, we don’t
recommend that you read it all in one long sitting. Instead, try
reading a few chapters, take some time to reflect on the content,
and then return to it a little while later, perhaps after a night’s sleep.
Because we’ve written this book for everyone, we used a variety
of examples and metaphors to bring the text to life. We hope that
whether you are at the beginning or end of your career, a student or
an educator, or perhaps caring for your grandchildren or your
grandparents, you’ll find this book interesting, helpful, and
memorable.

A WORD OF THANKS
Our first thanks go to Dr. Mary K. L. Baldwin, neuroanatomist,
researcher, and artist, for creating the wonderful illustrations in the
book. Our second thanks go to the many colleagues, students,
friends, and family members who were kind enough to read and
provide feedback and suggestions on the text, and to the student
artists who aided us in seeing how our ideas could be visually
Other documents randomly have
different content
thereof till the waters are dried up. Though this may appear
marvellous, it is the fact with these people.”
Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. “Are four rivers (perhaps canals) belonging to
Maséna.”
“The present Sultan of Maséna is Ahmad Hamad Labo, who rules
over Timbuctoo, Jeri, and Oonbori, and indeed he may be called the
sovereign of the Gharb (West) in Soodan. He is now at war with
Sego.
“From Soccatoo to Benji is one day’s journey through Sisilbi,
which is the metropolis of Ghalooji. This country is level and fertile,
and contains rivers, woods, gardens, and wells. On the east side of it
there are two rocky, rugged mountains; on the right there is a river,
and on the left there are plains and barren deserts. In the environs of
the capital of Benji there are, however, several villages or towns
belonging to the Mohammedans. Between the territory of Benji and
that of Mouri is three days’ and nights’ journey, through barren and
sandy deserts. Mouri contains small mountains, woods, and has two
roads on the left; on one of which there is a deep stream, and on the
other are two lakes, surrounded with flowering and fruitful trees. This
country originally belonged to the Sultan of Kabi, and its inhabitants
are infidels. Its present sultan is named Ghagara, and has a city for
his residence named Lukoo-you, which has a great lake near it. The
chief towns of this country are Dogordoosi, Myzani, Toonsubi, and
Tabada. There are many smaller ones, which need not be mentioned
for brevity’s sake. The lands are mostly stony, sandy, and hilly. There
are a great many deep wells, well supplied with water; but the
country altogether has but few trees, though it abounds with reptiles.
“Next to it, at two days’ journey through dry deserts, with one track
of road only, though woody and hilly, the country of Emanoo lies, the
first town of which is Bakendoosi, which is of a moderate size; and
has, on the east, a lake surrounded with trees; and, on the west, a
well-known great and very tall tree. Between this town and the
metropolis of the sultan, whose name is Aghmarak, is half a day’s
journey. Emanoo is part of the countries of the Tuaricks, and
contains lakes, wells, mountains, hills, and sands. Its people live
upon the dokhun, and possess a great many cattle.
“Next to this, at one day’s journey, is the territory of Taghzar,
which also belongs to the Tuaricks, and contains hills, wells, and
natron lakes, which is called in our language káwa, or salt. East and
west of this country there are mountains well stocked with cattle. The
people are the worst and most ill-disposed of the tribes of Tuarick;
and their chief living is peas and dokhun. Their sultan is named
Hama-ráwadó, and also Hama-zanzamá, which means in our
language Dog.
“On the right of this country the territory of Jerma lies; it is a
narrow vale, between high hills and hillocks of sand; and on the east
it has a lofty mountain; it contains natron and other deep lakes. It is
inhabited by the tribe of Benoo-Hami, who are great warriors,
possessing swift and well-trained horses, and their spears are
extremely long and well-ironed with sharp blades. They are ill-
disposed people, and have no lawful sultan, but their chief is one
chosen out of the tribe. They subsist mostly upon dokhun, and their
country abuts on the great sea or river Cówara.
“On the left of the before-mentioned country (Taghzar) that of
Azwa lies, which is inhabited both by the Tuarick and by Benoo-
Hami. It contains plains, vales, mountains, hills, and sands; and has
deep streams. They possess abundance of cattle, and most of their
living is the dokhun.
“Between Taghzar and the river Cówara is three days’ journey,
through a barren desert, without any human being in it, inhabited
only by wild beasts; and it has a long and deep stream running
through sandy hills. From this stream the people of Taghzar provide
themselves with water when they go to the chase of the giraffe in the
winter season. The distance between their town and this stream is
half a day’s journey, through some woody plains, a few small
mountains, and sandy hills. On the road, however, there is a small
lake, surrounded with shrubs and trees, in which water is found only
in the autumn.
 “Near the river there are a great many white hills, without any
trees upon them; but on the banks there are very large tall trees of
tamarinds, under the shade of which travellers rest themselves.
W. “Now the great river Cówara comes, and here is its
representation. This great river is the largest in all the territories of
Houssa; we know not of its source, nor of any one who has seen it. It
rushes and precipitates itself through the country from left to right,
and contains many islands inhabited by fishermen, herdsmen,
husbandmen, and settlers. As to the variety of its animals, birds, and
fish, it is only known to the Lord Creator; it has rocks and mountains,
which break and shatter to pieces all vessels that are driven against
them; and its great roaring and noise, with the agitation of its waves,
astonish the hearer and terrify the beholder; and, at the same time,
exhibit the wonderful power of the Omnipotent Creator.
X. “Is an undescribed branch of the river.
Y. “The writing of this copy ended on Thursday afternoon, the 5th
of Rajab, 1242, of Hegira—(January 31, 1827, A.D.), in the city of
Soccatoo, residence of the Prince of the Faithful Sultan Mohammed
Bello, by his special command to me, Mohammed, son of Ahmad
Masané—(i.e. native of Maséna)—for Abdálláh the English
Christian.”
A. V. SALAMÉ.

