UNIT 1

Role of Communication
Communication plays a key role in the success of any workplace program or policy and serves as the foundation for all five
types of psychologically healthy workplace practices. Communication about workplace practices helps achieve the desired
outcomes for the employee and the organization ina variety of ways:
Bottom-up communication (from employees to management) provides information about employee needs, values,
perceptions and opinions.This helps organizations select and tailor their programs and policies tomeet the specific needs of
their employees.
Top-down communication (from management to employees) can increase utilization of specific workplace programs by
making employees aware of their availability, clearly explaining how to access and use the services, and demonstrating that
management supports and values the programs.
Examples of communication strategies that can help make your workplace programs successful include:
Providing regular, on-going opportunities for employees to provide feedback to management. Communication vehicles may
include employee surveys, suggestion boxes, town hall meetings, individual or small group meeting with managers, and an
organizational culture thatsupports open, two-way communication.
Making the goals and actions of the organization and senior leadership clear to workers by communicating key activities,
issues and developments to employees and developing policies that facilitate transparency and openness.
Assessing the needs of employees and involving them in the development and implementation of psychologically healthy
workplacepractices.
Using multiple channels (for example, print and electronic communications, orientation and trainings, staff meetings and
public addresses) to communicate the importance of a psychologically healthy workplace to employees.
Leading by example, by encouraging key organizational leaders to regularly participate in psychologically healthy
workplace activities in ways that are visible to employees.
Communicating information about the outcomes and success of specific psychologically healthy workplace practices to all
members of the organization.
Defining and Classifying Communication
Effective communication is central to the success of any business organization. Communication is a pervasive activity which
encompasses almost all facets of our lives. Much of our life is spent communicating with each other, be it at our workplace
or in our family life.
The term communication is derived from the Latin word ‘communis’ which means common. Thus, communication involves
rendering common ideas,opinions or information, that is, the sharing of ideas opinions or information.
Communication is defined as the interchange of thought or information between two or more persons to bring about mutual
understanding.
Characteristics of Communication
Based on the above definitions there are certain characteristics of communication. These are:
Communication involves at least two persons-the senders and the receiver.
It involves the transfer of ideas, facts, emotions, gestures, symbols, and action from sender to receiver.
Understanding is an essential component of communication, that is,the ideas, opinions, emotions and so on, conveyed
should be accurately replicated in the receivers’ mind.
Communication may be intentional or unintentional.
The purpose of communication is to elicit action, inform or to express acertain point of view.
Communication is a two-way process, that is, feedback from the receiver to the sender is an essential component of
communication.
Communication is a dynamic process, that is, it grows and develops.
Communication is systematic, that is, every component of the process is affected by every other component. For example,
if there is a fault inthe telephone (channel of communication), it will affect the message received by the receiver.
Classification of Communication
Formal Communication
Informal Communication
This classification is based on channels of communication. The channel of communication refers to the path through which
the information is transmitted
Formal Communication
Formal communication refers to the official communication which follows the formal channel. Formal channels are the paths
of communication that are institutionally determined, that is, they are established by the organization.
This communication follows the scalar chain of command.
Formal communication can be oral or written. Oral communication can take the form of interviews, meetings, presentations,
and so on. Written communication can take the form of notes, memos, letters, reports, and so on.
Formal communication can be further classified into the following:
Downward communication: It refers to communication from top-level managers to middle or lower-level managers. Any
communication that moves from employees to supervisors, supervisors to managers, managers to executives, regional
manager to general manager and so on, maybe categorized as upward communication.
Upward communication: It refers to communication from lower-level managers to top-level managers. It travels through
senior executives to junior level functionaries, from the controlling office to the branch, from the head of the division to the
head of the unit.
Horizontal or Lateral communication: Lateral communication generally takes place in an organization and is neither
upward nor downward. It proceeds in a horizontal manner and takes place among equals and at peer level.
Interactive communication: Interactive communication is essentially a two-way process. It takes place through meetings,
conferences, teleconferencing, multimedia presentations, group discussions, and other such active two-way exchanges.
Informal Communication
Informal communication refers to communication between individuals and groups, which does not follow the official
recognized channel. It is a result of social interaction among the various members of the organization. The transfer of
information may be related to work or other matters and it cuts across official lines of communication.
The network or pathway of informal communication is called grapevine. The untrue part of the grapevine is called rumor.
The following are some of the characteristics of grapevine:
In grapevine, the flow of information takes place in all directions.
Transmission of the information is rapid because the chain of commandis not followed.
It is selective about people who receive the information.
It extends beyond the formal hierarchy system.
Purpose of Communication
Management is getting the things done through others. The people working in the organisation should therefore be informed
how to do the work assigned to them in the best possible manner. The communication is essential in any organisation.
The purpose of the communication can be summed up into the following:
1. Flow of Information:
The relevant information must flow continuously from top to bottom and viceversa. The staff at all levels must be kept
informed about the organisational objectives and other developments taking place in the organisation. A care should be
taken that no one should be misinformed. The information should reach the incumbent in the language he or she can
understand better. The use of difficult words should be avoided. The right information should reach the right person, at right
time through the right person.
2. Coordination:
It is through communication the efforts of all the staff working in the organisation can be coordinated for the accomplishment
of the organisational goals. The coordination of all personnel’s and their efforts is the essence of management which can be
attained through effective communication.
