HYDRAULICS I

Course Code: WREN801

Topic: Water Flow in Open Channels

Lecturer: Muhammad Mujahid Muhammad, B.Eng, M.Sc, Ph.D,

COREN

Department of Water Resources & Environmental Engineering

Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria - Nigeria

September 2019

1
 Course Content
 Water Flow in Open Channels – Uniform flow and energy principles in open channel flows. Gradually varied
flow, classification, computation of water surface profiles, direct integration method, direct step method, the
standard step method, Bresse method, practical problems related to canal design, backwater and channel
delivery computations theory of regime canals, transitions, hydraulic jump and its use as energy dissipator.
Rapidly varied unsteady flow, the moving hydraulic jump, positive surges, surges through channel
transitions.
 Water Flow in Pipes and Pipe Networks – Turbulent flow in pipes, friction factors, empirical formulae for
water flow in pipes, pipelines, pipe branching, pipe networks and siphon and pump in pipelines, design of
pipe distribution systems, Hardy-Cross method, pipe and materials, valves and hydrants, distributing
reservoirs, standpipes and elevated tanks, hydraulics of sewers.
 Water Pumps – Power and efficiency of water pumps, centrifugal pumps, propeller (axial flow) pumps, jet
pumps, pump selection and alteration, pumps in parallel or series, specific speed and pump similarity.
 Hydraulic Similitude – Reynolds number Law, Froude number Law, Weber number Law, open channel
models, hydraulic models, distorted river and channel models. 2
 Water Flow in Open Channels
 Definition – Open channel flow is the flow of fluid in a conduit in which its surface is expose to the
atmospheric pressure. This may occur in natural channels / rivers or artificial channels as illustrated
below:

3
Types / Classifications of Open Channel Flow

4
 Uniform and Non-uniform Flows

 Uniform Flow – It has constant flow depth, width, flow area and velocity which do not change with
distance. Contrary to this, the flow will be called varied or non-uniform flow.

5
 Steady and Unsteady Flows

 Steady Flow – occurs when the governing flow variables do not change with time. Otherwise, the flow
will be called unsteady flow.

6
 Laminar and Turbulent Flows

 The flow is called laminar flow if the liquid particles appear to move in definite smooth paths and the
flow appears to be as a movement of thin layers on top of each other.
 In turbulent flow, the liquid particles move in irregular paths which are not fixed with respect to either
time or space.
 The relative magnitude of viscous and inertial forces determines whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent: The flow is laminar if the viscous forces dominate, and the flow is turbulent if the inertial
forces dominate. The ratio of viscous and inertial forces is defined as the Reynolds number,

Re = Reynolds number; V = mean flow velocity; L = a characteristic length;

and ν = kinematic viscosity of the liquid.

7
 Subcritical, Supercritical, and Critical Flows

 A flow is called critical if the flow velocity is equal to the velocity of a gravity wave having small
amplitude. A gravity wave may be produced by a change in the flow depth. The flow is called
subcritical flow, if the flow velocity is less than the critical velocity, and the flow is called supercritical
flow if the flow velocity is greater than the critical velocity. The Froude number, Fr, is equal to the ratio
of inertial and gravitational forces and, for a rectangular channel, it is defined as:

Where, y = flow depth. Depending upon the value of Fr, flow is classified as subcritical if Fr < 1;
critical if Fr = 1; and supercritical if Fr > 1.

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 Terminology

 A long channel having mild slope usually excavated in the ground is called a canal.
 A channel supported above ground and built of wood, metal, or concrete is called a flume.
 A chute is a channel having very steep bottom slope and almost vertical sides.
 A tunnel is a channel excavated through a hill or a mountain.
 A short channel flowing partly full is referred to as a culvert.
 A channel having the same cross section and bottom slope throughout is referred to as a prismatic
channel, whereas a channel having varying cross section and/or bottom slope is called a non-
prismatic channel.
 Flow depth (y), stage / elevation (Z), top width (B), flow area (A), wetted perimeter (P), hydraulic radius
(R), hydraulic depth (D)

= , and =

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Characteristics of typical channel cross sections

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 Questions
Q1. Compute the hydraulic radius and hydraulic mean depth of the following concrete – lined
channel.