No. II.

Translation of the Account of the “Expedition of Forty Christians,” &c.

&c.

“In past years a company of Christians came from the side of

Darwadar[2], a town belonging to the Christians, following the river to
Foota-tooro, and from thence they proceeded to Ségo. They were
forty men, and, on their arrival, the Sultan of Ségo received them
hospitably, gave them presents, and lodged them in one of his towns
called Sansaní (Sansanding of Park). They then acquainted him that
they wished to build a ship; to do which he gave them leave. During
their residence there, and the building of the ship, most of them died,
and by the time the ship was finished, five only were alive. These
five men embarked on board the vessel, and proceeded eastwards
till they arrived at Jeris, where they resided as long as God was
pleased. They thence went on to Maséna, following the river till they
came to one of our towns called Seebi[3], between Jeri and
Timbuctoo, that they might cross the way of the river[4]. They
sojourned there with the prince, who was one of the sons of the
Sultan of Timbuctoo, and whose name was Babal-kydiali. He
entertained them, and gave them leave to proceed to Timbuctoo.
They continued their voyage till they arrived in safety, five as they
were, at the city of Timbuctoo, where they resided as long as God
was pleased. Thence they went on towards the country of Sóghy till
they came to one of its towns called Gharwal-gáoo. There the
Tuaricks met, and fought them severely till three were killed, and two
only of them escaped with the vessel.
“They proceeded towards the east till they arrived at Boussa; but
the inhabitants fought and killed them, and their ship is to this
moment there. This is the substance and the truth of the case.”

Observation.—From the melancholy termination of this

adventure, and the place where the boat now exists, no one can
doubt that this account relates to Mungo Park and his party; and that
it is the most authentic and circumstantial that can be had. As to their
number being “forty Christians,” it is easily accounted for, when we
know that those people call any one who might be in the service of
an European “a Christian.” So that it is not improbable that all those
who were employed by Mungo Park were considered “Christians,”
and thus formed the number of forty.
A. V. S.
 No. III.

A Geographical Account of the Country, Rivers, Lakes, &c. from

Bornou to Egypt, &c.