3. Learning Management Skills:
The communication facilitates flow of information, ideas, beliefs, perception, advice, opinion, orders and instructions etc.
both ways which enable the managers and other supervisory staff to learn managerial skills through experience of others.
The experience of the sender of the message gets reflected in it which the person at the receiving end can learn by
analyzing and understanding it.
4. Preparing People to Accept Change:
The proper and effective communication is an important tool in the hands of management of any organisation to bring about
overall change in the organisational policies, procedures and work style and make the staff to accept and respond positively.
5. Developing Good Human Relations:
Managers and workers and other staff exchange their ideas, thoughts and perceptions with each other
throughcommunication. This helps them to understand each other better. They realize the difficulties faced by their
colleagues at the workplace. This leads to promotion of good human relations in the organisation.
6. Ideas of Subordinates Encouraged:
The communication facilitates inviting and encouraging the ideas from subordinates on certain occasions on any task. This
will develop creative thinking. Honoring subordinates’ ideas will further motivate them for hard work and a sense of
belonging to the organisation will be developed. It will provide them with the encouragement to share information with their
superiors without hesitation. The managers must know the ideas, thoughts, comments, reactions and attitudes of their
subordinates and subordinates should know the same from the lowest level staff of their respective departments.
Process of Communication
The Communication is a two-way process wherein the message in the form of ideas, thoughts, feelings, opinions is
transmitted between two or more persons with the intent of creating a shared understanding.
Simply, an act of conveying intended information and understanding from one person to another is called as communication.
The term communication is derived from the Latin word “Communis” which means to share. Effective communication is
when the message conveyed by the sender is understood by the receiver in exactly the same way as it was intended.
Communication Process
The communication is a dynamic process that begins with the conceptualizing of ideas by the sender who then transmits the
message through a channel to the receiver, who in turn gives the feedback in the formof some message or signal within the
given time frame. Thus, there are Seven major elements of communication process:
1. Sender: The sender or the communicator is the person who initiates the conversation and has conceptualized the idea
that he intends to convey it to others.
2. Encoding: The sender begins with the encoding process wherein he uses certain words or non-verbal methods such as
symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to translate the information into a message. The sender’s knowledge, skills, perception,
background, competencies, etc.has a great impact on the success of the message.
3. Message: Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets the message that he intends to convey. The message can be
written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as body gestures, silence, sighs, sounds, etc. or anyother signal that triggers the
response of a receiver.
4. Communication Channel: The Sender chooses the medium through which he wants to convey his message to the
recipient. It must be selected carefully in order to make the message effective and correctlyinterpreted by the recipient. The
choice of medium depends on the interpersonal relationships between the sender and the receiver and also on the urgency
of the message being sent. Oral, virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used communication
mediums.
5. Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intendedor targeted. He tries to comprehend it in the best
possible manner such that the communication objective is attained. The degree to which the receiver decodes the message
depends on his knowledge of the subject matter, experience, trust and relationship with the sender.
6. Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s message and triesto understand it in the best possible manner. An
effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the message in exactly the same way as it was intended by
the sender.
7. Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures the receiver has received the message and
interpreted it correctly as itwas intended by the sender. It increases the effectiveness of the communication as it permits the
sender to know the efficacy of his message. The response of the receiver can be verbal or non-verbal.
Note: The Noise shows the barriers in communications. There are chances when the message sent by the sender is not
received by the recipient.
Characteristics of Successful Communication
Several researchers have stressed the importance of communicating one’s feelings effectively. This is as important to a
social structure as breathing is to life. Hence we have to understand the various properties or characteristicsthat must
qualify our communicating activities and processes. A varied set ofskills are thus essential.
The following is a summary of all the characteristics of effective
communication:
Clear
Concise
Concrete
Coherent
Complete
Courteous
Listening for Understanding
Focus and Attention
Emotional Awareness and Control
 Clear

The primary character of any spoken or written form of transmission of information should be to state the message clearly.
There are several ways to do it. For example, the sentences should be short and simple. We should prefer the active voice
over the passive voice. If we have to convey several messages then it is convenient to state it in separate bulleted points.
Concise
Time is an essential parameter in communications. The normal attention span is just a few minutes long. If you present your
message in a clear and beautiful manner which is very long, the crux of the report or the message may be lost altogether.
Long and lengthy communique is boring and avoided by most. So to summarize this point, effective communication has to
be concise.
Concrete
Whatever message or information or data is present in your communique, it should be well-footed. Your arguments should
have data that suitably backs it up. A tangible argument is always easy to understand.
Coherent
Suppose you are telling a story. What if you start from the middle part? Or what if you state the end in the beginning? Of
course, the whole point of narrating a story would become vain. Similarly, when you are presenting your communique, you
need to be coherent. You need to understand what goes where and what comes when.
The key to a coherent write-up is a well-planned, logical and sequential presentation of the information. The main ideas
should be differentiable and they should follow each other in a way that is derivative of some rules.
Courteous
We know that all business communications should have some degree of formal flavor. The presenter should try his best to
be honest, respectful, considerate, open and polite with the receiver of the information. The message when supplemented
with proper care and kindness will definitely find an audience.