Q2. Derive equations for hydraulic radius and hydraulic mean depth for a parabolic channel as
shown below

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 Energy Principles in Open Channel Flows
The law of conservation of energy is the fundamental principle in solving any open channel flow
problem. Thus, the total energy for a parcel of water moving on a streamline can be expressed
using Bernoulli’s equation:

H= + +

12
Energy Principles in Open Channel Flows

Figure 1: Energy in Gradually Varied Open Channel Flow 13

 Specific Energy of an Open Channel Flows
The specific energy of an open channel flow relative to the bottom of a channel is given by:

E= +

Where, α = kinetic energy correction factor used in correcting the non-uniformity of the velocity profile,

14
Problem

15
Problem

16
 Problems
Q1.

Q2.

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 Specific Energy Curve
Recall: V2 Ep = potential energy of flow = y
Es  y   E p  Ek V2
2g Ek = kinetic energy of flow = 2 g
Q2
Es  y  Valid for any cross section
2 g A2

Specific Energy Curve:

It is defined as the
curve which shows the
variation of specific
energy (Es ) with depth
of flow y.

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 Specific Energy Curve (Rectangular channel)

Consider a rectangular channel in which a constant discharge

Q
q = discharge per unit width = = constant ( since Q and B are constants)
B
2
Q Q q q
V    Es y   E pEk
A B y y 2g y 2

Ep

EK
EP Es

yc

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Referring to the energy curve, the following features can be observed:

1. The depth of flow at point C is referred to as critical depth, yc.

(It is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at which the specific energy is
minimum, E min  yc The flow that corresponds to this point is called
critical flow (Fr = 1.0).
2. For values of Es greater than Emin , there are two corresponding depths.
One depth is greater than the critical depth and the other is smaller then
the critical depth, for example; E s1  y1 and y1'
These two depths for a given specific energy are called the alternate depths.
3. If the flow depth y  yc the flow is said to be sub-critical (Fr < 1.0).

In this case Es increases as y increases.

4. If the flow depth y  yc the flow is said to be super-critical (Fr > 1.0).

In this case Es decreases as y increases.

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21
 Derivation of Critical depth, yc for rectangular channel
Critical depth, yc , is defined as that depth of flow of liquid at which the specific energy
is minimum, Emin,
The mathematical expression for critical depth is obtained by differentiating energy
equation with respect to y and equating the result to zero;
q2
Es y 
2g y2
dE d q2 q2  2
0  (y  2
) 1 ( 3 )0
dy dy 2g y 2g y
1
q 
2 2 2 3
q q
1 3
0  y 
3
yc  
gy g  g 

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 Critical velocity, Vc for rectangular channel
2
q
y 
3
,
c
g q
Vc 
Q Q q yc
V  
A B y y
2 2
Vc y
ALTERNATIVELY
y 3
c  Vc c g  yc
g
Vc
 1  Fr
g  yc
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 Expression of Emin in terms of yc

q2
E min  yc 
2 g yc2 yc
2 E min  yc 
q 2
y 
3
c
g

3 yc 2 E min
E min  OR yc 
2 3

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Critical depth, yc , for Non- Rectangular Channels
dEs d Q2 2 Q 2 dA
0  ( y 2
)1 3
( ) 0
dy dy 2g A 2 g A dy
Q 2 dA
OR 1  ( )0 (constant discharge is assumed)
3
g A dy
dA/dy = the rate of increase of area with respect to y = T (top width).