“The territory of Bornou is very extensive, and contains

mountains, sands, and lakes: it has also two well known cities; one is
called Sira, the other Kataghoon, whose prince is named Dankawa.
To the name of Bornou that of Ghoodri is sometimes added.
“At twenty days’ journey from Bornou the territory of Adamawá
lies, which is mountainous, and contains vales, hills, and rivers. Two-
thirds of its inhabitants are infidels, and one-third Felan
Mahomedans. The metropolis of their sultan is called Ghórin. They
possess plenty of horses and oxen, and subsist upon the dura
(Indian corn). To the name of Adamawá the word Foobina is often
added.
“Next to Adamawá, at two days’ journey through a mountainous
desert abounding with rivers, the country of Lúghwí (Loggun of
Denham) lies; it contains a great many rivers, lakes, forests, and
trees. Its inhabitants are Soodan Mahomedans; but the desert
between it and Adamawá is infested with infidel robbers, who ride
their horses without saddles, fight most desperately, often interrupt
traffic on the road, and kill any one who falls into their hands.
“From Lúghwí to the territory of Baghármy, which comes next to it,
is two days’ journey through a desert containing a great and
extensive fresh-water sea, called Asoor or Ashoo[5]. This country is
hilly, sandy, and has small mountains; its width is a distance of ten
days, and its length is much more. Its inhabitants are Soodan,
Kahlans, and Arabs, who are robbers, and a treacherous set of
people. Their sultan, whose name is Borkoomada, is as cruel as
themselves, and even slays sheiks and Mahomedans. They possess
abundance of horses and oxen, get their water from wells, and
subsist upon the dokhun.
“Next to Baghármy the country of Roogá lies, which is stony,
abounding with rivers, and inhabited by infidels.
 “At three days’ journey through places inhabited by Arabs is the
territory of Wadaí; it is very extensive, hilly, sandy, mountainous, and
contains vales, lakes, and deep wells. Its sultan is named Yousuf,
and his capital, which is situated under high mountains, is called
Hoowara[6]; the inhabitants are a mixture of Arabs and Persians;
they are renowned for courage in war, swift horses, and the
abundance of their camels, oxen, and sheep. They have a great
many market places or towns, and their living is the dokhun and
dura.
“Next to Wadaí the country of Foor (Dar-foor) lies, at two days’
journey through mountains and woody deserts, in the midst of which
there is a vale containing dom trees. The territory of Foor is very
extensive, hilly, sandy, and droughty, so much so, that,
notwithstanding the great many deep wells they have, the people are
obliged to preserve their water within the trunks of trees. They are a
mixture of Felans, Arabs, and Kahlans; they possess plenty of swift
horses, camels, oxen, and sheep; they have all sorts of warlike
weapons, as shields, spears, armour, and so forth[7], and are great
warriors. Their sultan is named Mohammed Fadlú, who is a genteel,
handsome, black man, and renowned for his munificence and
generosity. His capital is called Nantalti, through which a river runs
during the rainy season; but in winter the people are obliged to dig
wells in the bed of that river for water. They live upon the dokhun and
dura, and have some date gardens.
“At ten days’ journey from Foor, through a mountainous, hilly,
sandy, and droughty desert, is the country of the Kordofal, which
extends seven days in length, and is inhabited by Arabs and
Kahlans; it is however possessed now by the Turks[8]. It is very
fertile, and has small mountains, hills, and sands; as also it contains
fine horses, and plenty of cattle and asses. The capital of its sultan is
called Loobi, and the living of the people is the dokhun.
“Next to Kordofal is Sonnar, which is a very extensive and fertile
country; and its inhabitants, who are Arabs, are blessed with every
sort of comfort by being able to cultivate the lands at all seasons of
the year. This fertility is owing to the situation of the country being
between two branches of the Nile; one of which, it is said, runs from
the eastward, and the other, which is called the White river, runs
from the westward; so that Sonnar is an island between the two
rivers. It is, however, now in possession of the Turks[9]. It is a very
cheap country, and its inhabitants possess plenty of oxen and asses,
and subsist upon the dokhun.
“The White river becomes very full of water during the rainy
season, which brings with it, from the Blue river, the animal called
Anghorotú[10]; but during the summer it becomes so shallow as to be
waded, the water not reaching above the thighs of people.
“Between Sonnar and Sawaken, which is on the Salt Sea coast
(the Red Sea), is a distance of forty days.”
A. S.

FOOTNOTES:

[2]It is perhaps Salvador.—A. S.

[3]It should here be observed that the writer, who is the
secretary of Sultan Bello, and wrote this by his order out of their
records, is a native of Maséna.—A. S.
[4]Whether this means the course, the current, or a reach of
the river, I cannot make out.—A. S.
[5]This must be another name for the great lake Shad or
Tchad.—A. S.—Perhaps rather the Asu river of Lander.—Ed.
[6]The crown prince of Wadaí, if we can call him so, was last
year in Egypt; and, upon his authority, this country lies under, or at
the foot of, the Mountains of the Moon.—A. S.
[7]When the present Pasha of Egypt sent his army to these
countries, a few years ago, some of these pieces of armour and
helmets were brought over to Cairo; and it was surprising to see
them resembling, in every respect, those of the ancient Romans
and Greeks.—A. S.
[8]Mohammed Ali, the present Pasha of Egypt.—A. S.
[9]See last Note.
 [10]Whether this name is meant for the crocodile or
hippopotamus I cannot say.—A. S.
 Nos. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. and IX.