A rude presenter will have no audience even if the message he delivers is perfectly effective and important. Offensive words
can put off certain factions of people. You should take ample care to not be racist or misogynist or any other bad influence
on the audience. Even while using humor you should be very careful that you are not being inconsiderate or cruel to
anyone.
Listening For Understanding
Communication doesn’t only mean presenting or generating information. It also means to receive it. In fact, an effective
communication channel must have a transducer and a receiver. Half of the faculty for the process is thus a receiver. For the
purpose of effective communication, a receiver should have certain qualifiers.
He should be able to detect the message which may be hidden deep within the chatter or gibberish. The good listener
observes not only what a person speaks of but also the non-verbal cues. This is what helps in the complete and full
understanding of the transmission.
A good listener will have some qualities. He would be emotionally intelligent and mature, objective in approach and
practical. His understanding of the message should not be influenced by his own personal judgments of either the topic or
the presenter. A good listener should be able to filter through all of these limitations and reach the actual message that the
presenter is relaying before them.
Focus and Attention
Multitasking is the name of the game these days. However, while receiving or transmitting information, a certain level of
focus is essential. Suppose you are in a star communication channel and are relaying information to multiple sources. You
are replying to emails, sending emails, and answering phones.
Any misplaced communication could be disastrous. Also, while receiving information, if you lose focus, you may miss the
important parts of the message altogether. Hence we say that focus and attention are very crucial for effective
communication.
Emotional Awareness and Control
This is the last but certainly the most important aspect of effective communication. Emotions will guide you through any
situation of life. Whether you accept a message with the intention it is relaying with or not, depends on the emotional
maturity and your emotional intelligence. Both while relaying information or while receiving it, you have to take extreme care
in keeping yourself in an emotionally stable state.

Importance of Communication in Management

1. Basis of Decision-Making and Planning:
Communication is essential for decision-making and planning. It enables the management to secure information without
which it may not be possible to take any decision. The quality of managerial decisions depends upon the quality of
communication. Further, the decisions and plans of the management need to be communicated to the subordinates. Without
effective communication, it may not be possible to issue instructions to others. Effective communication helps in proper
implementation of plans and policies of the management.
2. Smooth and Efficient Working of an Organisation:
In the words of George R. Terry, “It serves as the lubricant, fostering for the smooth operations of management process.”
Communication makes possible the smooth and efficient working of an enterprise. It is only through communication that the
management changes and regulates the actions of the subordinates in the desired direction.
3. Facilitates Co-Ordination:
Management is the art of getting things done through others and this objective of management cannot be achieved unless
there is unity of purpose and harmony of effort. Communication through exchange of ideas and information helps to bring
about unity of action in the pursuit of common purpose. It binds the people together and facilitates co-ordination.
4. Increases Managerial Efficiency:
Effective communication increases managerial efficiency. It is rightly said that nothing happens in management until
communication takes place. The efficiency of manager depends upon his ability to communicate effectively with the
members of his organisation. It is only through communication that management conveys its goals and desires, issues
instructions and orders, allocates jobs and responsibility and evaluates performance of subordinates.
5. Promotes Co-operation and Industrial Peace:
Effective communication creates mutual understanding and trust among the members of the organisation. It promotes co-
operation between the employer and the employees. Without communication, there cannot be sound industrial relations and
industrial peace. It is only through communication that workers can put in their grievances, problems and suggestions to the
management.
6. Helps in Establishing Effective Leadership:
Communication is the basis of effective leadership. There cannot be any leadership action without the effective
communication between the leader and the led. Communication is absolutely necessary for maintaining man to man
relationship in leadership. It brings the manager (leader) and the subordinates (led) in close contact with each other and
helps in establishing effective leadership.
7. Motivation and Morale:
Communication is the means by which the behaviour of the subordinates is modified and change is effected in their actions.
Through communication workers are motivated to achieve the goals of the enterprise and their morale is boosted. Although
motivation comes from within yet the manager can also motivate people by effective communication, e.g., proper drafting of
message, proper timing of communication and the way of communication, etc.
8. Increases Managerial Capacity:
Effective communication increases managerial capacity too. A manager is a human being and has limitations as to time and
energy that he can devote to his activities. He has to assign duties and responsibilities to his subordinates.
Through communication, a manager can effectively delegate his authority and responsibility to others and thus, increases
his managerial capacity.
9. Effective Control:
Managerial function of control implies the measurement of actual performance, comparing it with standards set by plans and
taking corrective actions of deviations, if any, to ensure attainment of enterprise objectives according to preconceived and
planned acts. Communication acts as a tool of effective control. The plans have to be communicated to the subordinates
,the actual performance has to be measured and communicated to the top management and a corrective action has to be
taken or communicated so as to achieve the desired goals. All this may not be possible without an efficient system of
communication.
10. Job Satisfaction:
Effective communication creates job satisfaction among employees as it increases mutual trust and confidence between
management and the employees. The gap between management and the employees is reduced through the efficient means
of communication and a sense of belongingness is created among employees. They work with zeal and enthusiasm.
11. Increases Productivity and Reduces Cost:
Effective communication saves time and effort. It increases productivity and reduces cost. Large- scale production involves
a large number of people in the organisation. Without communication, it may not be possible to work together in a group and
achieve the benefits of large-scale production.