Q 2T Q2 A3 condition must be satisfied for the flow

1  0 
gA 3
g T at the critical depth.
A Q2
Recalling that D    2
h
A Dh
T g V2 Dh
The equation may also be written in terms of velocity  
2g 2

The velocity head is equal to one-half the hydraulic depth for critical flow.
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 Q2 A
E s  y 2
 Es  y  This equation represents
2g A 2T the critical state

1 A
E c  yc  ( )
The general equation for the specific energy in
OR critical state applicable to channels of all shapes.
2 T
Rectangular section Trapezoidal section

3yc (3B  5n yc ) yc
Ec Ec 
2 2 (B  2n yc )

Circular section Triangle section

5
Ec  yc
d d ( 2  sin 2 ) 4
Ec  ( 1  cos ) 
2 16 sin  26
 Constant Specific Energy
The specific energy was varied and the discharge was assumed to be constant. Let us
now consider the case in which the specific energy is kept constant and the discharge Q
is varied.
Q2
E s  y 2
 Q A 2 g ( Es  y )
2g A
Q2  A2 (2 g ) ( E s  y )  2 gA2 E s  2 gA2 y
dQ
The discharge will maximum if 0
dy
dQ dA  dA 2 
Q  2 g E s ( 2 A )  2 g ( 2 y A  A )
dy dy  dy 
dA/dy = T  2 g E s ( 2 AT ) 2 g ( 2 yAT ) 2 gA 2 0
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4 EsT  4 yT  2 A  0
A
2T ( Es  y)  A  Es  y 
2T
Q2
but Es  y 
2 g A2
2 2 3
Q A Q A
y 2
 y  
2g A 2T g T

Thus for a given specific energy, the discharge in a given channel is a

maximum when the flow is in the critical state. The depth corresponding
to the maximum discharge is the critical depth.

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 HYDRAULIC JUMP
• A hydraulic jump occurs when flow changes from a supercritical flow (unstable) to a
sub-critical flow (stable).
• There is a sudden rise in water level at the point where the hydraulic jump occurs.
• Rollers (eddies) of turbulent water form at this point. These rollers cause dissipation
of energy.
•A hydraulic jump occurs in practice at the toe of a dam or below a sluice gate where the velocity
is very high.

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 General Assumptions for Hydraulic Jump

In the analysis of hydraulic jumps, the following assumptions are made:

 The length of hydraulic jump is small. Consequently, the loss of head due to friction is negligible.
 The flow is uniform and pressure distribution is due to hydrostatic before and after the jump.
 The slope of the bed of the channel is very small, so that the component of the weight of the fluid
in the direction of the flow is neglected.

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 Location of hydraulic jump
Generally, a hydraulic jump occurs when the flow changes from supercritical to subcritical flow.

The most typical cases for the location of hydraulic jump are:
1. Jump below a sluice gate.
2. Jump at the toe of a spillway.
3. Jump at a glacis.
(glacis is the name given to sloping floors provided in hydraulic structures.)

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 Derivation of General Equation Governing the Hydraulic Jump
•The net force in the direction of flow = the rate of change of moment in that direction
 Q
 (V 2  V 1 )
g
The net force in the direction of the flow, neglecting frictional resistance and the component of weight of
water in the direction of flow,
R = F 1 - F2 .
Therefore, the impulse-moment yields
Q
F1  F2  (V2  V1 )
g
Where F1 and F2 are the pressure forces at section 1 and 2, respectively.
Q
 A1 y1   A2 y2  (V2  V1 )
g
 Q2 1 1
 A1 y1   A2 y2  (  )
g A2 A1
Q2 Q2
 A1 y1   A2 y 2
gA 1 gA2
y = the distance from the water surface to the centroid of the flow area 32
 Q2 Q2
 A1 y1   A2 y 2
gA 1 gA2

Comments:
• This is the general equation governing the hydraulic jump for any
shape of channel.
• The sum of two terms is called specific force (M). So, the equation can
be written as:
M1 = M2
• This equation shows that the specific force before the hydraulic jump
is equal to that after the jump.

