Desalination

Energy
Consumption
A Comprehensive Report on

Water Desalination Sector

In partnership with

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary 04
Introduction 06
Background on desalination 07
About SWCC – A strategic perspective 07
Report's Objectives 11
Importance of energy consumption in desalination 12
Factors affecting energy consumption 13
Specific energy consumption (SEC) metrics 14
Osmotic pressure and energy requirements 15
Impact of feedwater quality on energy consumption 17
Desalination technologies and energy consumption 19
Thermal desalination 21
Membrane desalination 25
Comparison of desalination technologies 29
Measures to improve energy consumption 32
Optimization of plant design and operation 34
Utilization of renewable energy sources 38
Renewable energy in desalination 40
Innovations in desalination technologies 45
Role of energy recovery devices (ERDs) 46
Advances in membrane technology 49
Environmental impact of desalination 53
GHG emission impact 55
Other environmental impacts 62
Future outlook and sustainability goals in SWCC 65
SWCC's energy efficiency initiatives 66
Key factors to improve energy consumption in SWCC RO plants 69
SWCC's efforts in reducing GHG emissions 72
Conclusions 74
References 76
List of tables and figures 77

2 Table of contents 3
 Executive summary

Since its creation in 1974, the SWCC, the temporary operational arm of
Executive Saudi Water Authority, has risen to become the world's premier desalinated
summary water provider, ensuring a consistent water supply for Saudi Arabia. At the
heart of SWCC's operational ethos is a strong emphasis on technological
innovation, particularly evident in its shift from traditional thermal
desalination methods to the more sustainable and energy-efficient Reverse
Osmosis technology.

The significant energy demands of desalination processes impact both

operational costs and environmental sustainability. The high energy
requirement of desalination poses significant environmental challenges,
with the water sector accounting for an estimated 17% (Alsarhan et al.,

Key factors affecting energy usage include the specific energy

consumption (SEC), the quality of feedwater, and the osmotic pressure
encountered. Enhancements in SEC can be attributed to two main factors:
meticulous plant design and operation optimization to minimize energy use
without compromising water quality, and technological advancements like
hybrid desalination systems, biomimetic membranes, and improvements in
energy efficiency and water recovery rates.

According to its production sector, the Authority has achieved a remarkable

10.9% reduction in SEC since 2020, far exceeding national benchmarks
in desalination. This achievement is largely attributable to the strategic
pivot towards Reverse Osmosis technology, enhancing both environmental
With the escalating global need for fresh water driven sustainability and cost-effectiveness, thereby facilitating additional
investments in infrastructure.
by population expansion, industrial growth, and climatic
shifts, desalination stands out as a critical response to the Saudi Arabia’s commitment to diversifying its energy sources is evidenced
challenge of water scarcity, especially in arid areas. by its investment in solar-powered desalination projects, such as the
AlKhafji Solar Saline Water RO Desalination Plant. These initiatives
highlight solar energy’s role in mitigating carbon emissions and advancing
clean energy solutions.

SWCC is actively pursuing a strategic approach to enhance energy

efficiency and minimize greenhouse gas emissions. The adoption of
Reverse Osmosis technology and the implementation of energy-saving
measures are aimed at reducing the dependency on thermal desalination
methods, thereby lowering both the energy intensity and the carbon
footprint of its operations.

SWCC’s ambitious goals to slash emissions by 62% by 2025 reflect its

dedication to environmental protection and its role as a leader in promoting
sustainable desalination practices.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 4 5

 01 Introduction

01 Introduction Background
on desalination
01
INTRODUCTION
Global demand for freshwater continues to rise in line with population
growth, increasing industrialization, and advancing climate change.
Desalination has therefore become a crucial solution to address water Desalination, the process of removing salt and other
scarcity, particularly in arid regions. 1 Hajj is an annual Islamic
pilgrimage to Mecca. The impurities from seawater or brackish water to produce
date of Hajj is determined
by the Islamic calendar, fresh water, has become indispensable in regions
which is based on the
lunar year. Each year, the suffering from severe water shortages. The Kingdom of
acts of Hajj take place
over a ten-day period, Saudi Arabia, for example, relies heavily on desalination to
beginning on the 1st and
ending on the 10th of Dhu
meet the water needs of its population, especially during
al-Hijjah, the twelfth and the Hajj and Umrah seasons 1. The SWCC, the temporary
last month of the Islamic
calendar. Umrah is also operational arm of Saudi Water Authority, as the world’s
an Islamic pilgrimage to
Mecca, but this time it largest producer of desalinated water, plays a key role in
can be performed at any
time of the year. ensuring a sustainable water supply for the Kingdom.

About SWCC
A strategic perspective

The SWCC, the temporary operational arm of Saudi Water

Authority, is a testament to Saudi Arabia’s commitment to
water security. Established by royal decree in 1974, SWCC
has grown to become the world’s largest producer of
desalinated water. Every day it produces 11.5 million cubic
meters of water from many sources including seawater and
ground water, a vital source that supplies cities, provinces,
and holy sites throughout the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
This supply remains uninterrupted even during peak
demand during the Hajj and Umrah seasons.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 6 7

 01 Introduction 01 Introduction

Desalination plants In fulfilling its core mission, SWCC is driving

technological advancement at an accelerated
pace, and innovation is at the core of its planning
and execution strategies.

This forward-thinking approach ensures that SWCC remains at the

forefront of the desalination industry, ready to meet the challenges of the
future at a regional level.
Al Jowf Northern
Province Borders
Province At SWCC, the adoption of the latest technologies and best practices
is not just a goal, but a standard operating procedure. The Authority is
Tabuk proud of its contribution to the Saudi Green Initiative, a testament to its
Hail
commitment to environmental protection. Through diligent management
of costs and energy consumption, SWCC has achieved high levels of
Al Qassim performance and significantly reduced carbon emissions, which will be
discussed in this report.
Madinah
One of the key strategies of SWCC’s environmental initiative is the
Eastern replacement of thermal technologies to produce desalinated water with
Province
reverse osmosis technologies. This change not only improves efficiency
Riyadh
Makkah through much lower energy consumption but also aligns the Authority's
commitment to environmentally friendly practices. Harnessing the power of
innovation, SWCC continues to lead the way in sustainable desalination,
Al Bahah ensuring a better future for Saudi Arabia and the world.
Aseer
Province
With this in mind, SWCC has embarked on an initiative to build a RO
Najran
membrane plant for desalination in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, a first of its
Jazan kind in the Middle East, which will produce 254,000 membranes per year.

With production scheduled to start in 2025, this

Tabuk 5 desalination plants
95,000 initiative aims to significantly reduce energy
(m3/day) Daily production capacity

7.5
consumption by 4% and levelized cost rates
1,085,958
Madinah 5 desalination plants
(m3/day) of water by 14% underlining the strategic
Makkah 10 desalination plants
2,062,200 localization efforts to optimize energy
(m3/day)
consumption in desalination.
460,000

Million cubic meters

Jazan 4 desalination plants
(m3/day)

3,833,656
Eastern Province 9 desalination plants
(m3/day)

Figure 1. SWCC’s desalination plants and capacities

Source: SWCC’s production sector

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 8 About SWCC A strategic perspective 9
 01 Introduction

Future
02 Report’s objectives
11
Jubail2 RO replacement
will achieve a consumption
rate of 2.4 kWh/m 3–
Future
10 1,000,000 m3/day The report aims to examine the interaction
Shuqaiq 5 (RO): It will
between desalination processes and energy
reduce CO2emissions by
replacing the MSF plant – consumption, with a focus on Saudi Arabia’s
400,000 m3/day 9 Future context represented by SWCC.
Shoaiba 5: It will reduce the
cost of producing water, The analysis considers various factors that influence energy consumption in
2022 and electricity consumption desalination, including technological developments, feedwater quality, and
8 to less than 2.75 kWh/m 3–
Jubail RO2: The MSF plant operational strategies.
is replaced and 2.22 M mt of 600,000 m 3/day
The report aims to evaluate the effectiveness of energy efficiency
CO2 emissions per year are
2021 measures, renewable energy integration, and environmental sustainability
reduced – 400,000 m 3 /day 7
Allith 2: The plant reduces initiatives in reducing the energy intensity and carbon footprint of
energy consumption by desalination operations.
80% and reach it to less And finally, this report seeks to provide stakeholders with practical ideas
2020 6 than 3 kWh/m 3– 42,500 for improving the energy efficiency, cost- effectiveness, and environmental
Haql 3, Duba 4, Alwajh 4, m 3/day sustainability of desalination processes in achieving long-term water
Umluj 4 and Farasan 3: The
security and resource management goals. The report synthesizes empirical
plants reduce their energy
5 2018 data, industry best practices, and academic research.
consumption by 80% and
Khafji 3: The plant
reach it to less than 3
achieves more than 50%
kWh/m 3 - 93,500 m3/day
of its production from
2013 4 renewable energies –
Jeddah RO2: The first RO 60,000 m 3/day
plant that applies the
energy recovery system –
3 1998
240,000 m 3/day
Yanbu RO: The first RO
plant using hollow fiber
membranes in KSA –
1989
2 127,800 m 3/day
Jeddah RO1: The first
large RO plant to feed
the distribution at a large
scale – 56,800 m 3 /day 1 1978
Jeddah: The first large RO
plant in the world – 12,120
m 3/day

Figure 2. SWCC’s most important milestones are related to improvements

in energy consumption.
Source: (SWCC, 2023)

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 10 11

11
 03 Importance of energy consumption in desalination

03 Importance of Factors affecting

energy consumption
energy consumption 03

in desalination
IMPORTANCE
OF ENERGY
CONSUMPTION
IN DESALINATION
Energy consumption in desalination depends on several
factors, such as specific energy consumption (SEC), feedwater
quality, and osmotic pressure. Understanding these factors is
essential to evaluate and optimize energy use in desalination
Desalination, the process of converting saline
processes. Therefore, energy consumption within desalination
water into potable water, plays a pivotal role in systems is a complex phenomenon influenced by a myriad of
addressing water scarcity issues worldwide. interrelated factors, each exerting distinct impacts on system
efficiency and environmental footprints. Three factors, specific
However, the energy-intensive nature of desalination processes poses
energy consumption metrics, feedwater quality and osmotic
significant challenges in terms of sustainability and cost- effectiveness.
Understanding the factors influencing energy consumption in desalination
pressure, of particular relevance to desalination energy
is crucial for optimizing operations and minimizing environmental impacts. consumption are discussed below and will help to better
understand this report.

