Course: 22BM206

ANALOG AND DIGITAL ICS

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Module-1

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Module-2

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Operational Amplifier Basics
➢ An operational amplifier is a very high gain amplifier having very high
input impedance (typically a few megohms) and low output
impedance (less than 100Ω).
➢ The basic circuit is made using a difference amplifier having two inputs
(plus and minus) and at least one output.
➢ The plus (+) input produces an output that is in phase with the signal
applied, whereas an input to the minus (-) input results in an opposite-
polarity output.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Basics
➢ The ac equivalent circuit of the op-amp is shown in the below figure.
➢ As shown, the input signal applied between input terminals sees an
input impedance Ri that is typically very high. The output voltage is
shown to be the amplifier gain times the input signal taken through an
output impedance Ro , which is typically very low.
➢ An ideal op-amp circuit, as shown in Fig. b, would have infinite input
impedance, zero output impedance, and infinite voltage gain.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Basics
➢ The basic circuit connection using an op-amp is shown in the Figure.
➢ The circuit shown provides operation as a constant-gain multiplier.
➢ An input signal V1 is applied through resistor R1 to the minus input. The
output is then connected back to the same minus input through
resistor Rf . The plus input is connected to ground.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Basics
➢ Since the signal V1 is essentially applied to the minus input, the
resulting output is opposite in phase to the input signal.
➢ The following figure shows the op-amp replaced by its ac equivalent
circuit.

Operation of op-amp as constant-gain multiplier:

op-amp ac equivalent circuit

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Basics
➢ If we use ideal op-amp equivalent circuit, replacing Ri by an infinite
resistance and Ro by a zero resistance, the ac equivalent circuit is that
shown as in the below figure.

Operation of op-amp as constant-gain multiplier: a) op-amp ac equivalent circuit (b)

ideal op-amp equivalent circuit

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Basics
➢ The circuit is then redrawn, as shown in the below figure, from which
circuit analysis is carried out.

Operation of op-amp as constant-gain multiplier: a) ideal op-amp equivalent circuit;

(b) redrawn equivalent circuit

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Basics

➢ The result in above equation shows that the ratio of overall output to
input voltage is dependent only on the values of resistors R1 and Rf —
provided that Av is very large.
Unity Gain
If Rf = R1, the gain is
𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 = − = −𝟏
𝑹𝟏

➢ so that the circuit provides a unity voltage gain with 180° phase
inversion. If Rf is exactly R1 , the voltage gain is exactly 1.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Basics
Constant-Magnitude Gain

If Rf is some multiple of R1 , the overall amplifier gain is a constant. For example, if Rf

= 10R1, then
𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 = − = −𝟏𝟎
𝑹𝟏

➢ circuit provides a voltage gain of exactly 10 along with a 180° phase

inversion from the input signal.
➢ If we select precise resistor values for Rf and R1 , we can obtain a wide
range of gains, the gain being as accurate as the resistors used and is
only slightly affected by temperature and other circuit factors.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Practical Op-Amp Circuits
The op-amp can be connected in a large number of circuits to provide various
operating characteristics.
Applications:
➢ Linear Applications
❑ Inverting Amplifier
❑ Noninverting Amplifier
❑ Summing Amplifier

➢ Non Linear Applications

❑ Integrator
❑ Differentiator
❑ Comparator

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑ Inverting Amplifier
The most widely used constant-gain amplifier circuit is the inverting amplifier.

𝑹𝒇
Output voltage 𝑽𝒐 = − 𝑽
𝑹𝟏 𝒊

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Linear Applications of Op-Amps
EXAMPLE: If the inverting amplifier circuit has R1 = 100kΩ and Rf =500k Ω, what
output voltage results for an input of V1 = 2 V?

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Linear Applications of Op-Amps
EXAMPLE: If the inverting amplifier circuit has R1 = 100kΩ and Rf =500k Ω, what
output voltage results for an input of V1 = 2 V?