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 Hydraulic Jump in Rectangular Channels

A1  B y1 y1 y2
y1  A2  B y2 y2 
2 2
Q2 Q2 Q2 y1 Q2 y
 A1 y1   A2 y 2  ( By1 )( )   ( By2 )( 2 )
gA 1 gA2 g B y1 2 g B y2 2

Q q 2  y2  y1  y22  y12
using q  
B g  y1 y2  2

2 q2
 y1 y2 ( y2  y1 )
g
, we get

2
2 q
y2 y12  y22 y1  0
g
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This is a quadratic equation, the solution of which may be written as:

y  y1 
2
 2q 2  y2 1  8 q 2 
y2   1       1  1
 2 y1 2  g y13 
2  g y1 

y2  2
y
2
 2q 2  y1 1  8 q 2 
y1         1  1
 2 y2 2  g y23 
2  g y2 

where y1 is the initial depth and y2 is called the conjugate depth. Both are called
conjugate depths.
These equations can be used to get the various characteristics of hydraulic jump.

35
 2
q
But for rectangular channels, we have yc3 
g
  
3

   1 1 8  c  
Therefore,
y 2
1 y
y1 2   y1  
 
 3
y1 1   yc  
 1  1  8  
y2 2   y2  
 
These equations can also be written in terms of Froude’s number as:

y2 1

  1 1 8 F1 2
y1 2
 F1 
V1
g y1

y1 1 
8 F22 
V2
 1  1 F2 
y2 2   g y2

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 Head Loss in a hydraulic jump (HL):

Due to the turbulent flow in hydraulic jump, a dissipation (loss) of energy

occurs:
H L  E  E1  E2

Where, E = specific energy

q2
For rectangular channels: E s y
2 g y2

q 2 
q2 
hence, H L  y1    y2  
2 g y1 
2
2 g y2 
3

( y 2  y1 ) 3
After simplifying, we obtain E  H L
4 y1 y 2

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 Height of hydraulic jump (hj):
The difference of depths before and after the jump is known as the
height of the jump,

hj  y2  y1

Length of hydraulic jump (Lj):

The distance between the front face of the jump to a point on the
downstream where the rollers (eddies) terminate and the flow becomes
uniform is known as the length of the hydraulic jump. The length of the
jump varies from 5 to 7 times its height. An average value is usually
taken:

Lj  6hj
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Example

39
 Gradually Varied Flow
• Non-uniform flow is a flow for which the depth of flow is varied.
• This varied flow can be either Gradually varied flow (GVF) or Rapidly varied flow (RVF).
• Such situations occur when:
- control structures are used in the channel or,
- when any obstruction is found in the channel,
- when a sharp change in the channel slope takes place.

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 Classification of Channel-Bed Slopes
The slope of the channel bed is very important in determining the characteristics of the flow.

Let

• S0 : the slope of the channel bed ,

• Sc : the critical slope or the slope of the channel that sustains a given discharge

(Q) as uniform flow at the critical depth (yc).

• yn is is the normal depth when the discharge Q flows as uniform flow on slope S0.

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The slope of the channel bed can be classified as:
1) Critical Slope C : the bottom slope of the channel is equal to the critical slope.

S0  Sc or yn  yc
2) Mild Slope M : the bottom slope of the channel is less than the critical slope.

S0  Sc or yn  yc
3) Steep Slope S : the bottom slope of the channel is greater than the critical slope.
S0  Sc or yn  yc
4) Horizontal Slope H : the bottom slope of the channel is equal to zero.

S0  0.0
5) Adverse Slope A : the bottom slope of the channel rises in the direction of the
flow (slope is opposite to direction of flow).

S0  negative

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43
 Classification of Water Surface Profiles

• The surface curves of water are called flow profiles (or water surface profiles).
• The shape of water surface profiles is mainly determined by the slope of the channel bed So.
• For a given discharge, the normal depth yn and the critical depth yc may be calculated. Then
the following steps are followed to classify the flow profiles:
1- A line parallel to the channel bottom with a height of yn is drawn and is designated as the
normal depth line (N.D.L.)
2- A line parallel to the channel bottom with a height of yc is drawn and is designated as the
critical depth line (C.D.L.)
3- The vertical space in a longitudinal section is divided into 3 zones using the two lines drawn
in steps 1 & 2 (see the next figure)

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4- Depending upon the zone and the slope of the bed, the water profiles
are classified into 13 types as follows:
(a) Mild slope curves M1 , M2 , M3 .
(b) Steep slope curves S1 , S2 , S3 .
(c) Critical slope curves C1 , C2 , C3 .
(d) Horizontal slope curves H2 , H3 .
(e) Averse slope curves A2 , A3 .