Bahrain Kuwait KSA Oman Qatar United Arab Emirates Total

12,000 11,760

10,000 9,460
Annual desalination capacity
(million cubic meters)

8,000
6,702

6,000
4,680

4,000 3,585

2,000

0
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Figure 3. Desalination Capacities in Gulf Cooperation Council countries

Source: (Jägerskog & Barghouti, 2022)

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 12 Factors affecting energy consumption 13
03 Importance of energy consumption in desalination 03 Importance of energy consumption in desalination

Specific energy Osmotic pressure and energy requirements

consumption metrics
The evaluation of energy efficiency in desalination operations is based on Osmotic pressure, determined by the salinity of the feedwater, imposes
SEC metrics. These metrics serve as quantifiable indicators, delineating energy requirements on desalination processes. Higher osmotic pressure
the energy expended per unit of water produced. In the case of seawater necessitates greater energy input to overcome the osmotic barrier and
desalination, the SEC is defined as total energy consumed in kilowatt hours facilitate water purification. As such, osmotic pressure serves as a critical
(kWh) per one cubic meter (m) of full water produced. parameter in evaluating the energy efficiency of desalination technologies
and optimizing system performance.
By using SEC metrics, stakeholders gain valuable information on
operational efficiency, pointing to avenues for improvement and Van’t Hoff’s thermodynamic law states that the osmotic pressure of a
implementing specific energy conservation measures. In addition, SEC specific saline water solution can be determined by evaluating the molar
metrics are a valuable reference for comparative analysis of different concentrations of each of the salts dissolved in it (Curto et al., 2021).
desalination technologies. They facilitate sound system design and This fundamental principle underlines the variability of osmotic pressure in
optimization decisions. different sources of saline water, which depends on factors such as the
quality and temperature of the source water.

Desalination is an important option for regional In the context of seawater desalination, where the feed concentration
water security, but it comes at a high energy typically contains about

cost. Therefore, the assessment of SEC is of 32,000 parts per million (ppm)
paramount importance (Li, 2018): of sodium chloride (NaCl)
→ The process of removing salts from saline water is expensive and operating at a 50% recovery rate and a temperature of 25°C, the minimum
consumes more energy than most other freshwater supply and treatment theoretical energy requirement was calculated to be about 1 kWh/m
options. For instance, the cost of a membrane-based seawater (Shrivastva et al., 2015). In particular, as total dissolved solids levels
desalination process typically ranges from $0.5 to $3/m , depending on increase, the energy consumption for the desalination process also
the plant’s capacity and the quality of the feed water. increases proportionally.
→ The energy required to produce 1 m of drinking water through seawater
desalination is ten times higher than that required for river or lake water
treatment.
→ Energy is the most significant variable cost of the desalination process,
accounting for 30% to over 50% of the cost of the water produced.
Therefore, it is a crucial factor that affects the feasibility and scope of
desalination.
→ Presently, large-scale desalination technologies depend on thermal
energy or electricity generated by fossil fuels. Desalination’s high energy
consumption not only increases water supply’s exposure to energy prices
but also raises environmental concerns.
In conclusion, SEC metrics serve as critical indicators of energy
efficiency in desalination, as they measure the energy consumed per
unit of water produced. Analysis of SEC metrics provides information on
the efficiency of desalination technologies and facilitates comparisons
between different processes.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 14 Factors affecting energy consumption 15
03 Importance of energy consumption in desalination 03 Importance of energy consumption in desalination

Osmotic pressure plays a crucial role in the desalination process,

particularly in methods like Reverse Osmosis and Pressure Retarded Impact of feedwater quality on energy
Osmosis (Ncube & Inambao, 2019). In Reverse Osmosis, for example,
high pressure is applied to overcome the osmotic pressure and push
consumption
water through a semi-permeable membrane, leaving salts and other
impurities behind. The more concentrated the feed water, the more The quality of feedwater is a critical factor that affects the
pressure is required to overcome the osmotic pressure, and therefore, energy consumption of desalination processes.
more energy is needed to increase the pressure. In Pressure Retarded
Osmosis, the osmotic pressure difference causes water molecules to move Variations in salinity, total dissolved solids (TDS), and organic constituents
from the freshwater side (low concentration) to the seawater side (high significantly impact the energy intensity of treatment procedures. Higher
concentration), creating a pressurized flow that can be used to generate concentrations of salts and impurities generally require more energy to
power. The efficiency of this process is directly related to the osmotic achieve the desired water quality standards (Ahmed et al., 2020). The
pressure difference (Makabe et al., 2021). seawater source in the context of Saudi Arabia contains TDS concentration
ranges from 38,500 to 41,900mg/l, with an average of approximately
Efforts to optimize the design of desalination 40,366 mg/l (Basyoni, 2016).Seawater contains various dissolved solids,
primarily in the form of ions. The most common dissolved constituents are
systems play a key role in reducing energy sodium, chloride, and magnesium (Figure 4).
consumption per cubic meter of permeate.
By adjusting various parameters, such as pressure levels, membrane
configurations and operational settings, engineers strive to minimize the
energy difference between the theoretical thermodynamic limit and the
actual energy consumption during the desalination process. This quest
for optimization is crucial to improving the efficiency and sustainability of
seawater desalination operations, ultimately contributing to alleviating water
scarcity issues around the world.

1,2%
7,8%
1,0%
3,7%

30,5%
Sodium (Na+)
Chloride (Cl-)
Magnesium (Mg2+)
Sulfate (SO42-)
Calcium (Ca2+)
Potassium (K+)

55,9%

Figure 4. Share of average dissolved solids concentration in seawater (percentages)

Source: https://edu.rsc.org/experiments/what-are-the-dissolved-solids-in-seawater/1785.article

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 16 Factors affecting energy consumption 17
 03 Importance of energy consumption in desalination

04 Desalination
The acceptable TDS level in drinking water can vary based on guidelines
from different organizations. The World Health Organization in its guideline
for quality in drinking water

technologies and
(WHO, 2022) states that an acceptable range for TDS in water should
be up to 600 mg/l for its palatability to be considered good. Water with a
TDS level higher than 1000 mg/l becomes increasingly and significantly

energy consumption
unpalatable. However, a very low concentration of TDS has been found to
2 TDS and pH — Safe give water a flat taste, which is undesirable to many people 2.
Drinking Water
Foundation In addition, the varying quality of feedwater creates operational challenges,
(safewater.org)
requiring adaptable strategies to maximize energy efficiency. It is crucial
to have a detailed understanding of the complex relationship between
feedwater quality and energy consumption when designing robust
desalination systems that can effectively treat different water matrices while The desalination of seawater has become a
reducing energy consumption. pivotal solution for combating climate change
Although more detail on technological aspects will be given in the following and alleviating water scarcity.
sections of the report, TDS of the source water is a key factor in RO
desalination for two main reasons. Firstly, it significantly influences the feed Yet, this solution comes with significant considerations, particularly the
pressure required for the process, which has a direct impact on the energy energy-intensive nature of the processes required to transform seawater
consumption needed to convert saline water into fresh water. For every 100 into freshwater. Consequently, the advancement of desalination techniques
mg/l of TDS present in the source water, an estimated osmotic pressure and technologies has become a central focus of research and development
of between 0.04 and 0.076 bar is generated. This osmotic pressure must efforts within the water sector (Tsai et al., 2022).
be counteracted by the pressure applied to the saline water as it passes
The origins of the desalination industry can be traced back to the early
through the Reverse Osmosis membranes.
twentieth century, though the practice of desalination has been applied in
Furthermore, when considering seawater with a TDS concentration various non-industrial contexts for many years, including for household and
of approximately 35,000 parts per million (ppm), the resulting osmotic personal consumption and even aboard ships to secure drinkable water
pressure amounts to approximately 24.13 bar. Therefore, meticulous while at sea expeditions. Industrial desalination plants operate under two
calculation of the pumping power is essential to effectively design a principal categories of technology (Shahid et al., 2023):
RO system capable of producing the desired amount of permeate.
Conventional (thermal desalination)
By accurately assessing TDS levels and their corresponding osmotic
Advanced (membrane-based desalination)
pressures, engineers can calibrate the pressure requirements and power
consumption necessary for optimal system performance. Therefore, in the These categories encompass various methods and alternatives that define
field of RO desalination, the TDS parameter is the cornerstone guiding the the spectrum of technologies applied in processing raw water. Thermal
technical and operational considerations essential for efficient production methods include:
of freshwater from seawater.
Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)
Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF)
Vapor Compression Distillation (VCD)

Likewise, membrane-based approaches include:

Electrodialysis/Reversal (ED/EDR)
Reverse Osmosis (RO) (Goergen, 2022)

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 18 19

19
 04 Desalination technologies and energy consumption 04 Desalination technologies and energy consumption

Form of Energy Thermal

desalination
Thermal
Mechanical
Electric Potential

04
DESALINATION
TECHNOLOGIES
AND ENERGY
CONSUMPTION
Thermal desalination technologies, centered in industrial
Feed Sea or Separation Unit Product
Fresh applications, can be broadly categorized into two groups
Brackish Water
Thermal or Membrane Water
as shown in Figure 6: those that introduce energy into the
system and those that extract energy from it. The former
involves evaporating water, and then condensing the
vapor back into liquid form, whereas the latter freezes the
water before melting it back into liquid. The most prevalent
Rejected Brine
method in the industry, desalination by evaporation, is
typically paired with power generation units to meet its
Figure 5. General desalination process
Source: (El-Dessouky & Ettouney, 2002) thermal energy demands (El-Dessouky & Ettouney, 2002).

Thermal desalination is still being used as a method for producing potable

water due to its simplicity which relies on the natural water cycle, wherein
bodies of water evaporate from the thermal energy absorbed by the
Earth’s surface (El-Dessouky & Ettouney, 2002). Similarly, membrane
desalination echoes a natural process found in biological membranes, such
as in lungs, cells, and skin, where it hinges on particle size differentiation,
guiding water molecules from areas of low to high solute concentration
through a semipermeable membrane. In Saudi Arabia, the SWCC, the
temporary operational arm of Saudi Water Authority, predominantly employs
membrane desalination technologies, with only a minority of plants still
using thermal methods. Presently, eight out of thirteen thermal desalination
plants, which collectively account for 94% of thermal desalination water
production, have been replaced by RO or are in the process of being
converted, with completion expected by 2024 at the latest (SWCC, 2023).