Communication in crisis
Crisis refers to sequence of unwanted events at the workplace which lead to disturbances and major unrest amongst the
individuals. Crisis generally arises on a short notice and triggers a feeling of threat and fear in the employees. In simpler
words crisis leads to uncertainty and causes major harm to the organization and its employees.
It is essential for the employees to sense the early signs of crisis and warn the employees against the negative
consequences of the same. Crisis not only affects the smooth functioning of the organization but also pose a threatto its
brand name.
Crisis Communication refers to a special wing which deals with the reputationof the individuals as well as the organization.
Crisis communication is an initiative which aims at protecting the reputation of the organization and maintaining its public
image. Various factors such as criminal attacks, government investigations, media enquiry can tarnish the image of an
organization.
Crisis Communication specialists fight against several challenges which tend to harm the reputation and image of the
organization.

Need for Crisis Communication

Crisis can have a negative effect on brand image. Crisis Communication experts are employed to save an organization’s
reputation against various threats and unwanted challenges.
Brand identity is one of the most valuable assets of an organization. The main purpose of Crisis Communication team is to
protect the brand identity and maintain the organization’s firm standing within the industry.
Crisis Communication specialists strive hard to overcome tough situations and help the organization come out of difficult
situations in the best possible and quickest way.
Crisis Communication Process
Employees should not ignore any of the external parties and important clients Come out, meet them and discuss the
problem with them.
There is nothing to be ashamed of. If needed, seek their help. Media must not be ignored. Answer their questions. Avoiding
media makes situation all the more worse.
Don’t criticize individuals. Show a feeling of care and concern for them.Share their feelings and encourage them not to lose
hope. Encourage them to deliver their level best. Put yourself in their place. Respect them and avoid playing blame games.
Effective communication must be encouraged at the workplace during emergency situations. Employees should have an
easy access to superior’s cabins to discuss critical issues with them and reach to a mutually acceptable solution.
Information must flow across all departments in its desired form. One should not rely on mere guess works or assumptions
during crisis. Make sure the information you have is accurate.
Crisis communication specialists must learn to take quick decisions. Remember one needs to respond quickly and
effectively during unstable situations. Think out of the box and devise alternate plans for the smooth functioning of
organization.
Make sure information is kept confidential. Serious action must be taken against employees sharing information and data
with external parties. Such things are considered highly unprofessional and unethical and spoil the reputation of the
organization.
The superiors must evaluate performance of employees on a regular basis. Ask for feedbacks and reports to know what
they are up to.
Conduct surprise audits to track performance of employees.
Organizations hire crisis communication specialists to overcome tough times as well as to maintain their reputation and
position in the market.
Barriers to Communication
The process of communication has multiple barriers. The intended communique will often be disturbed and distorted leading
to a condition of misunderstanding and failure of communication. The Barriers to effective communication could be of many
types like linguistic, psychological, emotional, physical, and cultural etc. We will see all of these types in detail below.
Linguistic Barriers
The language barrier is one of the main barriers that limit effective communication. Language is the most commonly
employed tool of communication. The fact that each major region has its own language is one of the Barriers to effective
communication. Sometimes even a thick dialect may render the communication ineffective.
As per some estimates, the dialects of every two regions changes within a few kilometers. Even in the same workplace,
different employees will have different linguistic skills. As a result, the communication channels that span across the
organization would be affected by this.
Psychological Barriers
There are various mental and psychological issues that may be barriers to effective communication. Some people have
stage fear, speech disorders, phobia, depression etc. All of these conditions are very difficult to manage sometimes and will
most certainly limit the ease of communication.
Emotional Barriers
The emotional IQ of a person determines the ease and comfort with which they can communicate. A person who is
emotionally mature will be able to communicate effectively. On the other hand, people who let their emotions take over will
face certain difficulties. A perfect mixture of emotions and facts is necessary for effective communication. Emotions like
anger, frustration, humour, can blur the decision-making capacities of a person and thus limit the effectiveness of their
communication.
Physical Barriers to Communication
They are the most obvious barriers to effective communication. These barriers are mostly easily removable in principle at
least. They include barriers like noise, closed doors, faulty equipment used for communication, closed cabins, etc.
Sometimes, in a large office, the physical separation between various employees combined with faulty equipment may
result in severe barriers to effective communication.
Cultural Barriers of Communication
As the world is getting more and more globalized, any large office may have people from several parts of the world. Different
cultures have a different meaning for several basic values of society. Dressing, Religions or lack of them, food, drinks, pets,
and the general behaviour will change drastically from one culture to another. Hence it is a must that we must take these
different cultures into account while communication. This is what we call being culturally appropriate. In many multinational
companies, special courses are offered at the orientation stages that let people know about other cultures and how to be
courteous and tolerant of others.
Organisational Structure Barriers
As we saw there are many methods of communication at an organizational level. Each of these methods has its own
problems and constraints that may become barriers to effective communication. Most of these barriers arise because of
misinformation or lack of appropriate transparency available to the employees.
Attitude Barriers
Certain people like to be left alone. They are the introverts or just people who are not very social. Others like to be social or
sometimes extra clingy! Both these cases could become a barrier to communication. Some people have attitude issues, like
huge ego and inconsiderate behaviours.