In all these curves, the letter indicates the slope type and the subscript
indicates the zone. For example S2 curve occurs in the zone 2 of the
steep slope.
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 Flow Profiles in Mild slope

Flow Profiles in Steep slope

46
 Flow Profiles in Critical slope

Flow Profiles in Horizontal slope

Flow Profiles in Adverse slope 47

 Dynamic Equation of Gradually Varied Flow

To obtain the relationship between the water surface slope and other characteristics of flow. The
following assumptions are made in the derivation of the equation:
1. The flow is steady.
2. The streamlines are practically parallel (true when the variation in depth along the direction of
flow is very gradual). Thus the hydrostatic distribution of pressure is assumed over the
section.
3. The loss of head at any section, due to friction, is equal to that in the corresponding uniform
flow with the same depth and flow characteristics. (Manning’s formula may be used to
calculate the slope of the energy line)
4. The slope of the channel is small.
5. The channel is prismatic.
6. The velocity distribution across the section is fixed.
7. The roughness
. coefficient is constant in the reach.

48
Consider the profile of a gradually varied flow in a small length dx of an open channel the
channel as shown in the figure below.

The total head (H) at any

section is given by:

V2
HZ y
2g

Taking x-axis along the bed of the channel and differentiating the equation with
respect to x:

dH dZ dy d V 2 
    
dx dx dx dx  2 g 

49
• dH/dx = the slope of the energy line (Sf).
• dZ/dx = the bed slope (S0) .
Therefore,
dy d V 2 
 S f   S0    
dx dx  2 g 

Multiplying the velocity term by dy/dy and transposing, we get

dy dy d  V 2  dy  d V 2  
    S0  S f  1     S0  S f
dx dy dx  2 g  dx  dy  2 g  
or
dy S0  S f

dx d V 2 
1  
dy  2 g 

This Equation is known as the dynamic equation of gradually varied flow. It

gives the variation of depth (y) with respect to the distance along the bottom of
the channel (x).
50
The dynamic equation can be expressed in terms of the discharge Q:

dy S0  S f

dx Q2 T
1
g A3

The dynamic equation also can be expressed in terms of the specific energy E :

dy dE / dx

dx Q2 T
1
g A3

51
 Depending upon the type of flow, dy/dx may take the values:
dy
(a) 0 The slope of the water surface is equal to the bottom
dx slope. (the water surface is parallel to the channel bed)
or the flow is uniform.

dy
(b)  positive The slope of the water surface is less than the bottom slope
dx (S0) . (The water surface rises in the direction of flow) or the
profile obtained is called the backwater curve.

dy
(c)  negative The slope of the water surface is greater than the bottom
dx slope. (The water surface falls in direction of flow) or the
profile obtained is called the draw-down curve.

52
Notice that the slope of water surface with respect to horizontal (Sw) is different
from the slope of water surface with respect to the bottom of the channel (dy/dx).

A relationship between the two slopes can be obtained:

• Consider a small length dx of

the open channel.
• The line ab shows the free
surface,
• The line ad is drawn parallel
to the bottom at a slope of S0
with the horizontal.
• The line ac is horizontal.
bc cd  bd
The water surface slope (Sw) is given by Sw  sin  
ab ab
Let θ be the angle which the bottom makes with the horizontal. Thus
cd cd
S0  sin  
ad ab
53
The slope of the water surface with respect to the channel bottom is given by

dy bd bd
 
dx ad ab

dy This equation can be used to calculate the water

S w  S0  surface slope with respect to horizontal.
dx

dy
 S0  Sw
dx
54
Water Profile Computations (Gradually Varied Flow)

• Engineers often require to know the distance up to which a surface

profile of a gradually varied flow will extend.