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 20 Thermal desalination 21

 04 Desalination technologies and energy consumption 04 Desalination technologies and energy consumption

Desalination Processes ADVC Multiple Effect Distillation desalination plants

ABVC
employ designs incorporating either vertical or
Thermal Energy Addition Steam horizontal tubes. These tubes facilitate a dual
CVC
process where steam condenses on one side,
TVC while concurrently, heat transfer induces the
MEE evaporation of saline water.
MSF The operation of MED plants is characterized by a sequential arrangement
Solar Energy
of effects or stages, where there is a deliberate reduction in temperature
Humidification- and corresponding pressure across each stage. This strategic reduction
dehumidification
in pressure allows for the boiling and subsequent evaporation of saline
Extraction water at increasingly lower temperatures as the process advances through
Heating Steam
the stages. To optimize the efficiency of each stage, supplemental heat
Solar still is introduced. This additional heat input is crucial for enhancing the
evaporation and condensation mechanisms within the tubes, significantly
Freezing boosting the desalination plant's overall performance and efficiency.
Figure 6. Thermal desalination technologies
Source: (El-Dessouky & Ettouney, 2002) Despite their effectiveness in producing potable water, thermal methods
are notably energy-intensive, leading to substantial electricity usage in
The SWCC, the temporary operational arm of Saudi Water Authority, desalination processes. The energy demands of MSF plants fluctuate
historically employed two types of evaporation-based technologies to based on several variables, including the temperature of the source
produce freshwater: Multi-Stage Flash and Multi-Effect Distillation. Both water, plant design, and operational conditions. In a comparative analysis
MSF and MED technologies are proficient in producing fresh water from of energy consumption, Antonyan (2019) delineated the efficiency of
saline sources, with MSF often being the most commonly implemented medium-sized Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) and Multi-Effect Distillation
due to its broader adoption and its efficiency in producing large volumes of (MED) systems. Specifically, MSF desalination exhibits a total energy
freshwater. MSF desalination works by heating seawater to create steam, expenditure ranging from 13.5 to 30 kWh/m³, averaging at 17.1 kWh/
which is then condensed to produce fresh water. This process is called m³. Conversely, MED desalination demonstrates a more energy-efficient
flashing evaporation and, in broad terms, it involves creating vapor by rapidly profile, with consumption spanning from 6 to 22.5 kWh/m³ and an average
expanding liquid under high pressure through a throttling device, which of 11.9 kWh/m³ for processing one cubic meter of seawater. At SWCC,
reduces its temperature and pressure. The evaporation process happens in when MED is combined with other technologies such as Thermal Vapor
a series of chambers, ensuring that the hot saline concentrate never comes Compressor (TVC) and a Combined Cycle Power Plant (CCPP), the
into direct contact with the heat exchange surfaces. This method significantly plants achieve even lower energy consumption, between 6.1 and 6.9 kWh
improves the efficiency of thermal evaporation by preventing direct contact per cubic meter, as demonstrated by Ihm et al. (2016) This differential
between the heating steam and the water being purified (El-Dessouky & underscores the relative energy efficiency of MED over MSF desalination
Ettouney, 2002). methodologies within the medium-scale segment.

MSF involves intricate mechanisms to manage

feedwater, heat transfer, and chemical
treatments, making it a complex yet effective
method for desalination and freshwater
production.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 22 Thermal desalination 23

 04 Desalination technologies and energy consumption 04 Desalination technologies and energy consumption

In Saudi Arabia, the specific energy consumption for MSF plants averages
around 16.3 kWh/m³. For instance, the Jubail MSF plant, one of SWCC’s Membrane
most efficient facilities, boasts a specific energy consumption of 14.3
kWh/m³, which is 12.4% lower than the national average for MSF plants.
desalination
Additionally, the Ras-Alkhair MSF plant has shown excellent results by
producing 740,000 cubic meters of water daily while consuming only 14.6 04
DESALINATION
kWh of energy per cubic meter. Moreover, the plant has achieved a 25% TECHNOLOGIES
lower carbon emissions factor when compared to traditional liquid fuel AND ENERGY
CONSUMPTION
systems. It operates with a 55% efficiency rate in its combined thermal
Within the field of desalination, the use of membranes
power cycle, which results in the plant's carbon emissions being 62%
lower than the average for desalination in Saudi Arabia in 2019 (Hamieh
is a common method where Reverse Osmosis (RO)
et al., 2022). This outstanding performance is a testament to the expertise and Electrodialysis (ED) stand as the two principal
and efficiency of SWCC in the water sector. technologies. Among these, RO is undoubtedly the most
prevalent method for producing fresh water from seawater
using membranes, although its use in the purification of
brackish water is also common.

As of today, ED has very limited industrial applications and consequently,

Figure 7. Jubail phase-2 thermal system (MSF) energy consumption no large-scale plants are using this technology. Desalination by
Source: SWCC's production sector
Electrodialysis involves the separation of electrically charged salt ions
via selective ion exchange membranes, resulting in the production of
low-salinity water (El-Dessouky & Ettouney, 2002). On the other hand,
Thermal Equivalent Electrical Energy Total MSF Energy RO employs a semipermeable membrane to filter out impurities and
Energy Consumption Consumption Consumption contaminants, a process that is extensively utilized across various sectors

11.8 2.5 14.3

including pharmaceuticals, food and beverage production, desalination
operations, and household water treatment. Initially, seawater intended for
RO undergoes preliminary treatment to remove impurities, ensuring that
it is free from organic substances. Once purified, the saltwater is ready
for reverse osmosis. Essentially, RO inverts the natural osmosis process,

kWh/m 3 kWh/m 3 kWh/m 3 compelling water to move from a region of high solute concentration to one
of low solute concentration by applying external pressure (SWCC, 2023).

SWCC Jubail plant is lower than The energy utilization in thermal desalination
Average KSA specific energy is primarily governed by the thermodynamic
consumption for MSF plants efficiency of the heat exchange process
and the specific heat capacity of seawater.

12.4 %
Consequently, the energy requirements are
significantly higher than those of alternative
desalination methods, elevating operational
costs and emphasizing the importance of
efficiency for the sustainability of thermal
desalination operations.

24 Membrane desalination 25
 04 Desalination technologies and energy consumption SWRO system: Pretreatment: Intake:

2.4 0.5 0.2

Saline High-pressure Fresh
feed water pump water
Membrame
Pre-treatment assembly Post-treatment

kWh/m 3 kWh/m 3 kWh/m 3

(71%) (15%) (6%)
Stabilized
freshwater

Other facilities: Product water delivery:

0.1 0.17
Brine water

Energy recovery
device

Figure 8. Reverse Osmosis process

Source: (Salinas-Rodríguez et al., 2021)

kWh/m 3 kWh/m3
A typical seawater RO (SWRO) unit includes a (3%) (5%)
pre-treatment, a semipermeable membrane, a
post- treatment, and a storage tank. The pre-filter This being said, over recent decades the Specific Energy Consumption
eliminates large particles like sand and sediment. of RO systems has significantly decreased due to advancements in
technology and the development of more selective membranes, which
At the core of the system lies the semipermeable membrane, available enhance water flow while increasing salt rejection. This progress has led
mainly in two materials: Polyamide (PA) and Cellulose Acetate (CA). PA to reduced energy requirements per unit of produced water, as shown
membranes, highly permeable but not chlorine-tolerant, contrast with CA in Figure 9, reaching the point in which RO has become one of the most
membranes, which offer lower permeability but greater chlorine resistance. energy-efficient and widely adopted technologies for desalination not only
Despite similar salt rejection rates, these differences significantly influence by SWCC but globally (SWCC, 2023).
production and susceptibility to fouling, especially biological fouling.
PA membranes excel in high-production settings, while CA membranes 22

Specific Energy Consumption (kwh/m 3)

are preferable for biofouling control. In the final stage, the desalinated
freshwater undergoes further treatment, including remineralization and
chlorination, to ensure its quality and safety for consumption. Once treated, 17
the freshwater is stored in the storage tanks before being distributed
through the local water network to meet consumer demand. SWRO
systems are highly effective in removing dissolved salts, such as sodium 12
and chloride, making them an ideal choice for desalination applications
(SWCC, 2023).
7
In terms of energy consumption, the primary energetic input in SWRO
systems is electricity, which is needed to pressurize the feedwater via
mechanical force. But also, as Kim et al. (2019) observed, the specific
2
energy consumption is directly affected by the required water quality and
quantity of the desired output. The total plant energy use for average RO
system is 3.4 kilowatt-hours per cubic meter (kWh/m³). The following is a
0
breakdown of the distribution of energy in a typical SWRO unit as outlined 1978 1980 1990 2000 2002 2005 2008 2010 2015 2020
by Voutchkov (2018):
Figure 9. Specific Energy Consumption of SWRO
Source: (SWCC, 2023)

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 26 Membrane desalination 27

 04 Desalination technologies and energy consumption 04 Desalination technologies and energy consumption

Improvements such as higher recovery rates, integration of variable-speed

pumps and other auxiliary technologies, and customized designs for seawater Comparison of desalination
RO systems have significantly enhanced efficiency. These advancements
have pushed the SEC of RO downward to approximately 3 kWh/m³ in recent
technologies
years. As an example of this state-of-the-art RO desalination, SWCC’s
Shuaiba RO4 commercial plant employing cutting-edge SWRO technology 04
DESALINATION
achieves a SEC of 2.45 kWh/m³, contributing to a total system-specific TECHNOLOGIES
energy consumption of 2.7 kWh/m³. To put this into perspective, according AND ENERGY
CONSUMPTION
to Lanjewar et al. (2021), the thermodynamic limit for desalination stands at
Desalination is a sustainable solution for water scarcity
1.56 kWh/m , considering a 50% recovery rate and a feed seawater salinity
of 35 g/L.
as long as the main drawbacks of each technology are
addressed. Large power input and high GHG emissions of
desalination methods are some of the main caveats that
some of the technologies present.

Figure 10. SHUAIBA phase-4 RO membrane system energy consumption

Source: SWCC's production sector Knowing the strengths and limitations of the available processes for the
purification of seawater is pivotal in the planning of water infrastructure
and achieving sustainability objectives. As an example of this, in Table 1
we find that in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia, thermal technologies
1st pass Power consumption of SWRO 2nd pass Power consumption of SWRO are responsible for 99.2% of the energy consumption for water production
membrane system membrane system through desalination, with MSF using almost 75% of the total energy used
for this purpose.

90.7% 9.3%
Desalination technology Gigawatts (% of total)

Thermal technology: multi-stage flash (MSF) distillation 19,339 (74.4%)

Thermal technology: multi-effect distillation (MED) 6,458 (24.8%)

Membrane technology (MT): Reverse Osmosis (RO) 211 (0.8%)

Total 26,008

Table 1. Electrical energy consumption by desalination technology in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia
Source: (Jägerskog & Barghouti, 2022)

The best-in-class energy use for Recent SWCC Shuaiba RO4

Reverse Osmosis membrane commercial SWRO membrane system This highlights the environmental importance of defacing and developing
systems (kwh/m3) new technologies, as membrane desalination is noted for its greater
energy efficiency compared to thermal techniques, offering considerable
0.23
energy savings and environmental advantages. In addition to energy

2.45
2nd pass
conservation, membrane-based desalination processes also offer several
other advantages in other domains, including compact footprints and
high-water recovery rates (Shahid et al., 2023). Table 2 provides a
detailed comparison of the technologies analyzed, with RO emerging as
the most effective method for the purification of seawater and brackish

kWh/m 3
st
2.22 1pass
28 Comparison of desalination technologies 29

Reporting and information unit

 04 Desalination technologies and energy consumption 04 Desalination technologies and energy consumption

water. RO consumes the least amount of electricity and surpasses both

MSF and MED in terms of GHG emissions and costs. Additionally, 1,0
the table emphasizes the significant progress that the SWCC, the (1%)
2,3
temporary operational arm of Saudi Water Authority, has made in these (2%)
technologies, which will be discussed in subsequent sections.
16,8 3,2
(18%) (3%)
Reverse Osmosis
Multi-Effect Distillation
Thermal technology Membrane technology
MultiStage Flash Evapouration
Electrodialysis
MSF MED RO 6,6
Nanofiltration
(7%)
Others
Water type Seawater, Brackish Seawater, Brackish Seawater, Brackish 65,5
(69%)