These employees can cause severe strains in the communication channels that they are present in. Certain personality
traits like shyness, anger, social anxiety may be removable through courses and proper training. However, problems like
egocentric behaviour and selfishness may not be correctable.
Perception Barriers
Different people perceive the same things differently. This is a fact which we must consider during the communication
process. Knowledge of the perception levels of the audience is crucial to effective communication. All the messages or
communique must be easy and clear. There shouldn’t be any room for a diversified interpretational set.
Physiological Barriers
Certain disorders or diseases or other limitations could also prevent effective communication between the various channels
of an organization. The shrillness of voice, dyslexia, etc are some examples of physiological barriers to effective
communication. However, these are not crucial because they caneasily be compensated and removed.
Technological Barriers & Socio-religious Barriers
Other barriers include the technological barriers. The technology is developing fast and as a result, it becomes difficult to
keep up with the newest developments. Hence sometimes the technological advance may become a barrier. In addition to
this, the cost of technology is sometimes very high.
Most of the organizations will not be able to afford a decent tech for the purpose of communication. Hence, this becomes a
very crucial barrier. Other barriers are socio-religious barriers. In a patriarchal society, a woman or a transgender may face
many difficulties and barriers while communicating.
 UNIT 2
Oral Communication: What is Oral Communication?
Oral communication implies communication through mouth. It includes individuals conversing with each other, be it direct
conversation or telephonic conversation. Speeches, presentations, discussions are all forms of oral communication. Oral
communication is generally recommended when the communication matter is of temporary kind or where a direct interaction
is required.
Face to face communication (meetings, lectures, conferences, interviews, etc.) is significant so asto build a rapport and
trust.
Advantages
There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral communication as it isinterpersonal.
There is no element of rigidity in oral communication. There is flexibility for allowing changes in the decisions previously
taken.
The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication. Thus, decisions can be made quickly without any delay.
Oral communication is not only time saving, but it also saves upon money and efforts.
Oral communication is best in case of problem resolution. The conflicts, disputes and many issues/differences can be put
to an end by talking them over.
Oral communication is an essential for teamwork and group energy.
Oral communication promotes a receptive and encouraging morale among organizational employees.
Oral communication can be best used to transfer private and confidential information/matter.
Disadvantages/Limitations
Relying only on oral communication may not be sufficient as business communication is formal and very organized.
Oral communication is less authentic than written communication as they are informal and not as organized as written
communication.
Oral communication is time-saving as far as daily interactions are concerned, but in case of meetings, long speeches
consume lot of time and are unproductive at times.
Oral communications are not easy to maintain and thus they are unsteady.
There may be misunderstandings as the information is not complete and may lack essentials.
It requires attentiveness and great receptivity on part of the receivers/audience.
Oral communication (such as speeches) is not frequently used as legal records except in investigation work.
Principles of Successful oral Communication
1. Well-Planned -Before presenting something, there should be proper planning regardingthe audience, topics to be
delivered, timing and other factors: So, a person must be well-prepared to deliver his speech.
2. Clear pronunciation -To make oral messages meaningful to receivers, words should be clearly and correctly pronounced.
There should not be any lack of clarity, otherwise, the communication would be a confusing one.
3. Brevity -Effective oral communication desires that a message should be brief. If the sender took a long time for
talking, his message may not get the attention of the receiver.
4. Precision -Precision is needed to make oral communication effective. There should not beany confusing words rather
message to be delivered should be specific so that there is no misunderstanding.
5. Natural voice -Any sort of unnatural voice may distort the message. Natural voice can doa lot to make oral communication
effective.
6. Logical sequence -Ideas should be organized in a sequential way to make the message communicative and attractive.
Unorganized ideas do not provide clear sense while a logical sequence of ideas gives clear sense.
7. Suitable words -Words have different meanings to different people in different situations in oral communication, a speaker
should use the common, simple and familiar words so that receiver can react to the message without any problem.
8. Courteous -Courtesy costs nothing but can earn many things. So, a speaker should be courteous while addressing
listeners. It helps create a good impression in the mind of listeners regarding the speaker.
9. Attractive presentation - It is another principle to make oral communication effective. A speaker should deliver his speech
in a very nice and sweet language so that receiver is attracted to take part in the communication.
10. Avoiding Emotions -Speaker must control his emotions to make oral communication effective. Too much emotion will
take the speaker away from the main subject.
11. Emphasis -The speaker must be knowledgeable regarding the portion of the speech where he should give emphasis.
Giving emphasis on respective points will help draw the attention of the audience.
Conversation Control
Conversation is interactive communication between two or more people.
The development of conversational skills and etiquette is an important part of socialization. The development of
conversational skills in a new language is a frequent focus of language teaching and learning.
Conversation analysis is a branch of sociology which studies the structure and organization ofhuman interaction, with a
more specific focus on conversational interaction.
Banter -Banter is short witty sentences that bounce back and forth between individuals. Often banter uses clever put-downs
and witty insults, misunderstandings (often intentional), zippy wisecracks, zingers, flirtation, and puns. The idea is each
line of banter should “top” the one before it and in short a verbal war of wit without any physical contact.
