Intelligence is one of the most talked-about subjects in psychology, but no standard definition exists.

Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability. Other theories of
intelligence hold that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills, and talents.

What Is Intelligence?

Despite substantial interest in the subject, there still isn't a consensus among experts about the
components of intelligence or whether accurate measurements of intelligence are even possible.

Although contemporary definitions of intelligence vary considerably, experts generally agree that
intelligence involves mental abilities such as logic, reasoning, problem-solving, and planning.
Specifically, current definitions tend to suggest that intelligence is the ability to:

 Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an important
component of intelligence.
 Recognize problems: To use knowledge, people first must identify the problems it might
address.
 Solve problems: People must then use what they have learned to come up with solutions to
problems.1

Research on intelligence plays a significant role in many areas including educational program funding,
job applicant screening, and testing to identify children who need additional academic help.

Main Theories of Intelligence in Psychology

Given the intense interest in the concept of intelligence, some of the field's greatest minds have explored
it from numerous angles. Following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged in
the last 100 years.

Major Types of Intelligence Theories

 General intelligence
 Primary mental abilities
 Multiple intelligences
 The triarchic approach to intelligence

General Intelligence

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described the concept of general intelligence, or the
"g factor." After using factor analysis to examine mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores
on these tests were remarkably similar.

People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who
scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is a general
cognitive ability that researchers can measure and express numerically.

Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887–1955) focused on seven primary mental abilities rather than a
single, general ability.3 These include:

 Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall

 Numerical ability: The ability to solve mathematical problems
 Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects
 Reasoning: The ability to find rules
 Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
 Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
 Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

Multiple Intelligences

Among more recent ideas about intelligence is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. He
proposed that traditional IQ testing does not fully and accurately depict a person's abilities. He proposed
eight different intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in various cultures:4

 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control body movements and handle objects
skillfully
 Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations, and desires of others
 Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values,
beliefs, and thinking processes
 Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and to
discern logical or numerical patterns
 Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre
 Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants, and other
objects in nature
 Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds,
meanings, and rhythms of words
 Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and visualize accurately and
abstractly

The Triarchic Approach to Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive
adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one's life."

Although he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he
suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as individual talents. Sternberg
proposed the concept of "successful intelligence," which involves three factors:

 Analytical intelligence: The ability to evaluate information and solve problems

 Creative intelligence: The ability to come up with new ideas
 Practical intelligence: The ability to adapt to a changing environment

Other Types of Intelligence

Of course, there are many other theories on the types of intelligence humans possess.
Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence

Psychologist Raymon Cattell, along with his student John Horn, created the theory of fluid vs.
crystallized intelligence.6 Fluid intelligence involves the ability to solve new problems without relying on
knowledge from previous experiences.

According to the theory, a person's fluid intelligence declines as they get older.7 Crystallized intelligence,
on the other hand, increases with age—this type of intelligence is based on concrete facts and
experiences.8

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence (sometimes called EQ) refers to a person's ability to regulate emotions, and use
their emotions to relate to others. Signs of emotional intelligence include strong self-awareness, empathy,
embracing change, and managing emotions in difficult situations.9

Intelligence (IQ) Testing

Efforts to quantify intelligence took a significant leap forward when German psychologist William Stern
first coined the term "intelligence quotient" (IQ) in the early 20th century.

Psychologist Alfred Binet developed the very first intelligence tests to help the French government
identify schoolchildren who needed extra academic assistance.

Binet was the first to introduce the concept of mental age: a set of abilities that children of a certain age
possess.10

Since that time, intelligence testing has emerged as a widely used tool that has led to many other tests of
skill and aptitude.

However, IQ testing continues to spur debate over its use, cultural biases, influences on intelligence, and
even the very way we define intelligence.

How Psychologists and Psychiatrists Measure Intelligence

Experts use a variety of standardized tests to measure intelligence. Some are aptitude tests administered in
a group setting such as the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) and the American College Test (ACT).
Others are IQ tests given to individuals.