Operation temperature [ºC] 90 –110 70 Ambient

Typical unit size [m 3/day] 50,000–70,000 5,000–15,000 24,000

Total electric equivalent Figure 11. Share of global desalination capacity in Mm

3
/day (percentages)
13.5–25.5 6. 5 –11 5–9 Source: (Greco et al., 2021)
[kWh/m3]

Distillate quality [ppm] ~10 ~11 < 500

Despite this shift away from thermal

Unit product cost [US $/m] 0.52–1.75 0.52–1.01 0.52–0.56
technologies, the performance of SWCC's
3

Strengths
Mature technology,
Mature technology Mature technology, thermal desalination plants remains
high reliability low energy consumption
competitive, especially when compared to the
Significant energy
Weaknesses
High capital cost, high
energy consumption
consumption, High fouling latest high- efficiency MSF systems.
significant scaling
Nevertheless, SWCC's strategic move to phase
Table 2. Comparison of SWCC’s desalination technologies
Source: (Do Thi & Tóth, 2023) and (Zhao, et al., 2019) out thermal desalination is a commendable step
forward in diminishing the environmental impact
Reverse Osmosis technology stands out as the leading desalination system associated with desalination processes.
due to its high efficiency and positive environmental impact. Furthermore,
RO technology's negligible effects on marine ecosystems, coupled
with its capacity for substantial energy recovery within the desalination
process, highlight its significant ecological merits. Consequently, SWCC is
transitioning away from thermal desalination plants, favoring the more energy-
efficient solution, RO. But, as shown in Figure 11, SWCC is not alone in the
shifting from thermal technologies to RO, the whole world is choosing RO as
the leading technology in desalination around the world.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 30 Comparison of desalination technologies 31
 05 Measures to improve energy consumption

05 Measures to
SWCC's initiatives to reduce the SEC of its desalination facilities have
substantially strengthened the sustainability of Saudi Arabia's water
sector. These efforts are critical to mitigating the environmental impacts

improve energy
of desalination and ensuring a reliable water supply for the nation's
future. Since 2020, SWCC has achieved a reduction of approximately
10.9% in SEC, which is lower than the 21.6% average for Saudi Arabia's

consumption
desalination sector.

SWCC's strategic approach to reducing SEC is commendable. It

involves decommissioning obsolete thermal desalination plants and
adopting RO technology. This transition is expected to result in cost
savings for SWCC, which can be reinvested in further improvements
As previously mentioned, desalination is essential in addressing water and infrastructure development. SWCC is at the forefront of desalination
scarcity, but it is inherently energy-intensive. To reduce the environmental technology, serving as a model for other nations facing similar water
impact and ensure affordability by making the process less dependent on challenges. The organization prioritizes sustainability in its water resource
energy prices, it is imperative to adopt various energy efficiency measures management strategies.
in desalination processes.
In a wider context, Saudi Arabia aims to diversify its energy sources.
Natural gas is expected to remain a crucial energy source while
This section discusses strategies for optimizing discontinuing the use of oil for water desalination. The country is investing
heavily in renewable energy sources, including solar power. For example,
energy use in desalination plants. The report the AlKhafji Solar Saline Water Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant,
covers recent developments in plant design, the which can produce up to 60,000 m3 of purified water daily, uses solar
use of renewable energy sources, innovations in panels. This not only helps Saudi Arabia reduce its carbon emissions but
also supports its transition to clean, sustainable energy.
membrane technology, and the integration of
energy recovery devices (ERDs).

12

percentages
10.9%

10

4
3.0%

2
1.2%

0
2022 2023 2024

Figure 12. SWCC overall reduction of SEC (percentages)

Source: SWCC's production sector

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 32 33

 05 Measures to improve energy consumption 05 Measures to improve energy consumption

→ The design of the plant layout requires a meticulous approach to

Optimization of plant design strategically arrange components, such as pumps, membranes, and
and operation recovery devices, to minimize energy consumption and maximize
performance. Engineers can achieve this by carefully planning the spatial
arrangement and hydraulic modeling, which helps to minimize friction
05 losses, rationalize fluid flow paths, and reduce pumping requirements,
MEASURES
TO IMPROVE ultimately improving overall energy efficiency.
ENERGY
CONSUMPTION → The energy consumption of desalination plants is influenced by
Improving the efficiency of desalination plants begins operational parameters such as flow rates, pressure levels, and
with meticulous design and operation. Optimizing plant temperature control. Operators aim to achieve optimal performance
design, including the layout of components such as pumps, while minimizing energy expenditure by meticulously calibrating these
membranes, and recovery devices, plays a crucial role in parameters. Advanced control systems and automation technologies are
used to maintain precise control over process variables, ensuring energy-
minimizing energy consumption. Additionally, operating
efficient operation under varying operating conditions.
parameters such as flow rate, pressure levels, and
temperature control are carefully calibrated to maximize → The integration of advanced control systems is a crucial strategy for
energy efficiency without compromising water quality. optimizing energy efficiency in desalination plants. These systems use
real-time data analytics, predictive modeling, and adaptive control
Advanced control systems and automation technologies
algorithms to dynamically adjust plant operations in response to
are used to streamline operations, ensuring optimal
fluctuations in feedwater conditions, energy prices, and demand patterns.
performance while minimizing energy consumption. Advanced control systems enable desalination plants to operate closer to
their theoretical energy efficiency limits by optimizing equipment utilization,
scheduling maintenance activities, and implementing energy-saving
protocols.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 34 Optimization of plant design and operation 35
 05 Measures to improve energy consumption

The essential requirements for ensuring the efficiency of a RO

system during the design phase are as follows:

1 2

Source and quality of feed water: The Flow configuration and passes: The
composition and quality of the input water configuration of the flow, such as single-pass,
are crucial in determining the operating concentrate recirculation, or double-pass
parameters necessary to achieve the desired systems, can affect energy consumption. While
results efficiently. Parameters such as Total single-pass systems typically consume the
Dissolved Solids (TDS) and specific ions least energy, alternative configurations may be
present in the feed water must be considered necessary depending on specific needs, even if
when defining the desired characteristics of they potentially increase energy consumption
the treated water. The composition and quality
of the input water are crucial in determining
the operating parameters necessary to
achieve the desired results efficiently.

3 4

Membrane and element type: The selection Membrane flux: When designing the system, it
of membrane type is crucial in determining is crucial to consider an appropriate membrane
energy usage, as it directly affects the fouling flux, which refers to the permeate flow rate per
tendency and efficiency of the system. unit area of the membrane. This parameter is
Therefore, it should be tailored to the feed affected by various factors, including customer
water salinity and fouling characteristics to experience and power supply characteristics,
optimize performance and minimize energy to ensure efficient operation while maintaining
expenditure. product quality.

5 6

Number of elements and pressure vessels: Number of stages: The system's number
The required number of elements and pressure of stages is determined by various factors,
vessels depends on several factors, including including system recovery, the number of
membrane surface area, system recovery, elements per vessel, and feed water quality.
and feed water quality. This ensures optimal Higher system recovery and lower feed water
resource utilization while meeting production quality necessitate more stages, which affects
demands. the overall design and energy consumption.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 36 37

 05 Measures to improve energy consumption 05 Measures to improve energy consumption

Utilization of renewable Wind power

energy sources Wind energy is a feasible renewable energy source for powering desalination
plants, particularly in coastal regions with favorable wind conditions. It works
by converting the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical work, which
05
MEASURES TO can then be used directly or converted into electricity using a generator. The
IMPROVE ENERGY integration of wind turbines in desalination facilities enables the generation of
CONSUMPTION
electricity to power pumps, motors, and auxiliary equipment necessary for the
The integration of renewable energy sources in desalination process (Junginger & Louwen, 2019).
desalination plants presents an opportunity to generate Furthermore, hybrid wind-solar desalination systems have been investigated
sustainable energy, reduce dependence on fossil fuels, to combine the complementary attributes of both renewable energy sources
and improve cost-effectiveness and efficiency. for reliable and sustainable water production. Various combinations of
desalination technologies can be employed in conjunction with wind energy,
such as wind Electrodialysis, wind mechanical vapor compression, and
However, the high energy intensity of desalination technologies poses
wind Reverse Osmosis technologies. These integrated systems represent
challenges for affordable freshwater production and sustainability. Therefore,
promising approaches to improve energy efficiency and reduce reliance on
renewable energy sources offer a promising solution to these challenges.
conventional energy sources in desalination processes (G. Gude, 2018).
The number of possible combinations is determined by the type of
accessible water (brackish or seawater), the potential of renewable energy
sources in the area, the availability of grid electricity, the remoteness of the Other methods
site, and the size of the plant. The most common types of renewable energy
used in desalination are: Geothermal energy is a type of thermal energy that originates from
the Earth's hot core and is transferred to the water layers above it.
Despite its potential for various applications, geothermal energy remains
Solar thermal and photovoltaic energy relatively underutilized in the contemporary energy landscape. In the
field of desalination, geothermal energy can be harnessed by exploiting
The use of solar energy in desalination systems is becoming more
underground steam to drive turbines, thereby generating electricity used in
prevalent, with photovoltaic panels and concentrating solar power
various desalination processes (Bundschuh et al., 2021).
technologies being utilized. Solar desalination shows promise in reducing
reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions Wave energy is another renewable energy source that has potential
associated with traditional desalination processes. Furthermore, recent applications in desalination. This form of energy harnesses the kinetic
developments in solar thermal collectors and solar-powered membrane energy present in ocean waves and converts it into electricity through
distillation systems have demonstrated considerable potential in enhancing turbine systems (Bundschuh et al., 2021). However, the widespread
energy efficiency and decreasing operational expenses of desalination adoption of wave energy may be limited in regions lacking extensive coastal
facilities (Fares et al., 2024). areas or experiencing moderate wave activity. However, countries with
strong wave dynamics and extensive coastal areas, such as China, Iran,
Solar desalination can be classified into three categories based on its
Pakistan, and the United States, have expressed interest in incorporating
energy consumption: (1) solar thermal, which includes thermal vapor
wave energy into their desalination efforts. The feasibility of using wave
compression (TVC), multi-effect desalination (MED), multi-stage flash
energy for desalination is increasingly promising, especially in regions with
(MSF), solar still distillation (SS), or HDH desalination; (2) photovoltaic
existing river infrastructure, such as dams (IRENA, 2021).
electric, which includes mechanical vapor compression (MVC), ED, or RO
desalination; and (3) photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T), which includes hybrid
desalination (Fares et al., 2024).