Discussion -One element of conversation is discussion: sharing opinions on subjects that are thought of during the
conversation. In polite society the subject changes before discussion becomes dispute or controversial. For
example, if theology is being discussed, maybe no one is insisting a particular view be accepted.
Subject -Many conversations can be divided into four categories according to their major subject content:
Subjective ideas, which often serve to extend understanding and awareness.
Objective facts, which may serve to consolidate a widely held view.
Other people (usually absent), which may be either critical, competitive, or supportive. This includes gossip.
Oneself, which sometimes indicate attention-seeking behaviour or can provide relevant information about oneself to
participants in the conversation.
Functions -Most conversations may be classified by their goal. Conversational ends may, however, shift over the life of the
conversation.
Functional conversation is designed to convey information in order to help achieve an individual or group goal.
Small talk is a type of conversation where the topic is less important than the social purpose of achieving bonding between
people or managing personal distance, such as ‘how is the weather’ might be portrayed as an example, which conveys no
practicality whatsoever.
Reflection and Empathy: Two Sides of effective oral Communication
Reflecting is the process of paraphrasing and restating both the feelings and words of the speaker. The purposes of
reflecting are:
To allow the speaker to ‘hear’ their own thoughts and to focus on what they say and feel.
To show the speaker that you are trying to perceive the world as they see it and that you are doing your best to understand
their messages.
To encourage them to continue talking.
Reflecting does not involve you asking questions, introducing a new topic or leading the conversation in
another direction. Speakers are helped through reflecting as it not only allows them to feel understood, but it also gives
them the opportunity to focus their ideas. This in turn helps them to direct their thoughts and further encourages them to
continue speaking.
Two Main Techniques of Reflecting:
1. Mirroring - Mirroring is a simple form of reflecting and involves repeating almost exactly what the speaker says.
Mirroring should be short and simple. It is usually enough to just repeat key words or the last few words spoken. This
shows you are trying to understand the speakers terms of reference and acts as a prompt for him or her to continue. Be
aware not to over mirror as this can become irritating and therefore a distraction from the message.
2. Paraphrasing -Paraphrasing involves using other words to reflect what the speaker has said. Paraphrasing shows not
only that you are listening, but that you are attempting to understand what the speaker is saying.
It is often the case that people ‘hear what they expect to hear’ due to assumptions, stereo typing or prejudices. When
paraphrasing, it is of utmost importance that you do not introduce your own ideas or question the speakers thoughts,
feelings or actions. Your responses should be non-directive and non-judgemental.
Empathy
Simply stated, empathy is defined as the ability to identify and understand another’s situation,feelings, and motives
“Empathy is the #1 soft skill that you can develop.” – Forbes Magazine
Here are a few suggestions that may contribute to a more empathetic approach…
Develop Your Self-Awareness
Smile and Greet Others With Genuine Enthusiasm
Lead the Way
Remember Other’s Names
Listen, and Show Sincere Interest
Advocate for Other’s Needs
Find Common Ground
Withhold Judgment
Provide Encouragement
Share Professional Resources
Effective Listening: Non Verbal Communication
Active listening is a skill that can be acquired and developed with practice. However, active listening can be difficult to
master and will, therefore, take time and patience to develop.
‘Active listening’ means, as its name suggests, actively listening. That is fully concentrating on what is being said rather than
just passively ‘hearing’ the message of the speaker.
Active listening involves listening with all senses. As well as giving full attention to the speaker, it is important that the
‘active listener’ is also ‘seen’ to be listening – otherwise the speaker may conclude that what they are talking about is
uninteresting to the listener.
Signs of Active Listening
Non-Verbal Signs of Attentive or Active Listening
This is a generic list of non-verbal signs of listening, in other words people who are listening are more likely to display at
least some of these signs. However these signs may not be appropriate in all situations and across all cultures.
Smile
Eye Contact
Posture
Mirroring
Distraction.
Written Communication: Purpose and Clarity
Purpose
Written communication aims to inform someone of something in a way that they are able to read and understand the
message, with an intention of responding to it. In some cases the only way you can communicate certain information is via
written communication. This could be the case in certain aspects of a job, such as a statement of an incident and so on. You
could also consider that story telling in novels is a way of written communication because even though the words are
fictitious they are still communicating a particular narrative.
What makes it coherent?
If a form of written communication cannot be understood by the recipient then the message may well as not exist. In order to
write a piece of information that can be understood clearly you need to have the correct spelling, punctuation and grammar.
In addition, depending on the form of written communication you need to make sure you use the right format. For example, if
you arewriting a letter you need to ensure you are using the appropriate format.
Why?
Written communication is prevalent in everyday life because it is not simply the case of writing down a message on a piece
of paper. Nowadays we use written communication constantly in the form of email, text messages, online chats, social
networking and so on. It has become an integral part of communicating with people around us.
Clarity
Clarity is critical in business communication, where messages are continuously conveyed over different media to many
audiences. Technology and globalization makes business communication more complex, even for a small business
that might be challenged to controlinternal and external messaging. A small business might view communication as a
problem only for large corporations with many employees, but effective communication is vital for success in businesses of
every size and scope. Clarity in business communication requires an intentional approach to communication in its many
forms.