Traditional Account of different Nations of Africa, &c.

4. “The territory of Malee is extensive, contains a gold mine, and

is inhabited by Soodans, whose origin is said to be from the
remnants of the Copts. Among its inhabitants are also Towroods,
Felans, Arabs, Jews, and Christians. These last are subject to two
Christian sovereigns, who send their ships to the harbour of this
place; and it is said that this country was formerly possessed by a
people called Sarankali, who, it is presumed, were Persians.
“The kingdom of Malee is an ancient and flourishing country, and
comprises two other provinces: one is Banbara, which contains
rivers, woods, sands, a gold mine, and is occupied by the Soodan,
who are still infidels, and possess great power; the other, on the west
of it, is Foota, which is inhabited by the Towrood, and the Sarankali,
or Persians. The Towrood people, it is said, were originally Jews,
others say Christians; that they came from the land between the two
rivers, the Nile[11] and the Euphrates, and established themselves
next to the Jews who inhabited the island; and that whenever they
oppressed or encroached upon the Jews, the latter had always
recourse to the protection of the officers of the Sehabat (the
immediate friends or companions of Mohammed), who then ruled
over them; that they (the Jews) used to say to them: ‘We came to
live in these islands to wait the coming of a prophet (after whom
there will be no other); after whose coming and death a relation of
his, named Aboo-Bakr, will succeed him; and Aboo-Bakr’s successor
will be Amroo, whose troops will come upon the surface of this water
(by which they meant Termes), protect us against you, and enable us
to conquer your country[12].’
“This is what we found written in our books.”

N. B.—The above account, with the exception of the latter part,

and a few small variations, has been already given to us in Sultan
Bello’s Geographical Account. (See Appendix, p. 166, First Journey.)
 A. S.

5. “The origin of the Felan tribe is stated to be as follows: When

the army of the Sehabat, during the reign of Omar Ben El-khattab,
penetrated into the Gharb, they arrived first at Termes; the Towrood
people having seen them, went immediately under their protection,
and became Mooslemeens, before the Jews who were waiting for
them[13]; in consequence of which they were enabled to fight and
subdue the Jews and Sarankali (Persians). When the Sehabat
wished their troops to retire from the Gharb, the prince of the
Towrood said to them: ‘You came to us with a faith of which we were
ignorant, and you are now going away without leaving any one to
instruct us in it and its laws.’ The Sehabat, hearing this appeal, left
behind them, for their instruction, Okbat Ben Aamer. He married a
daughter of the prince, named Gajmáa, and begot by her four sons,
Dytá, Náser, Wáyá, and Rerebi. He afterwards returned to Egypt,
and left his four sons behind with their mother. They grew up, and
spoke a different language from that of their father, which was the
Arabic, as well as from that of their mother, which was the old
Towrood, called Wakoori. They married, and had sons and
daughters, from whom the Felans descended; so that the father of
the Felans was an Arabian, and their mother a Towrood.
“This we found recorded in our books[14].”
6 “The country of Barghoo is situated on the right side of the river;
it is woody and sandy, and inhabited by tribes of the Soodan, who, it
is said, are descended from the slaves of the Felans, who were left
behind when their masters crossed the river; and thus they peopled
those countries. They are insubordinate and stubborn, as also very
powerful in magic; and it is recorded that, when the equitable Prince
Hadgi Mohamed Allah-kaja ruled over this province, he could gain no
advantage over them.
“Next to Barghoo, the province of Ghoorma lies; it is extensive,
mountainous, woody, sandy, and has various rivers. Its sultan is
named Boojujú, and the inhabitants are almost of the same
description as those of Barghoo, robbers, and depraved.
 “On the west of Ghoorma, the country of Mooshier, or Mooshee, is
situated. It is extensive, and contains a gold mine, rivers, woods, and
mountains. It is inhabited by tribes of the Soodan, who possess
plenty of swift horses, very tall asses, and are very powerful in war.
Their sultan is named Wagadoogo, and their asses are imported to
Ghoonja to carry the drums of the army.
“On the right of Mooshér the territory of Asantí lies, which is very
extensive.”