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 38 Utilization of renewable energy sources 39
05 Measures to improve energy consumption

A
Renewable energy in desalination
Others
Desalination powered by renewable energy is 10%
often considered expensive. However, there
have been numerous innovative ideas proposed
and investigated to overcome issues with Wind energy
20% Solar electrical energy
intermittency and demand-supply. 43%

These include arrangements that fully utilize renewable energy sources

and go beyond cogeneration. Among these sources, solar energy is a top
contender (Gnaneswar & Fthenakis, 2020). The world's energy needs for
an entire year could be met with just 40 minutes of sunshine (Zweibel et al., Solar thermal energy
2009). This suggests a significant potential for solar-powered desalination 27%
in arid and high solar insolation regions with abundant brackish or saline
water reservoirs (V. Gude et al., 2012). Wind and geothermal energy
are also potential energy sources due to their high capacity factor (V.
Gude, 2016), although they are not as widely distributed as solar energy.
Integrating various renewable energy sources can be a dependable and
cost-effective solution in certain circumstances. Solar electrical energy Solar thermal energy Wind energy Others

In general, desalination technology should be optimized to maximize

the available energy and combined with renewable energy sources.
Membrane-based desalination systems do not require co-location B Renewable energy resources

because the energy can be generated elsewhere and efficiently

transferred to the desalination plant. Combinations of thermal desalination
and renewable energy can also be used.
Solar Geothermal Wind Wave & tidal

Thermal energy Electrical energy

SD
HDH MD RO
MED VC ED
MSF

Desalination techniques

Figure 13. (a) Percentage of the renewable energy source to the RED systems worldwide;
(b) the integration of the desalination process with the renewable energy sources.
Source: (Alkaisi et al., 2017)

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 40 Utilization of renewable energy sources 41
05 Measures to improve energy consumption 05 Measures to improve energy consumption

Traditionally, desalination methods have been The literature review on desalination and renewable energy presents
several interesting findings. A feasible method of obtaining fresh water
powered by fossil fuels, which are not only is through stand-alone PV-RO desalination plants, particularly in areas
expensive but also release a significant number lacking a functional electrical infrastructure.
of harmful gases into the environment. Research has demonstrated that the efficiency of stand-alone PV-RO
desalination machines can be increased through proper design of the
It is expected that global emissions from fossil fuel-fired desalination plants
PV array layout, including solar tracking systems, tilt angle adjustment,
will reach 400 million tons of carbon equivalent per year by 2050 (Shahzad
and PV array cleaning. Using feed water to cool the system improved
et al., 2017). Therefore, it is crucial to find clean and alternative energy
both the water productivity in the Reverse Osmosis unit and the
sources for desalination.
efficiency of the PV system. This also resulted in a reduction in the
When comparing renewable energy to conventional fossil fuels, it is overall cost of water production (Abdelkareem et al., 2018).
generally considered to be more affordable, widely available, and has no
Nanofluids enhance the efficiency of solar thermal desalination
adverse effects on the environment (Joshi & Rahman, 2015). Furthermore,
methods, such as water stills. For instance, in water stills with
the use of renewable energy in desalination facilities may result in lower
corrugated bases and side mirror reflectors, the water evaporation rate
final costs for users, which is particularly important for those living in
improved by 250% with the use of nanoparticles. When only a portion
impoverished nations. Around 43% of these plants are powered by solar
of the water was heated instead of the entire volume, the use of
photovoltaic (PV) energy sources, 27% by solar thermal, 20% by wind
plasmonic nanoparticles in water desalination significantly increased
power, and the remaining 10% by hybrid renewables (Shatat et al., 2013).
the water evaporation rate. The nanoparticles achieved an energy
However, selecting the most efficient renewable energy source to maximize recovery efficiency of 65%. When the plasmonic and capillary effects
permeate production while minimizing energy consumption is a challenging were combined, such as in a plasmonic membrane, the efficiency is
task due to the wide range of desalination methods and renewable energy increased to 85% (Wang et al., 2017).
sources available. Factors such as size, location, feed pressure, feedwater
Wind energy has significant potential in desalination applications,
quality, and the cost of produced water are just a few of the many
particularly if the desalination unit is located near the sea, allowing
considerations that influence the choice of a renewable energy source.
for onshore wind turbines to be near the desalination units. Wind-RO
The low intensity and erratic nature of renewables are the main barriers
desalination plants can produce up to 2,300 liters per hour at 225 kW
to their widespread adoption. For instance, solar, wind, wave, and tidal
nominal wind turbine power (Ma & Lu, 2011). The main limiting factor
energy sources are weather- dependent and sporadic. There are methods
for wind energy applications is the absence or low speed of wind.
to mitigate or potentially eradicate these problems, such as implementing
Therefore, wind energy should be combined with another renewable
batteries, thermal storage, connecting to the grid, or integrating multiple
energy source, such as solar or geothermal energy.
renewable energy sources.

The ongoing research and development in desalination technologies

To smooth power fluctuations caused by
continue to push the boundaries of energy efficiency, aiming to make
desalination a more viable and sustainable option for addressing global intermittency, energy storage systems should be
water scarcity. integrated with intermittent renewable energy
sources, such as wind, solar, and ocean.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 42 Utilization of renewable energy sources 43
05 Measures to improve energy consumption 05 Measures to improve energy consumption

However, the short lifetime and high cost of existing storage systems,
such as batteries, lead to increased water desalination costs. Therefore, Innovations in desalination
cost-effective and durable energy storage solutions are required.
technologies
SWCC is currently investigating the feasibility of exploring high-capacity
factor wind power for areas with moderate wind density. The project 05
aims to produce fresh water and green hydrogen from wind systems. MEASURES TO
IMPROVE ENERGY
The economics of a green hydrogen system driven by a 100 MW wind CONSUMPTION
farm will be highlighted. Another project involves synchronizing PV
and wind to produce renewable energy of higher capacity factor (500 The desalination sector has witnessed significant
kW PV + 1000 kW wind). Renewable energy should be contracted to technological advancements aimed at reducing energy
power the HP pump motor (1050 kW) of the SWRO plant. Additionally, consumption and environmental impact.
a renewable electricity feed-in configuration should be established to
increase the penetration rate of renewables. This can be supplemented
by existing electricity feed-in (SWCC, 2023). Innovations in thermal desalination include the
development of hybrid systems that combine
MSF or MED with RO processes to optimize
energy use and water recovery rates.
In membrane desalination, breakthroughs in nanotechnology and
biomimetic membranes offer the potential for further reductions in
energy consumption and improvements in salt rejection rates. Energy
recovery devices have also evolved, with newer models achieving higher
efficiencies in converting the hydraulic energy from brine streams back
into usable energy.

The ongoing research and development in desalination technologies

continue to push the boundaries of energy efficiency, aiming to make
desalination a more viable and sustainable option for addressing global
water scarcity.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 44 Innovations in desalination technologies 45
 05 Measures to improve energy consumption 05 Measures to improve energy consumption

→ Pressure exchangers (PX) transfer hydraulic energy from brine to

Role of energy recovery devices incoming seawater. The system comprises two pressure vessels
(ERDs) operating simultaneously. The control unit records and processes
all operating conditions of the top-level Reverse Osmosis system to
optimize operation. The process occurs through direct interaction
3 Pressure exchanger
05
(ksb.com) between the concentrated brine and the filtered seawater feed
MEASURES
TO IMPROVE stream. The PX unit can achieve a maximum efficiency of up to 98%,
ENERGY demonstrating its remarkable ability to convert energy efficiently. This
CONSUMPTION
high efficiency is due to the fact that the PX unit operates without
Energy recovery devices are essential for improving the
consuming electrical power, resulting in a considerable reduction in the
energy efficiency of desalination processes, and reducing
system's total energy consumption. This efficiency is noteworthy because
operating costs and environmental impact. ERDs recover it contributes to significant energy savings, making the system more
and reuse the energy contained in the concentrated environmentally friendly and cost-effective in the long run (Pinto, 2020).
brine stream in RO desalination plants. This recovered
energy is then used to pressurize the incoming seawater, Francis turbines were the first energy recovery
thereby reducing the overall energy consumption of the
devices employed in SWRO plants in the 1990s,
desalination process.
with a yield of approximately 77% and a SEC of
4-5 kWh/m3.
The ERD serves to reduce the hydraulic pressure needed to pump
seawater through Reverse Osmosis membranes. In conventional A second device, the Turbocharger, was added with an 80% yield,
Reverse Osmosis systems, the high-pressure seawater exiting the potentially resulting in a 30% decrease in energy usage. In the late 1990s,
membranes is typically discharged as brine, resulting in substantial Pelton turbines were introduced with an 88% yield and a 3-4 kWh/m
energy loss. ERDs, however, transfer the kinetic energy of the brine SEC. Isobaric chambers were developed approximately 15 years ago to
stream to the incoming seawater, pre-pressurizing the feed stream and prevent efficiency losses caused by the energy conversion of hydraulic
reducing the energy required to maintain the pressure necessary for energy into mechanical energy in centrifugal devices (Figure 14). These
membrane operation. Desalination facilities use various types of ERDs, systems can save up to 40% on energy when operating at high efficiency
each with specific processes and functional features. The most popular (up to 97%). It represents a specific energy consumption of approximately
varieties are Pelton turbines, turbochargers, and pressure exchangers: 2.5 kWh/m (Urrea et al., 2019).
→ Pelton turbines, also known as Pelton wheels, are a type of
hydroturbine used frequently in hydroelectric plants. In the context
of desalination, Pelton turbines convert the kinetic energy of the brine
stream into a rotating shaft that drives a high-pressure seawater pump
(Huang et al., 2020).

→ Turbochargers are composed of a turbine and a centrifugal pump

impeller that is mounted on the same shaft. They are used to recover
the energy stored in the brine stream, which is then used to power the
desalination process. This technology is highly flexible and adaptable,
enabling plant personnel to change operating conditions quickly and
economically as required (Energy Recovery, 2023).