Business Communication
Business communication includes the usual letters, memos and email, but also includes informative
brochures, marketing and advertising materials, websites, logos, and any type of expression that represents or defines
the company. College courses break down business scommunications into factors such as audience assessment,
communication objectives, tone and language, negotiation, crisis management, and nonverbal behaviours. Depending on
the messageand the medium, the elements of communication affect clarity.
Importance of Clarity
Lack of clarity in business communication causes misinformation, mistakes, unhappy customers ,frustrated employees, and
information lags that make companies look bad and affect profits. If a supervisor assumes that workers know the proper way
to ship products, the company might discover that it pays more than it should for shipping. A customer letter that is full of
jargon and long, convoluted sentences will probably not be read completely, and might put the customer off.
An occasional warning to be mindful of safety is not as effective as providing workers with adetailed manual for achieving
zero-tolerance requirements concerning accidents in the workplace.
Principles of effective Writing
1. Brevity
It is bad manners to waste [the reader’s] time. Therefore brevity first, then, clarity.
2. Clarity
It is bad manners to give [readers] needless trouble. Therefore clarity And how is clarity to be achieved? Mainly by taking
trouble and by writing to serve people rather than to impress them.
3. Communication
The social purpose of language is communication—to inform, misinform, or otherwise influence our fellows.
Communication [is] more difficult than we may think. We are all serving life sentences of solitary confinement
within our bodies; like prisoners, we have, as it were, to tap in awkward code to our fellow men in their neighbouring cells.
In some modern literature there has appeared a tendency to replace communication by a private maundering to oneself
which shall inspire one’s audience to maunder privately to themselves—rather as if the author handed round a box of
drugged cigarettes.
4. Emphasis
Just as the art of war largely consists of deploying the strongest forces at the most important points, so the art of writing
depends a good deal on putting the strongest words in the most important places.
One of the most important things, to my mind, in English style is word-order. For us, the most emphatic place in a clause or
sentence is the end. This is the climax; and, during the momentary pause that follows, that last word continues, as it were,
to reverberate in the reader’s mind. It has,in fact, the last word.
5. Honesty
As the police put it, anything you say may be used as evidence against you. If hand writing reveals character, writing reveals
it still more. You cannot fool all your judges all the time.
Most style is not honest enough. Easy to say, but hard to practice. A writer may take to long words, as young men to
beards—to impress. But long words, like long beards, are often the badge of charlatans. Or a writer may cultivate the
obscure, to seem profound. But even carefully muddied puddles are soon fathomed. Or he may cultivate eccentricity, to
seem original.
6. Passion and Control
This, indeed, is one of the eternal paradoxes of both life and literature—that without passion little gets done; yet, without
control of that passion, its effects are largely ill or null.
7. Reading
One learns to write by reading good books, as one learns to talk by hearing good talkers.
8. Revision
Every author’s fairy godmother should provide him not only with a pen but also with a blue pencil.
9. Sophistication and Simplicity
My point is merely that the sophisticated (ready though they may be to suppose so) do not necessarily express themselves
better than the simple—in fact, may often have much to learn from them.
10. Sound and Rhythm
Apart from a few simple principles, the sound and rhythm of English prose seem to me matters where both writers and
readers should trust not so much to rules as to their ears.
Approaches the Writing Process
Systematically
Every writer follows his or her own writing process. Often the process is a routine that comes naturally and is not a step-by-
step guide to which writers refer. Being conscious of your own writing process is especially helpful when you find yourself
struggling with a particularly trickypiece. Here are five steps towards creating or identifying your personal writing process.
1. Prewriting
You’re ready to start writing. So why has that blank page been staring back at you for the past hour? Prewriting identifies
everything you need to do before you sit down to start your rough draft.
Find Your Idea
Ideas are all around you. You might draw inspiration from a routine, an everyday situation or a childhood memory.
Alternatively, keep a notebook specifically devoted to catching your ideas as they come to you. Your own imagination is the
only limit to finding your source of inspiration.
Build On Your Idea
Two of the most popular methods of fleshing out your idea are free writing and brainstorming.
Free writing means writing every idea that comes into your head. Do not stop to edit your mistakes, just let the ideas flow.
Or, try brainstorming. If you’re on a computer, try a manual process first to help you visualize your narrative: write your idea
in the centre of the page and work outwards in all of the different directions you can take your story.
Plan and Structure
Piecing the puzzle together comes next. It’s time to sort through your ideas and choose which ones you will use to form your
story. Make sure you keep your notes even after your book is published– there may be the seeds for your next story as well.

2. Writing
Now you have your plan and you’re ready to start writing. Remember, this is your first rough draft. Forget about word count
and grammar. Don’t worry if you stray off topic in places; even the greatest writers produce multiple drafts before they
produce their finished manuscript. Think of this stage as a free writing exercise, just with more direction. Identify the best
time and location to write and eliminate potential distractions. Make writing a regular part of your day.
3. Revision
Your story can change a great deal during this stage. When revising their work, many writers naturally adopt the A.R.R.R.
approach:
Add: The average novel has between 60,000 and 100,000 words. Does your book have enough words to be considered a
novel? Have you given your readers all the information they need to make sense of your story? If not, go back to your
notebook that you kept for additional scenes and any additional details.
Rearrange: Consider the flow, pacing and sequencing of your story. Would the plot be better served if some of the events
occur in a different order?