Solution:
𝑹𝒇 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝜴
𝑽𝒐 = − 𝑽𝒊 = − 𝟐𝐕 = −𝟏𝟎𝐕
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌𝜴

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑ Noninverting Amplifier

𝑹𝒇
Output voltage 𝑽𝒐 = 𝟏 + 𝑽
𝑹𝟏 𝒊

Inverting amplifier connection is more widely used because it has better frequency stability

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Linear Applications of Op-Amps
EXAMPLE: Calculate the output voltage of a noninverting amplifier for values of V1
= 2V, Rf = 500kΩ, and R1 = 100kΩ.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Linear Applications of Op-Amps
EXAMPLE: Calculate the output voltage of a noninverting amplifier for values of V1
= 2V, Rf = 500kΩ, and R1 = 100kΩ.

Solution:

𝑹𝒇 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝜴
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟏 + 𝑽𝒊 = 𝟏 + 𝟐𝑽 = 𝟔 𝟐 𝑽 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽
𝑹𝟏 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌𝜴

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑ Summing Amplifier

The circuit shows a three-input summing amplifier circuit, which provides a

means of algebraically summing (adding) three voltages, each multiplied by a
constant-gain.

𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝒇
Output voltage 𝑽𝒐 = − 𝑽 + 𝑽 + 𝑽
𝑹𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟐 𝑹 𝟑 𝟑

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Linear Applications of Op-Amps
EXAMPLE: Calculate the output voltage of an op-amp summing amplifier for the

following sets of voltages and resistors. Use Rf = 1MΩ in all cases.

a. V1 = +1V, V2 = +2V, V3 = +3V, R1 = 500kΩ, R2 = 1MΩ, R3 = 1MΩ.

b. V1 = -2V, V2 = +3V, V3 = +1V, R1 = 200kΩ, R2 = 500kΩ, R3 = 1MΩ.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Linear Applications of Op-Amps
EXAMPLE: Calculate the output voltage of an op-amp summing amplifier for the
following sets of voltages and resistors. Use Rf = 1MΩ in all cases.
a. V1 = +1V, V2 = +2V, V3 = +3V, R1 = 500kΩ, R2 = 1MΩ, R3 = 1MΩ.
b. V1 = -2V, V2 = +3V, V3 = +1V, R1 = 200kΩ, R2 = 500kΩ, R3 = 1MΩ.

Solution:
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω
a. 𝑽𝒐 = − (+𝟏𝑽) + (+𝟐𝑽) + (+𝟑𝑽)
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω

𝑽𝒐 = − 𝟐 +𝟏𝑽 + 𝟏 +𝟐𝑽 + 𝟏 +𝟑𝑽 = −𝟕𝑽

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω

b. 𝑽𝒐 = − (−𝟐𝑽) + (+𝟑𝑽) + (+𝟏𝑽)
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌Ω

𝑽𝒐 = − 𝟓 −𝟐𝑽 + 𝟐 +𝟑𝑽 + 𝟏 +𝟏𝑽 = +𝟑𝑽

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑ Integrator

➢ If the feedback component used is a capacitor, the resulting connection is called

an integrator.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑Integrator
➢ The virtual-ground equivalent circuit (Fig) shows that an expression for the
voltage between input and output can be derived in terms of the current I from
input to output.
➢ Recall that virtual ground means that we can consider the voltage at the
junction of R and XC to be ground (since Vi = 0V) but that no current goes into
ground at that point.
➢ The capacitive impedance can be expressed as

1 1
𝑋𝐶 = =
𝑗ω𝐶 𝑠𝐶

where s = jω is in the Laplace notation.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑ Integrator