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 46 Role of energy recovery devices (ERDs) 47
 05 Measures to improve energy consumption 05 Measures to improve energy consumption

Permeate
water flow
Advances in membrane
RO train
technology
05
HP Pump E MEASURES
TO IMPROVE
ENERGY
E Booster pump CONSUMPTION
Advances in membrane technology, including the
development of high-performance membranes, water
ERD
pumps, chemical dosing, and energy-efficient filtration
processes, contribute to reducing energy needs in
membrane desalination. Research and innovation in
Seawater membrane materials and design have the potential to
Feed further improve energy efficiency.
Brine water
reject
In the field of pumping RO systems, manufacturers offer a wide range of
Figure 14. SWRO desalination with isobaric chambers as ERD
Source: (Urrea et al., 2019) pumps tailored to specific needs. These pumps are mainly classified into
two types:

WTIIRA-SWCC has been actively involved in several ERD development

1. High pressure pumps:
projects, including pilot and commercial scale testing and evaluation,
due to its importance in achieving carbon-neutral desalination. Recent a. Multistage axially split casing pumps: which use a sophisticated
4 Axial Split Case
international partnerships include the Megaton project team and a US Multistage Pumps (HA) - design to effectively handle high-pressure requirements. The impeller
company, which aims to achieve a high recovery of 55-60% with the Neptuno Pumps is split into two halves and oriented in opposite directions to expertly
new isobaric and turbocharged ERDs. The isobaric brine ERD achieved 5 MD high-pressure stage manage thrust loads. The flow path passes through successive
casing pump | Sulzer
an impressive efficiency of 98.9-99.5% at its commercial plant in Duba, stages to ensure balanced thrust loads, particularly in cases where
Saudi Arabia, with a capacity of 10,000 m /day. The new turbocharged the number of stages is even. Additionally, these pumps are known
ERD configuration aims to maximize recovery (60%) of concentrate for their reliability in demanding applications due to their robust
(~110,000 mg/L) for downstream brine extraction while maintaining a construction4 .
competitive SEC (2.6-3.1 kWh/m ) on the RO island. The ERD is a new
b. Ring section high-pressure pumps: these pumps are designed
Bi-turbo configuration in a single 1st pass SWRO, with a lower flux. This
to be compact without compromising performance. With a design
aims to prolong membrane age and further reduce RO system energy
that minimizes bearing clearance, they feature increased rigidity and
consumption to approximately 2.1 kWh/m (SWCC, 2023).
reduced shaft deflection, resulting in reduced backlash and increased
efficiency. Despite their small size, they are powerful in terms of high-
pressure output while maintaining operational stability 5.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 48 Advances in membrane technology 49
 05 Measures to improve energy consumption 05 Measures to improve energy consumption

Furthermore, they can be customized to meet specific objectives. For

2. Booster pumps: instance, standard membranes are engineered to eliminate up to 99.6%
of salts. In contrast, high-rejection membranes have a tighter membrane
Horizontal and vertical split case pumps play a key role in situations
structure, which enables them to achieve improved rejection rates, even
where the incoming water pressure is insufficient. By increasing
for smaller ions such as boron. However, the higher rejection capacity of
the water pressure, they accelerate the production rate of the
99.8% comes at the cost of operating at higher pressures.Additionally,
Reverse Osmosis system, improve water quality, and optimize
some membranes are designed with features that maximize water
membrane performance. Their split housing design not only facilitates
production per membrane element. These features, such as a larger
maintenance, but also offers versatility in installation, allowing for
surface area and denser membrane packing, can enhance productivity
horizontal and vertical mounting options. In addition, the absence
without the need for larger membrane elements.
of clearance adjustments during assembly streamlines the set-up
process, ensuring trouble- free operation6.
6 XSC / XVSC Horizontal To minimize downtime and reduce chemical cleaning costs, it is crucial to
& Vertical Split Casing The spiral wound TFC (Thin Film Composite) membrane is the most improve chemical dosing efficiency and closely monitor well performance
Centrifugal Pump
(northridgepumps.com) commonly used Reverse Osmosis membrane in desalination processes. within the Reverse Osmosis system. Optimization not only ensures that
7 Spiral Membranes: A ... These membranes are manufactured as a flat sheet sealed like an envelope the system remains clean but also mitigates the risk of clogging or fouling,
| The Water Network | by and then wound in a spiral configuration. The described arrangement thereby reducing the overall energy consumption of the plant.
AquaSPE
involves rolling the envelopes in a similar way to a paper towel roll, with a
glass fiber wrapper enveloping the package 7. Operators can achieve a delicate balance that avoids chemical
overuse while effectively managing fouling and clogging issues
By prioritizing optimized chemical dosing practices and diligently monitoring by meticulously adjusting chemical dosing protocols. Real-time
system performance, Reverse Osmosis plant operators can maintain monitoring of well performance allows for quick identification and
operational integrity, extend equipment life, and reduce operating costs resolution of any deviations or anomalies, preventing potential
while promoting sustainable energy consumption practices. system failures or inefficiencies.
During operation, the feed water is driven by pressure from a high-pressure
pump into the flow path provided by the spacers at the upstream end. A This approach promotes smoother operation and translates into cost
portion of the feed water is then forced through the membrane, leaving savings by reducing the frequency of chemical cleanings and minimizing
behind dissolved and suspended solids. The purified water, along with the unplanned downtime. Additionally, a clean system facilitates optimal
rejected salts, exits the element at the downstream end, guided by sheets water flow rates and pressure levels, maximizing the overall energy
of spacer material. The water that permeates through the membrane travels efficiency of the plant.
into the water-bearing material inside each envelope and eventually collects
In essence, by prioritizing optimized chemical dosing practices and
in a central perforated tube.
diligently monitoring system performance, Reverse Osmosis plant
operators can maintain operational integrity, extend equipment life
Thin Film Composite membranes differ from and reduce operating costs while promoting sustainable energy
asymmetrical membranes in that they consist consumption practices.
of multiple layers of distinct materials. The
support layers are composed of uniformly
porous materials, such as polysulphone and
polyester, while the salt rejection layer is made
of polyamide. These membranes are wrapped in
glass fiber and equipped with a brine seal.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 50 Advances in membrane technology 51
 06 Environmental
impact of
desalination
The desalination sector is a notorious contributor to global greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions; despite its humanitarian nature as an integral
player in addressing water scarcity in arid regions, desalination still
impacts the environment. This impact radiates predominantly from the
sector's considerable power consumption, largely through the use of
electricity and thermal energy, required for the desalination process.
In Figure 15 it is shown that the water sector, and specifically the

emissions in Saudi Arabia (Alsarhan, et al., 2022). At the same time, in

2020, Saudi Arabia ranked as the 11th most emitting country worldwide
(SWCC, 2022). This statistic underscores the imperative for coordinated
efforts toward reducing the carbon footprint of desalination processes to
foster environmental sustainability.

52 53
53
06 Environmental impact of desalination 06 Environmental impact of desalination

2%
Iron and steel production GHG emission
4% 1%
Well testing
impact
Fertilizers and ammonia
production ~4%
Others 06
ENVIRONMENTAL
7% 17% IMPACT OF
Cement and Desalination DESALINATION

cement production
The greenhouse gases emitted by the high-energy
consumption of desalination processes constitute a
9% 27%
Petrochemical
significant part of the environmental concerns surrounding
Electricity
production and Generation it. The direct correlation between energy use in desalination
combustion and emissions stresses the critical role of the energy
7% sources that power desalination plants. However, it is
Petroleum essential to acknowledge that this issue is part of a
Refining
broader spectrum of GHG emissions sources within the
desalination sector.

Understanding the emissions generated by seawater desalination within

22% the context of the water sector requires a holistic understanding of the
Road Transport value chain that integrates water management. This approach grants us
Figure 15. Saudi Arabia's CO2 emissions by sectors a perspective of the direct and indirect emissions from various stages
Source: (Alsarhan et al., 2022)
ranging from the construction of desalination plants to the production
and transportation of materials, as well as the operational phase of
A study on the Ecological Footprint and Carbon Footprint of a Reverse desalination itself. Through this process, we can better understand the
Osmosis Sea Water Desalination Plant (Leon et al., 2021), revealed origins of the emissions and help in the designing of ways to tackle the
that with an annual production of approximately 660,000 m /day GHG emissions that desalination carries (SWCC, 2022).
of desalinated water in the Canary Islands and an average energy
consumption of 3.04 kWh/m, implementing equipment for energy Following the Greenhouse Gas Protocol standard 8 , which serves as a
guide for entities to report emissions, we can categorize the possible
. GHG of desalination into three main groups: scope 1, scope 2, and
scope 3.

Scope 1
Emissions are direct GHG emissions that occur from sources owned or
controlled by the entity. In the desalination sector, these can include:

→ Maintenance and Operational Activities: Emissions from vehicles and

machinery used on-site for maintenance and operational purposes.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 54 GHG emission impact 55
 06 Environmental impact of desalination 06 Environmental impact of desalination

A comparative examination of greenhouse

Scope 2
gas emissions from various desalination
Emissions cover indirect GHG emissions from the generation of technologies unveils significant differences in
purchased electricity, steam, heating, and cooling consumed by the entity.
For desalination, this primarily involves: their environmental performance.
→ Electricity Consumption: The largest share of GHG emissions in Specifically, the thermal desalination methods, such as Multi- Stage Flash
many desalination plants comes from the electricity used to power RO and Multi-Effect Distillation, exhibit higher emission factors in contrast to the
membranes or to distill water in thermal processes. If the electricity is more energy-efficient RO processes as detailed by Do Thi & Tóth (2023).
generated from fossil fuels, the associated emissions are significant.
Assessing the impact of thermal desalination processes on the environment
requires a close look at the energy sources used for heating. The carbon
Scope 3
8 GHG Protocol Standards
and Guidance Update
emission factor of each energy source varies significantly among natural
Process | GHG Protocol gas, electricity, and other fuel types. Therefore, the SWCC, the temporary
(ghgprotocol.org)
Emissions are all other indirect emissions that occur in the value chain of operational arm of Saudi Water Authority, monitors and aims to reduce
the entity, both upstream and downstream. In the context of desalination, greenhouse gas emissions from its thermal desalination operations to
these include: promote environmental sustainability while addressing water scarcity.

→ Construction and Decommissioning: Emissions associated with In this section we analyze emissions related to desalination processes
manufacturing and transporting construction materials, as well as the in general, then emissions associated with desalination using thermal
end-of-life treatment or decommissioning of plant infrastructure. technologies, and, finally, those related to membrane technologies.

→ Chemicals and Materials: Production and transportation of chemicals A comprehensive study examining the emissions associated with the
(e.g., antiscalants, biocides) and membranes used in the desalination desalination sector in Saudi Arabia (Hamieh et al., 2022)., revealed a notable
process. improvement in the average apparent emission factor of desalination operations
from 2016 to 2019. Specifically, after excluding emissions linked to excess
→ Transportation: Emissions from the transportation of employees, electricity usage, the estimated average emission factor for desalination in
materials, and the final product (freshwater) to consumers. of desalinated water. This

Upstream Reporting Downstream per m recorded in 2016 as shown in Figure 17.

activities company activities
This observed reduction in emission intensity underscores the sector's
Scope 1: Company commitment to mitigating environmental impact and advancing
Utility
Direct facilities
vehicles
sustainability initiatives. It reflects ongoing efforts within the desalination
Emissions
industry to adopt cleaner technologies, optimize operational processes,
and embrace energy-efficient practices.
Scope 2: Purchased electricity,
Indirect steam, heating and cooling for Furthermore, this improvement aligns with broader national and global
own use objectives aimed at reducing carbon footprints and promoting greener
Emissions
practices across industrial sectors. It demonstrates Saudi Arabia's
Purchased goods
& services Capitals goods
Fuel & energy Distribution Biosolids proactive approach in addressing environmental challenges and
related services on agri land
(e.g., chemicals) transitioning towards more sustainable water production methods.
Scope 3: Outsourced Waste
Waste generated Employee operations
Indirect from operations Business travel commuting (e.g., tankers)
(e.g., sludge)

Emissions
Transportation and Leading Use of water
Transmission
distribution assets (e.g., heating
water)

Figure 16. GHG’s accounting by scope

Source: (SWCC, 2022)

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 56 GHG emission impact 57
 06 Environmental impact of desalination 06 Environmental impact of desalination