N. B.—The above account, with the exception of a few small

variations, has also been given to us in Sultan Bello’s geographical
account. (See Appendix, p. 165-6, First Journey.)

7. Itinerary.
“From Sira to Boogho is a distance of twenty days; thence to
Mooshkoom-Foosh, to Sary, to Sarwa, to Indam or Indag, to Warshá,
to Booshrá, to the mountain called Kaghoom, to Mount Kinghá, to
Mount Dooziyat, to Mount Aboo-Talfan, to Mount Aboo-Zarafat; then
to Rooga, to Dygo, to Kájá, to Katoonú; then to the mountain of
Nubia, to the gold mine called Tagly, which has no less than ninety-
nine mountains, the name of each of which begins with F; but three
only of these mountains are known, whose names are as follow:
Fazooglú, Fafaklú, and Foondooflú. In two days from this place, you
will get to the Nile of Sonnar; but from Tagly to Egypt, or Cairo, which
lies northward on the left side of it, is a journey of forty days,
travelling continually by the bank of the Nile; while from Tagly to
Sawaken, which is on the sea coast (the Red Sea), is a distance of
thirty days only.”

N. B.—This is the last of the seven papers which, it appears, were

written in Captain Clapperton’s memorandum book, by order of
Sultan Bello, and are dated “the 5th of Sháában, 1242, A.H.;” about
the 3d of March, 1827, A. D.
A. V. S.
 8. “The people of Nefé came originally from Kashná, and their
prince, Thoodyar, from Atághér. He first conquered the territory of
Beni, from the river called Bakoo to that which is named Kaduná;
then the territories of Booduor Boodi, and of Bassa or Boosa. He
thence embarked on the river Kowárá, and subdued the people on
its bank, called Abágha; after which he conquered the country of
Abbi (in which we now are[15]), and that of Kanbari, in conjunction
with the Prince of Yaouri. The river of these countries is called
Kantagoora. From Yaouri he proceeded to the great mountain, or
mountains, where Nefé, Beni, and Fatti-attu are: he then went to the
river Katha, or Kasha, and conquered the countries thereabouts;
which are, Ghoor-noofu, Koográ, Jemma, Doonfee, Taboo, and Aza,
or Azai. This prince was succeeded by Ithshab, whose successor
was Ithkootoo; and the whole number of princes who ruled over this
kingdom were thirteen. The rest of the eastern parts, as far as
Katáná, are in possession of a prince named Bakoo.
“About the right of Atághér the country called Nafry lies, by the
side of a river larger than that of Kowárá.
“The people of Beni are now extremely poor. They are submissive
to their princes, till and cultivate the lands of others, and pay
capitation tax. Sheep, goats, oxen, horses, and fowls, are scarce in
their country; and as to asses, there are none, except what are
imported from other countries. They have, however, plenty of
elephants.
“The river in the territory of Kowárá lies west, on the right hand
side; and that of Kaduná is in the centre; while the river Bakoo, or
Gakoo, is in the east.”

9. “The tribes who inhabit Noofee, it is said, were originally from

Beni; others say from Takra; and some assert that they came from
the middle of the river, perhaps an island. Their first town was
Jemma; but afterwards they inhabited Kafath or Kifath, Ayaki,
Karkena, and the eastern Kowárá, by a river called Matny. They had
also Kasoo or Kashoo, Zeer, the west of Malee or Moulee, Abyou,
and Wádá.
 “The river of Kowárá runs through mountains, and a great many
woods and forests; and has mountains on the north and the east.
This great river issues from the Mountain of the Moon; and what we
know of it is, that it comes from Sookan to Kiya, to Kabi, to Yaouri, to
Boossa, to Wá-wá, and to Noofee; but in that place there is another
river which springs from Zirmá, to Ghoober, to Zeffra, to Kory or
Koora, and then enters Noofee; its name is Kaduna. On the north of
it Kanbari lies; on the east is Kory; on the south are Cankan and
Kafath; and on the west is Bassoa, or Bashwa. About the centre of it
is the kingdom of Noofee, with that of Abyou.
“Noofee was once subject to the Felans; but when Edrees, a
prince of the Felans, ruled over it, and committed so many excesses
as even to violate its virgins, the people rose up against him, sword
in hand, and freed themselves; and thus they are now at war with the
Felans. Amongst them there are Mahomedans; but the greater part
are infidels, without either religion or law: they are drunkards and
oppressors; they neither pray, nor worship any god. They walk with
you during an hour as friends, while in the next they do not hesitate
to kill you. When one of them dies, they fasten the arms across the
chest, place the body in a sitting position in the grave, and one of
them lies by it, while another sits at the entrance. They have a large
and extensive cavern, in which they place their dead; but those who
guard this cavern, though they are something like priests, are the
most depraved persons. They sometimes send messengers to call
the relatives of the dead, enjoining them to bring with them the best
of every thing they have; and when these innocent people arrive at
the cavern, they are immediately plundered of what they take there;
and if they be females, their chastity is violated.
“This is the life and habits of these infidel Pagans; and
consequently the roads about Noofee are very dangerous and
perilous.
“When their king dies, they enter his house, and live in it.”