.* Solving for Vo / V1 yields

𝑉1 𝑉𝑜 −𝑉𝑜
𝐼= =− = = −sC𝑉𝑜
𝑅 𝑋𝑐 1
𝑠𝐶

𝑉𝑜 −1
=
𝑉1 𝑠𝐶𝑅

This expression can be rewritten in the time domain as

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
➢ The output is the integral of the input, with an inversion and scale multiplier of
1/RC
➢ If a fixed voltage is applied as input to an integrator circuit, the output voltage
grows over a period of time, providing a ramp voltage.
➢ The output voltage ramp (for a fixed input voltage) is opposite in polarity to the
input voltage and is multiplied by the factor 1/RC.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
If more than one input may be applied to an integrator, as shown in the figure, with
the resulting operation given by

Fig: Summing-integrator circuit

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑Differentiator

The resulting relation for the differentiator circuit being

where the scale factor is -RC

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
❑ Gain–Bandwidth
➢ Because of the internal compensation circuitry included in an op-amp, the
voltage gain drops off as frequency increases.
➢ At low frequency down to dc
operation the gain is that value listed
by the manufacturer’s specification
AVD(voltage differential gain) and is
typically a very large value.
➢ As the frequency of the input signal
increases, the open-loop gain drops
off until it finally reaches the value of
1 (unity).
➢ The unity-gain frequency and cutoff
frequency are related by

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
EXAMPLE: Determine the cutoff frequency of an op-amp having specified values B1
= 1 MHz and AVD = 200 V/mV.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
EXAMPLE: Determine the cutoff frequency of an op-amp having specified values B1
= 1 MHz and AVD = 200 V/mV.

Solution:

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
❑ Slew Rate (SR)
Slew rate = maximum rate at which amplifier output can change in volts per
microsecond (V/μs)

➢ The slew rate provides a parameter specifying the maximum rate of change of the
output voltage when driven by a large step-input signal.
➢ * If one tried to drive the output at a rate of voltage change greater than the slew
rate, the output would not be able to change fast enough and would not vary over
the full range expected, resulting in signal clipping or distortion.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
❑ Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), is defined by the following equation

Where Ad – differential gain of the amplifier

Ac – common-mode gain of the amplifier

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
❑ offset Voltage
➢ Although the op-amp output should be 0 V when the input is 0 V, in actual
operation there is some offset voltage at the output.
➢ The output offset voltage is then determined by the input offset voltage and the
gain of the amplifier, as connected by the user.
➢ The output offset voltage can be shown to be affected by two separate circuit
conditions: (1) an input offset voltage VIO and (2) an offset current due to the
difference in currents resulting at the plus (+) and minus (-) inputs.

Input offset voltage VIO

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
EXAMPLE: Calculate the output offset voltage of the circuit in Figure. The op-amp
spec lists VIO = 1.2 mV.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
EXAMPLE: Calculate the output offset voltage of the circuit in Figure. The op-amp
spec lists VIO = 1.2 mV.

Solution:

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
❑ offset Voltage

Output Offset Voltage Due to Input Offset Current IIO

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
EXAMPLE: Calculate the offset voltage for the circuit of Figure for op-amp
specification listing IIO = 100nA.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
EXAMPLE: Calculate the offset voltage for the circuit of Figure for op-amp
specification listing IIO = 100nA.

Solution:

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
❑ Bias Current (IIB)

+ −
A parameter related to IIO and the separate input bias currents 𝐼𝐼𝐵 and 𝐼𝐼𝐵 is the
average bias current defined as

Can determine the separate input bias currents using the specified values IIO and
IIB

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
EXAMPLE: Calculate the input bias currents at each input of an op-amp having
specified values of IIO = 5nA and IIB = 30nA.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Op-Amp Specifications
EXAMPLE: Calculate the input bias currents at each input of an op-amp having
specified values of IIO = 5nA and IIB = 30nA.