IQ test scores average around 100. Most children with intellectual disabilities (85%) score between 55
and 70. Severe disabilities usually correspond to still lower scores.11

The following is a brief history of IQ tests as they were developed:

 Binet-Simon intelligence scale: This was the first IQ test ever made, and was developed in 1905
by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon.
 Stanford-Binet IQ test: This was psychologist Lewis Terman's adaptation of the Binet-Simon
test. Scores are based on a person's mental age divided by their chronological age (mental
age/chronological age x 100).
  Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): This was the first intelligence test for adults,
developed by David Wechsler in 1939. It was the first to use standardized normal distribution in
scoring and is commonly used today. It is divided into verbal and performance measures. Like
most modern tests, it scores on a bell curve.

Other tests that psychologists and psychiatrists use today include the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of
Cognitive Abilities, the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, the Cognitive Assessment System,
and the Differential Ability Scale.

Personality describes the unique patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish a person
from others. A product of both biology and environment, it remains fairly consistent throughout life.

Examples of personality can be found in how we describe other people's traits. For instance, "She is
generous, caring, and a bit of a perfectionist," or "They are loyal and protective of their friends."

The word "personality" stems from the Latin word persona, which refers to a theatrical mask worn by
performers to play roles or disguise their identities.

Although there are many definitions of personality, most focus on the pattern of behaviors and
characteristics that can help predict and explain a person's behavior.

Explanations for personality can focus on a variety of influences, ranging from genetic effects to the role
of the environment and experience in shaping an individual's personality.

Personality Characteristics

What exactly makes up a personality? Traits and patterns of thought and emotion play important roles,
and so do these fundamental characteristics of personality:

 Consistency: There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially,

people act in the same way or in similar ways in a variety of situations.
 Both psychological and physiological: Personality is a psychological construct, but research
suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.
 Affects behaviors and actions: Personality not only influences how we move and respond in our
environment, but it also causes us to act in certain ways.
 Multiple expressions: Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in
our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions.

The "Big Five" Personality Traits

How Personality Develops

There are a number of theories about personality, and different schools of thought in psychology
influence many of these theories. Some theories describe how personalities are expressed, and others
focus more on how personality develops.
Personality Types

Type theories suggest that there are a limited number of personality types that are related to biological
influences.

One theory suggests there are four types of personality. They are:

 Type A: Perfectionist, impatient, competitive, work-obsessed, achievement-oriented, aggressive,

stressed
 Type B: Low stress, even-tempered, flexible, creative, adaptable to change, patient, tendency to
procrastinate
 Type C: Highly conscientious, perfectionist, struggles to reveal emotions (positive and negative)
 Type D: Worrying, sad, irritable, pessimistic, negative self-talk, avoidance of social situations,
lack of self-confidence, fear of rejection, appears gloomy, hopeless

There are other popular theories of personality types such as the Myers-Briggs theory. The Myers-Briggs
Personality Type Indicator identifies a personality based on where someone is on four continuums:
introversion-extraversion, sensing-intuition, thinking-feeling, and judging-perceiving.

After taking a Myers-Briggs personality test, you are assigned one of 16 personality types. Examples of
these personality types are:1

 ISTJ: Introverted, sensing, thinking, and judging. People with this personality type are logical
and organized; they also tend to be judgmental.
 INFP: Introverted, intuitive, feeling, and perceiving. They tend to be idealists and sensitive to
their feelings.
 ESTJ: Extroverted, sensing, thinking, and judging. They tend to be assertive and concerned with
following the rules.
 ENFJ: Extroverted, intuitive, feeling, and judging. They are known as "givers" for being warm
and loyal; they may also be overprotective.