Remove: After making additions to your story, how is your word count now? Are your readers experiencing information
overload? You may need to eliminate passages that don’t quite fit.
Replace: The most effective way to revise your work is to ask for a second opinion. Do you need more vivid details to help
clarify your work? Is one scene contradicting another? Ask friends or fellow writers to take a look and give you feedback,
and if something isn’t working rewrite it and replace it.
4. Editing
You have overhauled your story. It’s time to fine tune your manuscript line by line. Check for repetition, clarity, grammar,
spelling and punctuation. Editing is an extremely detailed process and its best when performed by a professional. You can
hire your own editor or utilized the editing services available through Publishing. Nobody wants to read a book that
is full of mistakes, and they certainly won’t buy a book that is riddled with them.
5. Publishing
The 3X3 writing process for Business Communication
When composing any document consulting the four basic principles of business writing is recommended.
Another great tool to keep available is the 3-x-3 writing process. This process takes all of the information presented above
and puts it into a neat package. This is a simple process that encompasses three steps to guarantee your success.

1. Prewriting: Form the purpose, profile your audience and determine the correct tone and method.
2. Writing: Research, organize and comprise the message
3. Revising: Proofread, revise and determine if the message will appeal to the audience.
Guffey (2013), states that the revising process is the most time consuming of the three. She also recommends allotting a
specific percentage of time to each area. Step one: 25%, step two: 25%and step three: 50%. (p. 81). These steps are
guidelines for the inexperienced writer. As you become more familiar with business writing feel free to arrange the steps to
make them work for your writing style and your success.
Specific writing Features: Coherence
Have you ever read something that was hard to follow, where the writer jumped around from idea to idea and did not
have unity or consistency to connect the words, sentences, and paragraphs? That is something that you want to
avoid in your own writing. But how do you do that?
Coherence in writing is the logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs. Coherent writing uses devices to
connect ideas within each sentence and paragraph. Main ideas and meaning can be difficult for the reader to
follow if the writing lacks coherence. In this lesson, you will see some examples and learn some tips for making your writing
coherent betweenwords, sentences, and paragraphs.
Coherence Between Words
Between each word, coherence can be created by parallelism. Parallel structure means using similar grammatical
constructions between words in sentences. Parallelism is particularly important for words in lists. If you’re writing a
list of things someone likes to do, then each activity in the list should take the same grammatical form. For instance, if one
verb in the list takes on the ‘-ing’ gerund form, like ‘running,’ then the other verbs in the list should also be in the gerund
form. An incoherent structure would be to say:
Sarah likes to jump, running, and skate.
Instead, the list should be parallel like this:
Sarah likes jumping, running, and skating.
Coherence Between Sentences
Coherence can be created between sentences through repetition and transitional devices.
Repetition of words across sentences helps to reiterate the same ideas between sentences. One way to use repetition to
create coherence is to repeat the same word or phrase at the end of one sentence and the beginning of the next sentence
to show how the ideas connect. Here is an example of sentences that create coherence through repetition:
The most important part of an essay is the thesis statement. The thesis statement introduces the argument of the essay.
The thesis statement also helps to create a structure for the essay.
In this example, the repetition of the phrase ‘thesis statement’ helps to unify the three sentences.
It is a phrase that ends the first sentence and transitions into the next sentence by starting with that same phrase.
Another way to create coherence between sentences is through transitional devices. There are many types of transitional
devices that show time and help ideas flow smoothly. Transitional words, such as ‘first’, ‘later’, and ‘then’, are a few
examples of transitional devices that show time to help ideas flow more smoothly. Transitional devices are like signposts
that tell the reader what is coming up ahead and where the discussion is going.
Coherence Between Paragraphs Transitional words can also be used between paragraphs. Words such as:
Therefore
However
Yet
Thus
First
Later
Then
Electronic Writing Process
Computers, and the electronic writing they have enabled, significantly alter traditional conceptions of writing.
The effects of electronic writing on traditional text call for a re-examination of the prevailing print metaphor for
online writing.
A brief historical overview can help us better understand the effects of computers on traditional writing. The three great
communication revolutions — symbolic language, writing, and print —have led to the current revolution of computers and
electronic technologies.
The development of symbolic language parallels the development of human society and culture.
The ability to communicate orally, using symbols to convey both concrete and abstract information,
distinguishes the human race. Yet, before the development of a means to record language, communication was limited
by individual capacities for memory and cognition.
Theorists such as Walter Ong (1977, 1982) and Eric Havelock (1986) have detailed the cognitive and expressive
characteristics of spoken language. Oral discourse relies on sound, which is evanescent, having meaning only when
it is going out of existence. This evanescence of sound is what gives rise to the cognitive and expressive characteristics that
distinguish “orality” (evident in those cultures lacking written language). While such characteristics include the important
capacity for abstract thought, other characteristics stemming from the nature of the speaker are more limiting. For example,
oral language is limited by the memory of the individual, leading to an emphasis on formulas and mnemonic
structures. For the same reason, oral language is additive rather than subordinate, aggregative rather than analytic,
redundant, and conservative. It is close to the ‘human life world,’ (a phrase used by Ong to denote the physical world as
experienced by humans, rather than abstract thought) in its content, and agonistic in tone.