Solution:

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑Comparator
➢ A comparator circuit accepts input of linear voltages and provides a digital output
that indicates when one input is less than or greater than the second.
➢ A basic comparator circuit can be represented as

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑Comparator
➢ The output is a digital signal that stays at a high voltage level when the
noninverting (+) input is greater than the voltage at the inverting (-) input and
switches to a lower voltage level when the noninverting input voltage goes below
the inverting input voltage.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑Comparator
➢ The internal circuit used to build a comparator contains essentially an op-amp
circuit with very high voltage gain.
➢ operation of a comparator using a 741 op-amp is explained using this figure

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑Comparator (Example)
➢ Figure shows a circuit operating with a positive reference voltage connected to
the inverting input and the output connected to an indicator LED.
➢ The reference voltage level is set at +6V

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑Comparator (Example)
➢ Figure shows a circuit operating with a positive reference voltage connected to
the inverting input and the output connected to an indicator LED.
➢ The reference voltage level is set at +6V

LED on when Vi goes

above Vref (= +6 V)

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑Comparator (Example)
➢ Figure shows a circuit operating with a positive reference voltage connected to
the non-inverting input and the output connected to an indicator LED.
➢ The reference voltage level is set at +6V

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑Comparator (Example)
➢ Figure shows a circuit operating with a positive reference voltage connected to
the non-inverting input and the output connected to an indicator LED.
➢ The reference voltage level is set at +6V

LED on when Vi goes

below Vref (= +6 V)

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Non Linear Applications of Op-Amps
❑Comparator IC Units
➢ Although op-amps can be used as comparator circuits, separate IC
comparator units are more suitable.
➢ Some of the improvements built into a comparator IC are
▪ faster switching between the two output levels,
▪ built-in noise immunity to prevent the output from oscillating when
the input passes by the reference level,
▪ outputs capable of directly driving a variety of loads.
➢ Few popular IC comparators are
➢ IC 311 Comparator [8pin]
➢ IC 339 Comparator (Quad Computer IC) [14pin]

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Digital-Analog Converters
➢ Many voltages and currents in electronics vary continuously over some range of
values
➢ In digital circuitry the signals are at either one of two levels, representing the
binary values of 1 or 0.
➢ An analog–digital converter (ADC) obtains a digital value representing an input
analog voltage, whereas a digital–analog converter (DAC) changes a digital value
back into an analog voltage.
➢ Two basic converters used frequently are

❑ Digital to Analog Conversion

❑ Analog to Digital Conversion

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Digital-Analog Converters
❑Digital to Analog Conversion
➢ Ladder Network Conversion – One popular scheme uses a network of resistors
called a ladder network.
➢ A ladder network accepts inputs of binary values at, typically, 0V or Vref and
provides an output voltage proportional to the binary input value.
➢ Figure shows a ladder network with four input voltages, representing 4 bits of
digital data and a dc voltage output.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Digital-Analog Converters
❑Digital to Analog Conversion
circuit example with 0110 input.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Digital-Analog Converters
❑Digital to Analog Conversion
circuit example with 0110 input.

The resulting output voltage is

0X1+1X2+1X4+0X8
𝑉𝑜 = = 6𝑉
16

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Digital-Analog Converters
❑Digital to Analog Conversion
➢ Block diagram of a typical DAC using a
ladder network is shown here.
➢ The ladder network, referred to in the
diagram as an R-2R ladder , is
sandwiched between the reference
current supply and current switches
connected to each binary input, the
resulting output current being
proportional to the input binary value.
➢ The binary input turns on selected
legs of the ladder, the output current
being a weighted summing of the
reference current.
➢ Connecting the output current
through a resistor will produce an
analog voltage if desired.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Digital-Analog Converters
❑Analog to Digital Conversion
Dual-Slope Conversion – A popular method for converting an analog voltage into a
digital value is the dual-slope method.

Fig: Logic diagram of Analog-to-digital conversion using dual-slope method

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Digital-Analog Converters
❑Analog to Digital Conversion
➢ The analog voltage to be converted
is applied through an electronic
switch to an integrator or ramp-
generator circuit (essentially a
constant current charging a
capacitor to produce a linear ramp
voltage).
➢ The digital output is obtained from a counter operated during both positive and
negative slope intervals of the integrator.
➢ For a fixed time interval, the analog voltage connected to the integrator raises the
voltage at the comparator input to some positive level.
➢ The counter advances during this time, whereas the integrator’s output decreases
at a fixed rate until it drops below the comparator reference voltage, at which time
the control logic receives a signal (the comparator output) to stop the count.
➢ The digital value stored in the counter is then the digital output of the converter.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Digital-Analog Converters
❑Analog to Digital Conversion
Dual-Slope Conversion – A popular method for converting an analog voltage into a
digital value is the dual-slope method.