Personality Tests

In addition to the MBTI, some of the most well-known personality inventories are:

 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

 HEXACO Personality Inventory
 Caddell's 16PF Personality Questionnaire
 Enneagram Typology

Personality Traits

Trait theories tend to view personality as the result of internal characteristics that are genetically based
and include:

 Agreeable: Cares about others, feels empathy, enjoys helping others

 Conscientiousness: High levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, goal-directed behaviors
  Eager-to-please: Accommodating, passive, and conforming
 Extraversion: Excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of
emotional expressiveness
 Introversion: Quiet, reserved
 Neuroticism: Experiences stress and dramatic shifts in mood, feels anxious, worries about
different things, gets upset easily, struggles to bounce back after stressful events
 Openness: Very creative, open to trying new things, focuses on tackling new challenges

The Trait Theory of Personality

Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud and
emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind on personality. Psychodynamic theories include
Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the
environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, often ignoring the role of
internal thoughts and feelings. Behavioral theorists include B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson.

Humanist

Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in developing
a personality. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Impact of Personality

Research on personality can yield fascinating insights into how personality develops and changes over the
course of a lifetime. This research can also have important practical applications in the real world.

For example, people can use a personality assessment (also called a personality test or personality quiz) to
learn more about themselves and their unique strengths, weaknesses, and preferences. Some assessments
might look at how people rank on specific traits, such as whether they are high in extroversion,
conscientiousness, or openness.

Other assessments might measure how specific aspects of personality change over time. Some
assessments give people insight into how their personality affects many areas of their lives, including
career, relationships, personal growth, and more.

Understanding your personality type can help you determine what career you might enjoy, how well you
might perform in certain job roles, or how effective a form of psychotherapy could be for you.2

Personality type can also have an impact on your health, including how often you visit the doctor and how
you cope with stress. Researchers have found that certain personality characteristics may be linked to
illness and health behaviors.3

How Personality Type Can Affect Physical and Mental Health

Personality Disorders

While personality determines what you think and how you behave, personality disorders are marked by
thoughts and behavior that are disruptive and distressing in everyday life. Someone with a personality
disorder may have trouble recognizing their condition because their symptoms are ingrained in their
personality.

Personality disorders include paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, antisocial
personality disorder, borderline personality disorder (BPD), and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD).4

While the symptoms of personality disorders vary based on the condition, some common signs include:

 Aggressive behavior
 Delusional thinking
 Distrust of others
 Flat emotions (no emotional range)
 Lack of interest in relationships
 Violating others' boundaries

Some people with BPD experience suicidal thoughts or behavior as well.

If you are having suicidal thoughts, contact the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 988 for support
and assistance from a trained counselor. If you or a loved one are in immediate danger, call 911.

For more mental health resources, see our National Helpline Database.

If you are concerned that elements of your personality are contributing to stress, anxiety, confusion, or
depression, it's important to talk to a doctor or mental health professional. They can help you understand
any underlying conditions you may have.

It is often challenging to live with a personality disorder, but there are treatment options such as therapy
and medication that can help.4

Summary

Understanding the psychology of personality is much more than simply an academic exercise. The
findings from personality research can have important applications in the world of medicine, health,
business, economics, technology, among others. By building a better understanding of how personality
works, we can look for new ways to improve both personal and public health.

In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular
object, person, thing, or event.

Attitudes are often the result of experience or upbringing. They can have a powerful influence over
behavior and affect how people act in various situations. While attitudes are enduring, they can also
change. The main components of attitude are cognitive, affective, and behavioral, which means they
incorporate thoughts, feelings, and actions.

This article explores what attitudes mean in psychology and how they are formed. It also covers how
attitudes impact behaviors and factors contributing to attitude change.

Illustration by JR Bee, Verywell

Overview of Attitude

To understand the meaning of attitudes, it can be helpful to look at a few different examples. Attitude can
refer to:

 Your opinion on the death penalty

 Your opinion about which political party does a better job of running the country
 Whether prayer be allowed in schools
 Whether violence on television be regulated

Chances are that you probably have fairly strong opinions on these and similar questions. You've
developed attitudes about such issues, and these attitudes influence your beliefs as well as your behavior.
Attitudes are an important topic of study within the field of social psychology. But what exactly is an
attitude? How does it develop?