N. B.—It is proper here to observe, that the above two papers,

Nos. 8 and 9, are written, or rather scrawled out, unorthographically
and ungrammatically, and their composition is no more than a sort of
incoherent jargon. The translation, therefore, I have given of them is
mostly made out by conjecture. There is no doubt, however, that
Clapperton, who made some residence among these people, has
given some further account of them.
A. S.

FOOTNOTES:

[11]This is a mistake: it should be the Tigris.—A. S.

[12]The inventor of this story had, there is no doubt, meant it to
be as a prophecy for the coming of Mahomed, and that to show
that even the Christians themselves had foretold his coming; for
all these words which he puts into the mouth of these Christians
are the very result of Mahomed’s career, as recorded by the
Mahomedan historians.—A. S.
[13]See No. 4.
[14]Egypt was conquered by the Mahomedans in the 20th year
of Hegira, or the 10th after Mahomed’s death, under the Khalifat
of Omar Eben Elkattab, who, by the instigation of an intrepid
officer named Amrú Ben El-Aâss (who, under some very singular
circumstances, happened to visit Egypt and see its splendour a
few years previous), sent an army, consisting of no more than
4000 men, to subdue that mighty and rich country. Amrú
succeeded in his enterprise, and pushed on his conquest to the
Gharb; but Okbat Ben Amer’s name appears only as a witness to
the treaties concluded between the conqueror and the people of
Alexandria; though he was considered an officer of rank and
valour.—A. S.
[15]The writer of this account, it seems, was in Captain
Clapperton’s company, or attached to his service.—A. S.
A VOCABULARY OF THE YOURRIBA TONGUE.