25 29% As previously stated, membrane desalination

Reduction
20
technologies are less polluting than thermal
technology, particularly when powered by
15 renewable energy sources.
KG CO 2 Per m 3 10
They exhibit a remarkably lower average emission factor, reported at
1.7 kgCO 2 per m³, making them a more environmentally friendly and
5
sustainable option. The disparity between thermal and membrane
technologies highlights the criticality of selecting the right methods for
0 mitigating the environmental impact of desalination. The continuous
2016 2017 2018 2019 improvement in RO systems, achieving a substantial reduction in
CO 2 emissions from 5.2 kgCO2 per m³ in the 1990s to less than 2
kgCO 2 per m³ nowadays, highlights the advancements in efficiency
Figure 17. KSA Average apparent emission factor of desalination
Source: SWCC's production sector and sustainability within the sector. Such progress is pivotal for the
desalination industry, affirming the potential for significant reductions
In 2019, the average emission factor for desalination using thermal in GHG emissions through strategic technological and operational
enhancements. Nonetheless, according to Lienhard et.al., (2016), RO’s
per cubic meter of desalinated water. This is a significant improvement CO 2 emissions generally span 2.1 to 3.6 kgCO 2
per m³ of fresh water, a
compared to the 1980s when thermal desalination plants had an variation significantly influenced by the energy source used in electricity
generation. This emphasizes the imperative for continuous improvement
in desalination technologies and the adoption of renewable energy to
reveals that its MSF desalination plants have an average emission
reduce the environmental impact of providing fresh water.
lower greenhouse gas emissions, with an average emission factor of Furthermore, an investigation into innovative energy-efficient
desalination technologies powered by renewable energy sources
highlighted the significance of emission factors in the context of
reduction compared to the 2019 national average for desalination in seawater reverse osmosis projects in Australia (Ghaffour et al., 2014).
Saudi Arabia. This study scrutinized the interplay between emission factors for
electricity and assumed specific energy consumption rates. Through this
analysis, it was determined that the emission factor for SWRO projects
in Australia amounted to 4.3675 kg CO 2
-equivalent per cubic meter, as
80s 16.0 detailed in Figure 19.
Thermal
Desalination Plants

90s 5.2
SWRO
Plants

2nd 2.5
Millennium SWRO
Plants

Recent 1.7

SWRO Plants

Kg CO2 /m 3 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0

Figure 18. SWCC’s SWRO desalination GHG emissions progressive reduction

Source: SWCC's production sector

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 58 GHG emission impact 59
 06 Environmental impact of desalination 06 Environmental impact of desalination

Emission factors Electrical Tariff

electricity kg CO 2 -e kg CO 2-e per m 3
per kWh
18.0

HALALAH/KWH
Gold Coast desalination project
1.16 4.60
in Queensland, Australia

Victorian SWRO plant in Melbourne 1.31 5.20 14.7

Sydney SWRO project 1.06 4.24

Perth 0.98 3.43 Elect. tariff without solar system Elect. tariff with solar system

Figure 19. SWRO projects emission factor

Source: (Ghaffour et al., 2014) Figure 21. Khafji effect of solar PV on electrical cost
Source: SWCC's production sector

A photovoltaic (PV) technology-based power generation station has A comprehensive preliminary analysis was
been established within the premises of the Khafji Reverse Osmosis conducted on the Shouaiba photovoltaic system
desalination plant. Construction, electrical extension, and integration of
the PV station with the main electrical panel of the Reverse Osmosis
to enhance the efficiency of its large-scale
facility have been completed. During daylight hours, the desalination desalination operations.
plant receives electrical energy as per its design, while the remaining
operational hours are sustained through the public electricity grid to The findings of this study unveiled promising opportunities for
ensure uninterrupted operation. significant improvements. Notably, it was identified that implementing
certain measures could potentially lead to a remarkable reduction in
The PV system's design capacity is 10 MW, with an efficiency factor desalination energy costs by up to 17%. Such a substantial decrease
of 80.78%. Approximately 26% of the electricity required by the in energy expenditure directly translates to a noteworthy enhancement
desalination plant is sourced from solar energy, with the remaining 74% in the overall cost-effectiveness of water production. Specifically,
procured from the grid to meet production demands (Figure 20). the levelized cost of water could see a remarkable decrease of 6%,
showcasing the tangible impact of integrating solar power into the
desalination process as shown in Figure 22.
Solar

26% Saving in desalination Saving in the produced

energy cost water levelized cost
74%
17% 6%

Grid
Figure 20. Khafji’s site solar system share per day
Source: SWCC's production sector

By leveraging both the electricity network and solar power, the cost
of electrical energy has reduced to 14.72 halalas per kilowatt-hour Figure 22. Shuaiba’s plant study of PV system impact on energy and levelized cost of water
throughout the year, marking an 18.2% decrease in expenses. Source: SWCC's production sector

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 60 GHG emission impact 61
 06 Environmental impact of desalination 06 Environmental impact of desalination

This approach must encompass the adoption of technologies that

Other environmental produce lower emissions, innovative brine management strategies,
impacts the integration of sustainable energy sources, and the enforcement of
stringent regulations. The desalination industry's shift towards such
sustainable practices is crucial for reducing its ecological footprint and
06 supporting global environmental conservation efforts.
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT OF
DESALINATION

Beyond greenhouse gas emissions, the desalination

process poses additional environmental challenges,
including marine habitat alteration, brine discharge (in
membrane technologies), and energy resource depletion.
The discharge of highly concentrated brine into marine
ecosystems can lead to significant alterations in local Untreated
brine discharge
water salinity and temperature, adversely affecting
marine biodiversity.
Moreover, the substantial energy requirements for desalination not only
contribute to GHG emissions but also exacerbate the depletion of finite
natural resources, particularly when fossil fuels are the primary energy
Energy GHGs
source (Folk, 2022). consumption emissions
The United Nations Environment Programme reports that for every liter
of drinking water produced through desalination, approximately 1.5 liters
of chemically contaminated liquid may be generated if the brine is not
properly treated. This untreated effluent, containing harmful substances Environmental
such as chlorine and copper, presents a significant environmental Impacts
challenge. As illustrated in Figure 23, addressing these complex
environmental impacts requires a holistic approach to desalination.

Feed
Chemicals water
intake

Figure 23. Environmental impacts of desalination

Source: (Panagopoulos & Haralambous, 2020)

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 62 Other environmental impacts 63
06 Environmental impact of desalination

07 Future outlook and

sustainability goals
in SWCC
SWCC is committed to improving energy efficiency in desalination
operations through various initiatives, including technology
improvements, process optimization, and renewable energy integration.
These efforts aim to reduce energy consumption, lower operating costs,
and minimize environmental impact.

Other environmental impacts 64 65

 07 Future outlook and sustainability goals in SWCC 07 Future outlook and sustainability goals in SWCC

Jeddah
SWCC's energy efficiency 4%

initiatives Yanbu 3
Rasalkhair 28%
18%
07
FUTURE
OUTLOOK AND
SUSTAINABILITY Sattelite & Alkhafji
GOALS IN SWCC 1%
The SWCC, the temporary operational arm of Saudi Water
Yanbu 1 & 2
Authority, owns numerous desalination plants situated 7%
along both the western and eastern coasts of Saudi Arabia.
These plants employ various cutting-edge technologies, Shuqaiq 1
MSF, MED, and RO, to efficiently convert seawater into 2%

potable water. In 2019, SWCC embarked on a significant

initiative aimed at integrating green technologies into
its operations, with the primary objective of mitigating Jubail-2
14%
greenhouse gas emissions stemming from its facilities.
Shuaiba 1 & 2
11%

At the outset of this initiative, SWCC established a baseline for

Khobar 2 & 3
direct emissions, quantifying them at 60 metric tons of CO 2
e. The 12% Jubail-1
3%
contributions of thermal plants to these emissions are shown in Figure
24. Furthermore, SWCC aims to achieve a reduction of 37 metric tons
of CO2e emissions from its facilities by the conclusion of 2025. Figure 24. SWCC’s 2019 CO 2 baseline emissions
Source: SWCC's production sector

As explained, SWCC has implemented a comprehensive strategy to

change its desalination processes. The main objective of this initiative
is to decrease reliance on thermal desalination techniques and
increase the application of RO technology. This effort is expected to
significantly reduce the use of thermal desalination from 78% in 2019
to a nominal 17% in 2026 (Figure 25). The proportion of desalination
plants using Reverse Osmosis technology is expected to increase
substantially, reaching 83% in 2026. This strategic shift underlines
SWCC's commitment to adopting more sustainable and efficient
desalination methods.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 66 SWCC's energy efficiency initiatives 67
 07 Future outlook and sustainability goals in SWCC 07 Future outlook and sustainability goals in SWCC

Thermal Desalination Tech Reverse Osmosis Tech

Key factors to improve energy consumption in
100.0% SWCC RO plants
90.0% +277% 17.0%
80.0% As mentioned before, several critical
70.0%
factors influence the energy consumption
60.0% 78.0%
of desalination plants, including technology
50.0%
83.0%
selection, energy price, plant capacity and
40.0%
30.0%
layout, feedwater, product water quality, and
20.0% site-specific requirements and regulations.
10.0% 22.0%
The SEC metrics of the most recent SWCC-approved design for Reverse
0.0% Osmosis systems offer valuable insights into the energy usage of individual
2019 2026 system components and overall energy expenditure. In RO systems, the
primary energy consumers are usually the feedwater pumps, first-pass RO
Figure 25. Evolution of SWCC desalination technologies between 2019-2026
(percentages) motors, and second-pass RO motors, which pressurize the feedwater to
Source: SWCC's production sector
facilitate desalination.

Efforts to enhance the energy efficiency of these components may include

the installation of more efficient pumps and motors or the optimization of
SWCC aims to increase the proportion of Reverse operating pressures. Some research indicates that single-pass Reverse
Osmosis systems generally consume less energy than two-pass RO
Osmosis plants to 83% by 2026, which exceeds alternatives (Schunke et al., 2020). However, a second step is necessary
the recorded global percentage of RO systems when stricter product water quality standards are required. Of the two-
pass Reverse Osmosis configurations, partial split second-pass Reverse
standing at 69% according to a 2020 review Osmosis requires the least energy and offers optimization potential within
study about the integration of wind energy and the indicated SEC range.
desalination systems (Esmaeilion, 2020).
This change would significantly reduce the energy intensity
of Saudi Arabia's desalination sector and the associated CO 2
footprint of drinking water production.

The SWCC, the temporary operational arm of Saudi Water

Authority, is committed to improving energy efficiency in desalination
operations through various initiatives, including technology
improvements, process optimization, and renewable energy
integration. These efforts aim to reduce energy consumption, lower
operating costs, and minimize environmental impact.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 68 SWCC's energy efficiency initiatives 69
07 Future outlook and sustainability goals in SWCC 07 Future outlook and sustainability goals in SWCC

In addition, auxiliary components such as antiscalant dosing pumps and

sodium hydroxide dosing pumps contribute to the energy consumption of Antiscalant dosing pump adds Sodium hydroxide dosing
Reverse Osmosis systems. Although they play a vital role in maintaining chemicals that prevent fouling. This pumps adjust the pH of the
system performance and water quality, strategies to reduce their energy process requires minimal energy product water. This process is
consumption include operational optimization and the adoption of energy- input due to the small amount of characterized by minimal energy
efficient equipment. added chemicals. consumption attributed to the small
volume of chemicals added.
A detailed breakdown of the SEC makes it easier to identify areas where
energy efficiency can be improved. For instance, replacing energy-intensive
feedwater pumps with more efficient alternatives or optimizing operating
Post-treatment equipment
pressures can result in significant energy savings. By enhancing the energy
removes residual impurities from
efficiency of Reverse Osmosis systems, operators can effectively decrease
product water, with relatively low
operating costs and minimize GHG emissions.
SEC due to the low concentrations
of impurities.