How Psychologists Define Attitudes

Psychologists define attitudes as a learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This can include
evaluations of people, issues, objects, or events. Such evaluations are often positive or negative, but they
can also be uncertain at times.

For example, you might have mixed feelings about a particular person or issue. Researchers also suggest
that there are several different characteristics that make up attitudes.1 The components of attitudes are
sometimes referred to as the ABC's of attitude.

3 Components of Attitude
  Affective Component: How the object, person, issue, or event makes you feel
 Cognitive Component: Your thoughts and beliefs about the subject
 Behavioral Component: How attitude influences your behavior

Attitudes can also be explicit and implicit. Explicit attitudes are those that we are consciously aware of
and that clearly influence our behaviors and beliefs. Implicit attitudes are unconscious but still have an
effect on our beliefs and behaviors.

Attitude Formation

Several factors can influence how and why attitudes form, including:

 Experience Attitudes form directly as a result of experience. They may emerge due to direct
personal experience, or they may result from observation.
 Social Factors Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social
roles relate to how people are expected to behave in a particular role or context. Social norms
involve society's rules for what behaviors are considered appropriate.
 Learning Attitudes can be learned in a variety of ways. Consider how advertisers use classical
conditioning to influence your attitude toward a particular product. In a television commercial,
you see young, beautiful people having fun on a tropical beach while enjoying a sports drink.
This attractive and appealing imagery causes you to develop a positive association with this
particular beverage.
 Conditioning Operant conditioning can also be used to influence how attitudes develop. Imagine
a young man who has just started smoking. Whenever he lights up a cigarette, people complain,
chastise him, and ask him to leave their vicinity. This negative feedback from those around him
eventually causes him to develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking and he decides to give up
the habit.
 Observation Finally, people also learn attitudes by observing people around them. When
someone you admire greatly espouses a particular attitude, you are more likely to develop the
same beliefs. For example, children spend a great deal of time observing the attitudes of their
parents and usually begin to demonstrate similar outlooks.

Recap

Attitudes can form through direct experience, social influence, formal education, conditioning processes,
and observation.

Attitudes and Behavior

We tend to assume that people behave according to their attitudes. However, social psychologists have
found that attitudes and actual behavior are not always perfectly aligned.2

After all, plenty of people support a particular candidate or political party yet fail to vote. People also are
more likely to behave according to their attitudes under certain conditions.

Factors Influencing Attitude Strength

 Are an expert on the subject

 Expect a favorable outcome
 Experience something personally
  Stand to win or lose something due to the issue
 Are repeatedly expressed attitudes

Changing to Match Behavior

In some cases, people may alter their attitudes to better align them with their behavior. Cognitive
dissonance is a phenomenon in which a person experiences psychological distress due to conflicting
thoughts or beliefs.3 In order to reduce this tension, people may change their attitudes to reflect their
other beliefs or actual behaviors.

What Is Cognitive Dissonance?

Using Cognitive Dissonance

Imagine the following situation: You've always placed a high value on financial security, but you start
dating someone very financially unstable. You have two options to reduce the tension caused by
conflicting beliefs and behavior.

You can end the relationship and seek a more financially secure partner, or you can de-emphasize the
importance of fiscal stability.

In order to minimize the cognitive dissonance between your conflicting attitude and behavior, you either
have to change the attitude or change your actions.

Why Attitudes Change

While attitudes can have a powerful effect on behavior, they are not set in stone. The same influences that
lead to attitude formation can also create attitude change.4

Learning Theory

Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning can be used to bring about
attitude change. Classical conditioning can be used to create positive emotional reactions to an object,
person, or event by associating positive feelings with the target object.