Fig: Waveform of Analog-to-digital conversion using dual-slope method

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Digital-Analog Converters
❑Analog to Digital Conversion
Ladder-Network Conversion - Another popular method of analog-to-digital
conversion uses a ladder network along with counter and comparator circuits.

Fig: Logic diagram of Analog-to-digital conversion using ladder network

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Digital-Analog Converters
❑Analog to Digital Conversion
➢ Ladder-Network Conversion - A digital counter advances from a zero count while a
ladder network driven by the counter outputs a staircase voltage, which increases
one voltage increment for each count step.
➢ A comparator circuit, receiving both staircase voltage and analog input voltage,
provides a signal to stop the count when the staircase voltage rises above the
input voltage. The counter value at that time is the digital output.

Fig: Waveform of Analog-to-digital conversion using ladder network

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
➢ A popular application uses op-amps to build active filter circuits.
➢ A filter circuit can be constructed using passive components: resistors and
capacitors.
➢ An active filter additionally uses an amplifier to provide voltage amplification and
signal isolation or buffering.
➢ A filter that provides a constant output from dc up to a cutoff frequency fOH and
then passes no signal above that frequency is called an ideal low-pass filter.
➢ A filter that provides or passes signals above a cutoff frequency fOL is a high-pass
filter.
➢ When the filter circuit passes signals that are above one ideal cutoff frequency and
below a second cutoff frequency, it is called a bandpass filter.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters

Fig: Ideal filter response: (a) low-pass; (b) high-pass; (c) bandpass.
Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑Low-Pass Filter
A first-order, low-pass filter using a single resistor and capacitor is shown in figure.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑Low-Pass Filter
The voltage gain below the cutoff frequency is constant at

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑Low-Pass Filter
Connecting two sections of filter results in a second-order low-pass filter with
cutoff at -40 dB per decade—closer to the ideal characteristics.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑Low-Pass Filter
Example: Calculate the cutoff frequency of a first-order low-pass filter for R1 =
1.2kΩ and C1 = 0.02μF.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑Low-Pass Filter
Example: Calculate the cutoff frequency of a first-order low-pass filter for R1 =
1.2kΩ and C1 = 0.02μF.

Solution:

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑High-Pass Filter
A first-order, high-pass filter using a single resistor and capacitor is shown in figure.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑High-Pass Filter
A second-order, high-pass filter using a single resistor and capacitor is shown in
figure.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑High-Pass Filter
The amplifier cutoff frequency is

with a second-order filter R1 = R2, and C1 = C2 results in the same cutoff frequency

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑Band-Pass Filter
Figure shows a bandpass filter using two stages, the first a high-pass filter and the
second a low-pass filter, the combined operation being the desired bandpass
response.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑Band-Pass Filter
Figure shows a bandpass filter using two stages, the first a high-pass filter and the
second a low-pass filter, the combined operation being the desired bandpass
response.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑Band-Pass Filter
Example: Calculate the cutoff frequencies of the bandpass filter circuit of Fig. 11.34
with R1 = R2 = 10kΩ, C1 = 0.1μF, and C2 = 0.002μF.

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Active Filters
❑Band-Pass Filter
Example: Calculate the cutoff frequencies of the bandpass filter circuit of Fig. 11.34
with R1 = R2 = 10kΩ, C1 = 0.1μF, and C2 = 0.002μF.

Solution:

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR
 Thank You

Dr. Priscilla Dinkar, Asst. Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering, SEECE, VFSTR