• To accomplish this we have to integrate the dynamic equation of

gradually varied flow, so to obtain the values of y at different locations
of x along the channel bed.

•The figure below gives a sketch of calculating the M1 curve over a

given weir.

55
 Water Profile Computations (Gradually Varied Flow)

The three different methods to compute water-surface profiles for GVF conditions are:

1. Direct step method – This method is used when the flow depths at two different sections are specified. We

evaluate the distance between the two sections in this method

2. Direct integration method – Used to calculate the water depth in either the upstream or downstream sections of

the channel. In subcritical flow, the calculations proceed in the upstream direction whereas they proceed in the

downstream direction for supercritical flow.

3. Standard step method – In this method, we evaluate the depth at a known distance when the depth is known at a

specific location. This method is particularly useful for natural channels – read up the procedure in details

56
 Direct Step Method
• One of the most important method used to compute the water profiles is
the direct step method.

• In this method, the channel is divided into short intervals and the
computation of surface profiles is carried out step by step from one section
to another.

For prismatic channels:

Consider a short length of channel, dx , as shown in the figure.

57
dx
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1 and 2 , we write:

V12 V22
S0 dx  y1   y2   S f dx
2g 2g

or S0 dx  E1  E2  S f dx

E2  E1
or dx 
S0  S f

where E1 and E2 are the specific energies at section 1 and,

respectively.
This equation will be used to compute the water profile curves.

58
The following steps summarize the direct step method:
1. Calculate the specific energy at section where depth is known.
For example at section 1-1, find E1, where the depth is known (y1). This
section is usually a control section.

2. Assume an appropriate value of the depth y2 at the other end of the small
reach.
Note that:
y 2  y 1 if the profile is a rising curve and,
y2  y1 if the profile is a falling curve.

3. Calculate the specific energy (E2) at section 2-2 for the assumed depth (y2).

4. Calculate the slope of the energy line (Sf) at sections 1-1 and 2-2 using
Manning’s formula

1 2/3 1 2/3
V1  R1 Sf1 and V2  R2 Sf2
n n
Sf1  Sf 2
And the average slope in reach is calculated S fm  59
2
5. Compute the length of the curve between section 1-1 and 2-2

E2  E1 E2  E1
L1,2  dx  or L1,2 
S0  S fm  Sf 1Sf 2 
S0   
 2 

6. Now, we know the depth at section 2-2, assume the depth at the next
section, say 3-3. Then repeat the procedure to find the length L2,3.

7. Repeating the procedure, the total length of the curve may be obtained.
Thus

L  L1, 2  L2 , 3 .......  Ln 1,n

where (n-1) is the number of intervals into which the channel is divided.

60
Direct Integration Method
 Assignment WREN 801
Problem 1: Water flows at 10 m3/s in a rectangular concrete channel of width 5 m and longitudinal slope
0.001. The Manning roughness coefficient, n, of the channel lining is 0.015, and the water depth is
measured as 0.8 m at a gaging station. Use the direct-integration method to estimate the flow depth 100
m upstream of the gaging station.

Problem 2: Water flows at 12 m3/s in a trapezoidal concrete channel (n=0.015) of bottom width 4 m, side
slopes 2:1 (H:V) and a channel slope of 0.0009. If the depth of flow at a gaging station is measured as 0.8
m, use the direct-step method to find the location where the depth is 1.00 m.

Problem 3: Water flows in an open channel whose slope is 0.04%. The Manning’s roughness coefficient
of the channel lining is estimated to be 0.035 and the flow-rate is 200 m3/s. At a given section of the
channel, the cross-section is trapezoidal, with a bottom width of 10 m, side slopes of 2:1 (H:V), and a
depth of flow of 7 m. Use the standard-step method to calculate the depth of flow 100 m upstream from
this section, where the cross section is trapezoidal, with a bottom width of 15 m and side slopes of 3:1
(H:V).