Operant conditioning can be used to strengthen desirable attitudes and weaken undesirable ones. People
can also change their attitudes after observing the behavior of others.

Elaboration Likelihood Theory

This theory of persuasion suggests that people can alter their attitudes in two ways. First, they can be
motivated to listen and think about the message, thus leading to an attitude shift.

Or, they might be influenced by the characteristics of the speaker, leading to a temporary or surface shift
in attitude. Messages that are thought-provoking and that appeal to logic are more likely to lead to
permanent changes in attitudes.

Dissonance Theory
As mentioned earlier, people can also change their attitudes when they have conflicting beliefs about a
topic. In order to reduce the tension created by these incompatible beliefs, people often shift their
attitudes.

Recap

Attitudes are not set in stone and may change when people learn new information, when they are
persuaded by influential people, or when they experience discomfort due to holding conflicting beliefs.

Developmental psychology is the study of how humans grow, change, and adapt across the course of their
lives. Developmental psychologists research the stages of physical, emotional, social, and intellectual
development from the prenatal stage to infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

Learn more about developmental psychology, including the definition, types, life stages, and how to seek
treatment when necessary.

Definition

According to the American Psychological Association (APA), developmental psychology is a

branch of psychology that focuses on how human beings grow, change, adapt, and mature across various
life stages.1

In each of the life stages of developmental psychology, people generally meet certain physical, emotional,
and social milestones.2 These are the major life stages, according to developmental psychologists:

 Prenatal development: Developmental psychologists are interested in diagnoses, such as Down

syndrome, that might be noticed during the prenatal (before birth) stage. They also investigate
how maternal behaviors (behaviors of the pregnant parent), such as nutrition and drug use, could
affect the developing fetus.
 Early childhood: Developmental psychologists are interested in whether young children are
meeting key milestones, such as walking, talking, and developing fine motor skills (coordination
in the hands, fingers, and wrists). They might also be interested in a child’s attachment to their
parents and other caregivers.
 Middle childhood: In this stage, children learn about the world and acquire knowledge through
experimentation, questioning, and observation. They begin to develop logical and moral
reasoning skills.
 Adolescence: Adolescence is a time of major strides in terms of personal development and
identity formation. Teens and young adults might experiment with various identities, career
choices, or areas of interest.
 Early adulthood: During early adulthood, most people are focused on preparing for the rest of
their lives through a focus on education, career, and financial independence. Romantic
relationships, marriage, family-building, setting down “roots,” and child-rearing are often a focus
of this life stage.
 Middle adulthood: Middle-aged adults are often focused on helping the next generation, whether
in their own family or their community. They are also often interested in the legacy they’ll leave
behind.
 Older adulthood: In addition to physical health challenges, older people might face issues like
dementia or cognitive decline (decline in thinking, remembering, and reasoning). Older adults
 also often need to reflect on their lives, tell their stories, and find meaning and peace within the
aging process.

The Origins of Developmental Psychology

During its early development as a branch of psychology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
developmental psychology focused on infant and child development. As the field grew, so did its focus.
Today, developmental psychologists focus on all stages of the human life span.3

Signs of Repressed Childhood Trauma in Adulthood

Types

As developmental psychology grew over time, various researchers proposed theories about how to
understand the process of human development. Depending on their training, a developmental
psychologist might focus on a specific theory or approach within the field.

Here are a few of the major branches of developmental psychology.

Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Building on Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoananlysis Sigmund Freud’s theory of
psychosexual development, psychologist Erik Erikson proposed a life span theory that included eight
stages of psychosocial development.4

Each of the stages corresponds to both an age range and a core “crisis” (such as trust vs. mistrust in
infancy) that must be resolved before someone can move on to the next.

Cognitive Developmental Theory

Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development focuses on how a typical child learns to
make sense of their world through observation, experimentation, logical reasoning, and analysis.5

It includes four stages of intellectual development, beginning at birth and ending at age 12.

What Is ADHD?