Key components for energy consumption in

SWCC’s SWRO plants The licensed SWCC’s SWRO system has a total specific energy
consumption of 2.7 kWh/m , which is relatively low compared to other
desalination technologies. To ensure a sustainable and economically viable
Intake pumps transport feed water Backwash pumps facilitate the
operation of the Reverse Osmosis system, efficient management of these
from the sea to the SWRO plant. cleaning of the RO membranes and
components and appropriate implementation of energy-saving measures
They have a relatively low SEC remove fouling. They have a low
are necessary. In addition, a recent paper emphasizes the importance of
and require less pressurization to SEC due to the reduced pressure
improving membrane permeability and optimizing the efficiency of pumps
transport seawater. requirements of the backwash water.
and energy recovery devices to reduce specific energy consumption
(Karabelas et al., 2018).

With the Megaton Project, SWCC has built a

DMF dossing pumps introduce Intermediate pumps raise the
chemicals that prevent fouling of feed water pressure between the plant utilizing a distinctive technical approach
the RO membrane. This is achieved stages of the SWRO process. This that achieves 55% recovery in the first stage
with minimal energy consumption is done with relatively low SEC
and 90% recovery in the second stage of an RO
due to the small amount of consumption due to moderate
chemicals added. pressure increases. system.

This recovery rate has been achieved through the development of an

innovative design and membrane, which reduces operating costs and
First-pass RO pumps eliminate Second-pass RO pumps further
provides an efficient system for the entire plant.The proposed SWRO
the majority of salt from de-feed desalinate the water with lower
system has demonstrated a stable standardized PD at a higher permeate
water but have the highest specific osmotic pressure, resulting in
flow rate, considering a continuous steady-state operation. Simultaneously,
energy consumption in RO plants reduced SEC compared to the first-
the success of achieving the target water quality with an energy
due to overcoming the high osmotic pass pumps.
consumption of (2.48 kWh/m ) is heavily reliant on the development of
pressure.
SWRO membranes for the pilot project (SWCC, 2023).

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 70 SWCC's energy efficiency initiatives 71
 07 Future outlook and sustainability goals in SWCC 07 Future outlook and sustainability goals in SWCC

Furthermore, SWCC's strategies to curb emissions have set industry-

SWCC's efforts in reducing GHG leading benchmarks, outperforming the average apparent emission

emissions factor for desalination in Saudi Arabia in 2019 by an impressive 88.8%.

This accomplishment heralds a new era in desalination, spotlighting
SWCC's zeal for advancing the sustainability frontier in desalination
07 technologies and practices. By adopting cleaner technologies, improving
FUTURE
OUTLOOK AND energy efficiency, and implementing carbon mitigation strategies, SWCC
SUSTAINABILITY strives to minimize its environmental footprint and contribute to a more
GOALS IN SWCC
sustainable future not only in Saudi Arabia but worldwide.
The SWCC, the temporary operational arm of Saudi
Water Authority, is steadfast in its dedication to the SWCC’s ambitious path to drastically reduce its environmental footprint
principles of environmental, social, and governance (ESG) started in 2019 (Figure 26), laying the groundwork for innovative projects
and sustainability across all facets of its operations. designed to redefine the standards of the desalination industry. Initiating
from a baseline of 60 million tons of CO 2 emissions annually, SWCC has
In alignment with its commitment to environmental
established an audacious target to cut emissions by 37 million tons each
stewardship, SWCC is actively engaging in efforts to reduce year by the conclusion of 2025. This objective translates to an impressive
carbon emissions from its desalination plants. 62% decrease in emissions from the base year, marking a significant
stride towards environmental sustainability and positioning SWCC as a
leader in the global effort to combat climate change through innovative
In 2016, the greenhouse gas emission inventory for Saudi Arabia revealed
and sustainable desalination practices.
a significant contribution from the desalination sector to the nation's CO 2
emissions, emphasizing SWCC’s urgent need for emission reduction
initiatives within this sector to encourage environmental sustainability 60.0 60
(Hamieh et al., 2022). SWCC’s efforts include the implementation of Mt CO 55.0
Scope 1 emission reduction strategies and the adoption of the IPCC
2006 standard methodology for the accurate evaluation and monitoring of 50
emissions emanating from its facilities. Furthermore, SWCC has initiated
a strategic program focused on the displacement of liquid fuels, aiming to 37.1 40
%62
mitigate the CO 2 emissions tied to the desalination process significantly. Reduction of
CO
30
22.9
22.9
Mt CO 20 14.3
9.1
10
0.0
0
2018 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045

Completed or in progress Planned

Figure 26. SWCC’s plan to reduce carbon emissions

(Million metric tons of CO2 , 2018-2025)
Source: (SWCC, 2023)

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 72 SWCC's efforts in reducing GHG emissions 73
 08 Conclusions

08 Conclusions Since its creation, SWCC has made significant progress in

revolutionizing desalination technology, improving energy efficiency,
and reducing emissions. The strategic shift towards RO technology has
played a central role in these developments, surpassing the efficiency of
conventional thermal desalination processes while reducing the impact on
the environment. SWCC has also embraced renewable energy solutions
and ambitious projects, such as establishing the world’s largest solar-
powered desalination plant in Jubail, Saudi Arabia.
This academic report provides a detailed analysis of SWCC's efforts
to reduce energy consumption and its relation to emissions reduction.
Notably, there has been a decrease in specific energy consumption
The expansion of residential, commercial, attributed to RO membrane systems. This reduction has been achieved
through innovations in membrane manufacturing, energy recovery devices,
and industrial sectors is driving the increase and plant design optimization. The adoption of SWCC's advanced RO
in global demand for water and electricity. design, which has a plant-specific energy consumption of only 2.7 kWh/
m³, indicates a significant improvement in efficiency compared to the
This surge presents the challenge of balancing previously commissioned RO-4 plant which operates at 2.45 kWh/m³.
water and energy consumption At the same time, SWCC has made impressive strides in reducing
with environmental sustainability. greenhouse gas emissions, with a consistent decrease in CO 2
emission
factors in the last decades. An example of that is that there has been a
The dilemma is especially pronounced in the field of desalination, 67% reduction in emission factors for seawater Reverse Osmosis plants
where there is a need to shift from traditional thermal desalination compared to figures from the 1990s, with current emissions standing at
methods to more energy-efficient technologies like Reverse Osmosis. an impressive 1.7 kg CO2 /m³. These achievements highlight SWCC's
key role in promoting environmental responsibility within the desalination
SWCC is leading this transition, prioritizing societal water needs while
industry. Furthermore, SWCC's impressive targets for improving energy
at the same time mitigating environmental impacts through investment efficiency and reducing GHG emissions by 62% in 2025 from 2019
in research and development. levels demonstrate an industry-leading commitment to sustainability.

This report highlights the significance of

innovation and energy efficiency in attaining a
sustainable and economically feasible future
for water.
It displays the commendable efforts of SWCC in reducing the ecological
impact of desalination, setting a benchmark for the entire industry.
Additionally, these efforts demonstrate that if desalination is executed
properly, it can be a sustainable solution to combat the water crisis.

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 74 75

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TABLE 2 Comparison of SWCC’s desalination technologies 30
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FIGURE 1 SWCC’s desalination plants 08
A. (2021). Commercial pressure retarded SWCC . (2022). Decarbonization of the
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Eng. Technol, Tsai, S.-C., Huang, W.-Z., Lin, G.-S., Wang, Z., FIGURE 4 Share of average dissolved solids concentration in seawater 17
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of the Specific Energy Consumption of Sea
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Water Reverse Osmosis Integrated with
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of desalination and brine treatment – .
Osmosis Processes with Theoretical FIGURE 7 Jubail phase-2 thermal system (MSF) energy consumption 24
Challenges and mitigation measures. Models.Membranes
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FIGURE 9 Specific Energy Consumption of SWRO 27
desalination.Energy Recovery Inc
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evaluation and efficiency of energy recovery FIGURE 10 28
Salinas-Rodríguez, S. G., Schippers, J. devices installed in the Canary Islands FIGURE 11 Share of global desalination capacity in Mm3/day (percentages) 31
C., Amy, G. L., Kim, I. S., & D. Kennedy, desalination plants.
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M. (2021). Seawater Reverse Osmosis FIGURE 12 SWCC overall reduction of SEC (percentages) 33
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Cost Estimating and Management. Boca
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IWA Publishing. renewable energy sources
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FIGURE 16 GHG’s accounting by scope 56
Sustainable Cities, 2, 9.
FIGURE 17 KSA Average apparent emission factor of desalination 58
Shahid, M., Mainali, B., Rout, P., Lim, J., World Health Organization. (2022).
Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth FIGURE 18 SWCC’s SWRO desalination GHG emissions progressive reduction 58
Aslam, M., Al-Rawajfeh, A., & Choi, Y. (2023).
A Review of Membrane-Based Desalination edition incorporating the first addendum. FIGURE 19 SWRO projects emission factor 60
Systems Powered.Water. Geneva: World Health Organization.
FIGURE 20 Khafji’s site solar system share per day 60
Shahzad, M., Burhan, M., Ang, L., & Ng, K. Zhao, D., Lee, L., Ong, S., Chowdhury, P., Siah,
FIGURE 21 Khafji effect of solar pv on electrical cost 61
(2017). Energy-water-environment nexus K., & Ng, H. (2019). Electrodialysis reversal
underpinning future desalination sustainability. for industrial reverse osmosis brine treatment. FIGURE 22 Shuaiba’s plant study of PV system impact on energy and levelized 62
Desalination, 413, 52-64. Separation and Purification Technology
, 339-347. cost of water
Shatat, M., Worall, M., & Riffat, S. (2013). Zweibel, K., Mason, J., & Fthenakis, V. FIGURE 23 Environmental impacts of desalination 63
Opportunities for solar water desalination (2009). By 2050 solar power could end FIGURE 24 SWCC’s 2019 CO 2 baseline emissions 67
worldwide.Sustainable cities and society , US dependence on foreign oil and slash
9, 67-80. greenhouse gas emissions. Scientific FIGURE 25 Evolution of SWCC desalination technologies between 2019-2026 68

American, 298 (1). (percentages)

FIGURE 26 SWCC’s plan to reduce carbon emissions 73
(Million metric tons of CO 2, 2018-2025)

Desalination energy consumption Saudi Water Authority (SWA) 78 79

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In partnership with

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