Fowl, Ade′a
Goat, Aoor′ey
Sheep, Agon′ta
Pig, Ale′day
Salt, Ee′yo
Corn, Agbad′doo
Millet, Ok′kablebba
Grass, Co′co
Beads, Le′key
Gold, Sic′ca
Coral, In′yoh
Silver, Patak′ka
Cloth, Atchio
Man, Okon′a
Woman, Obin′a
King, Ob′bah
Horse, Ep′pee
Saddle, Gar′ree
Bridle, Ja′noo
Pepper, Att′ah
Shallots, Allabous′sa
Yams, Ish′oo
Plantains, Ayid′dey
Fire, Jun′ah
Water, Om′mee
Wood, Ig′gie
A pot, Coc′co
A calabash, E′bah
Duck, Pap′ayeh
Soup, Ob′eh
House, Ill′eh
Mug, Tank′ara
Plate, A′wo
Knife, O′beh
Head, Or′ree
Eyes, Oj′oo
Nose, Em′oo
Mouth, En′oo
Teeth, E′hee
Ears, Eff′ee
Chin, Ebb′ee
Neck, Enaff′oo
Shoulders, Edgeookah
Arm, Epk′wa
Elbow, Ebah′wa
Wrist, Onawa′wa
Hand, A′wa
Thumb, Atang′pako
Fingers, Ama′wa
The body, Agwid′demoo′gu
Belly, Inn′oh
Thigh, E′tah
Knee, Okk′oo
Leg, Ajoo′goo
Ankle, Coco′sey
Foot, Atalis′sey
Toes, Amalis′sa
Boots, Sa′labattoo
Sandals, Battoo
Fan, Abab′bey
Cow, Mall′oo
Dog, Aj′ah
Cub, Aloghin′ne
Mouse, Acoo′fu
Tiger, Ek′ka
Hyena, Eco′co
Vulture, Awood′ec
Jacket, Kook′oomah
Trousers, Shock′ootoo
Turkey, Fu′lutu′loo
Elephant, Gen′acoo
Hippopotamus, En′emy
Cotton wool, O′woo
Palm oil, Ep′eh
Cocoa-nut, Ay′ba
Tornado, Oj′uma′ri
A mule, Barak′ka
A jackass, Kettékettéh
A mat, Enn′ee
A bag, Ok′key
A gun, E′bah
A cutlass, Jom′ma
Silk, Ce′dah
Damask Ala′ri
Scarlet cloth, Doh′do
Blue ditto, Iss′ado′doh
Green ditto, Alar′ooya′goo
Yellow ditto,
Tree, E′wajass′kway
Sun, O′noo
Moon, Ajoo′pa
Star, Era′wo
God, Ala′noo
Thunder, Ar′oo
Lightning, Mannumanu
Rain, Odigoo
Wind, Avoo′voo
Cap, Fill′ah
Hat, Atte′ Ebo
Hair, Olloo
Beard, Eg′bee
Skin, All′ah
Nail, Eff′eh
One, Ok′ka
Two, Ma′jee
Three, Mai′ta
Four, Me′ne
Five, Mall′oo
Six, Mai′ffa mai′fa
Seven, Ma′gee
Eight, Ma′jo
Nine, Mai′ssu
Ten, May′wah
Twenty, Ok′ko
Thirty, Agboug
Forty, Ogojee
Fifty, Adett′a
Sixty, Ogotta
Seventy, Ado′nee
Eighty, Ogonee
Ninety, Ado′noo
One hundred, Ogo′noo
Two hundred, Egbe′o
Three ditto, Oa′doo
Four ditto, In′ee
Five ditto, Edag′bett′a
Six ditto, Eg′bett′a
Seven ditto, Edag′be′ne
Eight ditto, Eg′be′ne
Nine ditto, Edegba′noo
One thousand Eggba′noo
Two ditto Ebah
Three ditto Egba′dagoo
Four ditto Egbagie
Five ditto Egbe′dogmoo
Six ditto Egbaa′ta
Seven ditto Edegbaa′nee
Eight ditto, Egba′nee
Nine ditto, Edegbaa′noo
Ten ditto, Ebaa′noo
 FELLATAH.

One, Go
Two, Diddie
Three, Tattie
Four, Ni
Five, Jowie
Six, Jowego
Seven, Jowaddie
Eight, Jowatittie
Nine, Jowanie
Ten, Sapo
Eleven, Sapoago
Twelve, Sapodiddie
Thirteen, Sapoatittie
Fourteen, Sapoani
Fifteen, Sapoaji
Sixteen, Sapoajego
Seventeen, Sapoajaddide
Eighteen, Sapoajatittie
Nineteen, Sapoajanie
Twenty, Nogi
Twenty-one, Nogiago
Twenty-two, Nogiadiddie
Twenty-three, Nogiatittie
Twenty-four, Nogiani
Twenty-five, Nogiajowie
Twenty-six, Nogiajego
Twenty-seven, Nogiajadidde
Twenty-eight, Nogiajattitie
Twenty-nine, Nogiajanie
Thirty, Shapandatittie
Thirty-one, -------------- ago
Forty, Dabi
Fifty, Dabisapo
Sixty, Chapandijago
Seventy, Chapandajadidie
Eighty, Chapandagatittee
Ninety, Chapandajani
One hundred, Hemri
One hundred and one, Hemrigo
One hundred and two, Hemrididdie
One hundred and three, Hemritittie
One hundred and four, Hemrini
One hundred and five, Hemrijoie
Two hundred, Kamididdie
Three ditto, Kamitittie
Four ditto, Kamini
Five ditto, Kamijoie
One thousand, Koojuna
Two ditto, Koojunadiddie
Twenty ditto, Koojunaginogi
What is this? Konindadoom
Man, Gorko
Men, Worbaa
Woman, Debo
Women, Reuba
Boy, Beedo
Boys, Beepba
Girl, Surba
Girls, Surbaba
Horse, Putcha
Horses, Putche
Cow, Cows, Nagea.
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