Attachment Theory

Attachment theory, originally developed by psychoanalyst John Bowlby, establishes the importance of a
supportive, steady, and loving caregiver in infant and child development.6

If a child doesn’t establish such a connection, or if they experience parental separation or loss, they might
continue to have a hard time with healthy attachments as they get older.

Sociocultural Developmental Theory

While Bowlby considered the importance of the immediate family in child development, psychologist
Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural developmental theory looks at the role of society.7
Cultural influences and beliefs can have a profound impact on how a person views their own identity and
relates to others.

Types of Mental Health Therapy

How It Works

Some developmental psychologists conduct research into a particular aspect of human development, such
as physical growth, intellectual development, social/emotional progress, or communication skills.3 Others
study trends in a community over time, such as how people from different sociocultural backgrounds
view the aging process.

Developmental psychologists can also directly diagnose and treat various conditions. For example, a
developmental psychologist could refer a parent to a speech-language pathologist or physical therapist if
their child isn’t meeting the usual developmental milestones (such as walking or talking) by the typical
age.8 They might also diagnose someone with a learning disability or help an older adult in hospice care
(end-of-life care) who feels unsatisfied when they look back at their life.

Conditions Treated

Developmental psychologists can help people address developmental issues in order to reach their full
potential.

Some of the conditions a developmental psychologist might treat are:

 Learning disabilities
 Intellectual disabilities
 Developmental delays
 Motor skill delays
 Issues with social and emotional development
 Auditory processing (hearing) disorder
 Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
 Speech and language delays
 Dementia
 Mental health conditions like anxiety and depression, especially related to life stages

A developmental psychologist might perform physical and/or cognitive testing to diagnose your child or
refer them to another specialist, such as a:

 Physical therapist (helps people improve movement and manage pain)

 Occupational therapist (helps people adjust to everyday activities after injury, illness, or
disability)
 Speech-language pathologist (treats speech, language, and social and
cognitive communication)
 Psychotherapist (uses talk therapy to treat mental health conditions)
 Neurologist (medical doctor who treats disorders of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves)
 Psychiatrist (medical doctor specializing in mental health disorders)

A developmental psychologist will also likely ask you and your child questions about their issues in areas
of their life such as friends, behavior, or school performance.
Summary

Developmental psychology is the study of how human beings grow and change over the course of their
lives. Many developmental psychologists focus on the intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
development of infants, children, and adolescents. Others treat and assess people of all ages.

Developmental psychologists can treat issues such as developmental delays, intellectual disabilities,
learning disabilities, speech and language delays, motor skill delays, dementia, anxiety, depression,
auditory processing disorder, autism spectrum disorder, and more. They also make referrals to other
specialists, such as physical therapists, psychiatrists, and speech-language pathologists.

Heredity and Environment in Psychology- B.Ed notes

byEducation minder October 21, 2023

Heredity and environment are two fundamental factors in psychology that influence
an individual's development and behaviour. It is due to heredity and environment
that individuals differ in habits, physique, personality, attitudes, values, sentiments
and aspirations.

Meaning of Heredity and Environment

Heredity (Nature): This refers to the biological process responsible for passing the
physical and mental characteristics from one generation to another. It plays a
crucial role in determining various traits, such as physical characteristics and some
aspects of personality. Researchers study heredity through twin studies and
genetics to understand how genes impact behaviour. Johann Mendel (father of
genetics) gave three laws of heredity. These are:

• Law of like begets like

• Law of variation

• Law of regression

Environment (Nurture): This encompasses all those external factors that

influence an individual, including upbringing, culture, social interactions, and life
experiences The environment can shape personality, beliefs, and
behaviour. Psychologists examine environmental influences through studies of
upbringing, peer groups, and societal factors.

Relationship between Heredity and Environment

The relationship between heredity and environment is that of multiplication, not of

addition. In other words, the development of an individual is a result of heredity
multiplied by environment that is:

Development = Heredity (H) × Environment (E)

Both heredity and environment impact development in a complex manner.

Definition of Heredity and Environment

According to Douglas and Holland, “Ones heredity consists of all the structures,
physical characteristics, functions or capacities derived from parents, other
ancestry or species.”

According to Woodworth, “Environment covers all the outside factors that have
acted on the individual since he began life.”

According to Boring, Longfield and Weld, “ The environment is everything that

affects the individual except his genes.”

Role (Influence) of Heredity and Environment

Understanding the role of heredity and environment in psychology is crucial for

comprehending the complexities of human behavior and development. Both factors
play significant roles in shaping an individual's psychological makeup, particularly
during the critical stages of child development.

According to Hayward: The child is endowed with some inherited tendencies but
they are so flexible like plastic that they can be moulded almost in any way,
according to the educator’s desires.

• Growth and Development

Both heredity and environment influence an individual’s physical, cognitive and

emotional development. For example: the child is likely to possess good height if
the parents are tall. However, his physique would depend on the care and nutrition
he got.

• Personality

The total personality of the individual is more influenced by the environment rather
than by heredity. Parenting styles can shape a child’s values, beliefs and behavioral
patterns.

• Intelligence

Intelligence differences are caused by heredity and environment. Children of

intelligent parents are generally bright. Children raised in enriched environments
and resources tend to have higher IQ.

• Social Development

Both nature and nurture factors can influence an individual’s ability to form and
maintain social support networks which are crucial for mental health and well-being.
Difference between Heredity and Environment

Heredity and environment are interrelated in the development of a child but there
are some differences between the two:

• Heredity involves the transmission of traits while environment involves everything

that surrounds the child.

• Heredity is responsible for all inborn traits such as height, eye colour, and skin
tone so it’s fixed and remains constant but environment’s influence can change
throughout life.

• Heredity gives us our working capital while environment gives us the opportunity
to invest.

• Heredity is innate and genetic while environment is learned and experienced.

What Is Abnormal Psychology?

Abnormal psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with psycho-pathology and abnormal
behavior, or the patterns of emotion, thought, and behavior that can be signs of a mental health
condition. The term covers a broad range of disorders, from depression to obsessive-compulsive
disorder (OCD) to personality disorders.

The term "abnormal" is the subject of considerable debate. What exactly is "normal" and who
gets to decide? The social norms that are often used to determine what is normal versus abnormal
can shift over time, so settling on a standard definition isn't simple or straightforward.

Counselors, psychologists, and psychotherapists often work directly in this field, often in a
clinical context. Rather than the distinction between normal and abnormal, psychologists in this
field focus on the level of distress that behaviors, thoughts, or emotions might cause.

Defining Abnormality
If a behavior is creating problems in a person's life or is disruptive to other people, then this
would be an "abnormal" behavior. In such cases, the behavior may require some type of mental
health intervention.

According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), nearly one in five U.S. adults live
with a mental illness.

The following characteristics are usually included:

 Abnormal behavior occurs infrequently. However, statistical infrequency alone is not a

sufficient definition. Some healthy, desirable, and beneficial behaviors also occur
infrequently. And other uncommon behaviors or characteristics have no bearing on how a
 person behaves or functions. So just because something is unusual or uncommon does not
mean it should be defined as abnormal.
 Abnormal behavior creates distress. These behaviors may disturb the individual, or
they may be upsetting and disruptive to others.
 Abnormal behavior affects a person's ability to function. People who are displaying
these behaviors may struggle to function normally in their daily life, which can affect
their relationships, work, school, and home life.
 Abnormal behavior is socially disruptive. It may violate social norms and make it
difficult for people to function in social settings and maintain social relationships.

Recap

Abnormal psychology doesn't just address behaviors that are considered statistically infrequent.
Instead, it focuses on behaviors that create distress, make it difficult to function, and that may be
socially disruptive.

What Are the Four Approaches to Abnormal Psychology?

There are a number of different perspectives used in abnormal psychology. While some
psychologists or psychiatrists may focus on a single viewpoint, many mental health professionals
use elements from multiple areas in order to better understand and treat psychological disorders.

Psychoanalytic Approach

This perspective has its roots in the theories of Sigmund Freud. The psychoanalytic approach
suggests that many abnormal behaviors stem from unconscious thoughts, desires, and memories.

While these feelings are outside of awareness, they are still believed to influence conscious
actions.

Therapists who take this approach believe that by analyzing their memories, behaviors, thoughts,
and even dreams, people can uncover and deal with some of the feelings that have been leading
to maladaptive behaviors and distress.

Behavioral Approach

This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on observable behaviors. In behavioral therapy,

the focus is on reinforcing positive behaviors and not reinforcing maladaptive behaviors.

The behavioral approach targets only the behavior itself, not the underlying causes. When
dealing with abnormal behavior, a behavioral therapist might utilize strategies such as classical
conditioning and operant conditioning to help eliminate unwanted behaviors and teach new
behaviors.

Medical Approach
This approach to abnormal psychology focuses on the biological causes of mental illness,
emphasizing understanding the underlying cause of disorders, which might include genetic
inheritance, related physical illnesses, infections, and chemical imbalances. Medical treatments
are often pharmacological in nature, although medication is often used in conjunction with some
type of psychotherapy.

Cognitive Approach

The cognitive approach to abnormal psychology focuses on how internal thoughts,

perceptions, and reasoning contribute to psychological disorders. Cognitive treatments typically
focus on helping the individual change their thoughts or reactions.

Cognitive therapy might also be used in conjunction with behavioral methods in a technique
known as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).

Recap

Psychologists often look at abnormal behaviors through a number of different perspectives

including the psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive, and medical approaches. Such perspectives
can influence how a condition is treated, but therapists also often draw on techniques from
multiple approaches.

Topics in Abnormal Psychology

The main topics in abnormal psychology are the study, understanding, diagnosis, treatment, and
prevention of psychological disorders. Psychological disorders are defined as patterns of
behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple areas of life. These conditions create
distress for the person experiencing symptoms.

Mental health professionals use the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,"
published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), for a variety of purposes. The manual
contains a listing of psychiatric disorders, diagnostic codes, information on the prevalence of
each disorder, and diagnostic criteria. Some of the categories of psychological disorders include:

 Anxiety disorders, such as social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and generalized
anxiety disorder
 Mood disorders, such as depression and bipolar disorder
 Neuro-developmental disorders, such as intellectual disability or autism spectrum
disorder
 Neuro-cognitive disorders including delirium
 Personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder, avoidant personality
disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
 Substance use disorders

Criticisms of Abnormal Psychology

The field of abnormal psychology is not without criticism. In addition to debates over the use of
the term "abnormal" itself, some believe that this area has a number of shortcomings.

In particular, some feel that this area stigmatizes vulnerable and oppressed people. Critics also
suggest that the field of abnormal psychology tends to pathologize normal variations in human
behavior.4

Some also propose that the medical approach to mental illness often focuses only on biological
and genetic determinants of distress rather than taking a more holistic view.5 It also does not
account for the fact that there are major cultural differences in what is deemed normal and
abnormal.

Research has also found that learning more about abnormal psychology appears to do little to
combat stigma regarding mental illness. One study found that teaching students about abnormal
psychology did not reduce mental health stigma, improve attitudes toward mental illness, or
increase help-seeking behaviors among students.6

Summary
Abnormal psychology may focus on atypical behavior, but its focus is not to ensure that all
people fit into a narrow definition of "normal." In most cases, it is centered on identifying and
treating problems that may be causing distress or impairment in some aspect of an individual's
life. By better understanding what is "abnormal," researchers and therapists can come up with
new ways to help people live healthier and more fulfilling lives.