Aswath Damodaran 0

APPLIED CORPORATE FINANCE

4TH EDITION
Aswath Damodaran
 Aswath Damodaran 1

THE INVESTMENT PRINCIPLE: RISK

AND RETURN MODELS

“You cannot swing upon a rope that is attached only

to your own belt.”
 First Principles
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Maximize the value of the business (firm)

The Investment Decision The Financing Decision The Dividend Decision

Invest in assets that earn a Find the right kind of debt If you cannot find investments
return greater than the for your firm and the right that make your minimum
minimum acceptable hurdle mix of debt and equity to acceptable rate, return the cash
rate fund your operations to owners of your business

The hurdle rate The return How much How you choose
should reflect the The optimal The right kind
should reflect the cash you can to return cash to
riskiness of the mix of debt of debt
magnitude and return the owners will
investment and and equity matches the
the timing of the depends upon depend on
the mix of debt maximizes firm tenor of your
cashflows as welll current & whether they
and equity used value assets
as all side effects. potential prefer dividends
to fund it. investment or buybacks
opportunities

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 The notion of a benchmark
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 Since financial resources are finite, there is a hurdle that

projects have to cross before being deemed acceptable.
This hurdle should be higher for riskier projects than for
safer projects.
 A simple representation of the hurdle rate is as follows:
Hurdle rate = Riskless Rate + Risk Premium
 The two basic questions that every risk and return model
in finance tries to answer are:
 How do you measure risk?
 How do you translate this risk measure into a risk premium?

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 What is Risk?
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 Risk, in traditional terms, is viewed as a ‘negative’.

Webster’s dictionary, for instance, defines risk as “exposing
to danger or hazard”. The Chinese symbols for risk,
reproduced below, give a much better description of risk
危机
 The first symbol is the symbol for “danger”, while the second
is the symbol for “opportunity”, making risk a mix of danger
and opportunity. You cannot have one, without the other.
 Risk is therefore neither good nor bad. It is just a fact of life.
The question that businesses have to address is therefore not
whether to avoid risk but how best to incorporate it into their
decision making.
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 A good risk and return model should…
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1. It should come up with a measure of risk that applies to all assets

and not be asset-specific.
2. It should clearly delineate what types of risk are rewarded and
what are not, and provide a rationale for the delineation.
3. It should come up with standardized risk measures, i.e., an
investor presented with a risk measure for an individual asset
should be able to draw conclusions about whether the asset is
above-average or below-average risk.
4. It should translate the measure of risk into a rate of return that
the investor should demand as compensation for bearing the risk.
5. It should work well not only at explaining past returns, but also in
predicting future expected returns.

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 The Capital Asset Pricing Model
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1. Uses variance of actual returns around an expected

return as a measure of risk.
2. Specifies that a portion of variance can be diversified
away, and that is only the non-diversifiable portion that
is rewarded.
3. Measures the non-diversifiable risk with beta, which is
standardized around one.
4. Translates beta into expected return -
Expected Return = Riskfree rate + Beta * Risk Premium
5. Works as well as the next best alternative in most
cases.
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 1. The Mean-Variance Framework
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 The variance on any investment measures the disparity

between actual and expected returns.
Low Variance Investment

High Variance Investment

Expected Return

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 How risky is Disney? A look at the past…
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Returns on Disney - 2008-2013

25.00%
Average monthly return = 1.65%
Average monthly standard deviation = 7.64%
20.00% Average annual return = 21.70%
Average annual standard deviation = 26.47%
15.00%

10.00%

5.00%

0.00%

-5.00%

-10.00%

-15.00%

-20.00%

-25.00%
Oct-08
Dec-08
Feb-09
Apr-09
Jun-09
Aug-09
Oct-09
Dec-09
Feb-10
Apr-10
Jun-10
Aug-10
Oct-10
Dec-10
Feb-11
Apr-11
Jun-11
Aug-11
Oct-11
Dec-11
Feb-12
Apr-12
Jun-12
Aug-12
Oct-12
Dec-12
Feb-13
Apr-13
Jun-13
Aug-13
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 Do you live in a mean-variance world?
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 Assume that you had to pick between two investments. They

have the same expected return of 15% and the same
standard deviation of 25%; however, investment A offers a
very small possibility that you could quadruple your money,
while investment B’s highest possible payoff is a 60% return.
Would you
a. be indifferent between the two investments, since they have the
same expected return and standard deviation?
b. prefer investment A, because of the possibility of a high payoff?
b. prefer investment B, because it is safer?
 Would your answer change if you were not told that there is a
small possibility that you could lose 100% of your money on
investment A but that your worst case scenario with
investment B is -50%?

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 The Importance of Diversification: Risk Types
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Figure 3.5: A Break Down of Risk

Competition
may be stronger
or weaker than Exchange rate
anticipated and Political
risk
Projects may
do better or Interest rate,
Entire Sector Inflation &
worse than
may be affected news about
expected
by action economy

Firm-specific Market

Actions/Risk that Actions/Risk that

affect only one Affects few Affects many affect all investments
firm firms firms

Firm can Investing in lots Acquiring Diversifying Diversifying Cannot affect

reduce by of projects competitors across sectors across countries

Investors Diversifying across domestic stocks Diversifying globally Diversifying across

can asset classes
mitigate by

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 Why diversification reduces/eliminates
firm specific risk
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 Firm-specific risk can be reduced, if not eliminated, by

increasing the number of investments in your portfolio
(i.e., by being diversified). Market-wide risk cannot. This
can be justified on either economic or statistical
grounds.
 On economic grounds, diversifying and holding a larger
portfolio eliminates firm-specific risk for two reasons-
a. Each investment is a much smaller percentage of the portfolio,
muting the effect (positive or negative) on the overall
portfolio.
b. Firm-specific actions can be either positive or negative. In a
large portfolio, it is argued, these effects will average out to
zero. (For every firm, where something bad happens, there will
be some other firm, where something good happens.)

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 The Role of the Marginal Investor
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 The marginal investor in a firm is the investor who is

most likely to be the buyer or seller on the next trade
and to influence the stock price.
 Generally speaking, the marginal investor in a stock has
to own a lot of stock and also trade that stock on a
regular basis.
 Since trading is required, the largest investor may not be
the marginal investor, especially if he or she is a
founder/manager of the firm (Larry Ellison at Oracle,
Mark Zuckerberg at Facebook)
 In all risk and return models in finance, we assume that
the marginal investor is well diversified.

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 Identifying the Marginal Investor in your firm…
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Percent of Stock held Percent of Stock held by Marginal Investor

by Institutions Insiders
High Low Institutional Investor
High High Institutional Investor, with insider influence
Low High (held by Tough to tell; Could be insiders but only if they
founder/manager of firm) trade. If not, it could be individual investors.
Low High (held by wealthy Wealthy individual investor, fairly diversified
individual investor)
Low Low Small individual investor with restricted
diversification

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Gauging the marginal investor: Disney in
2013

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Extending the assessment of the investor
base
 In all five of the publicly traded companies that we
are looking at, institutions are big holders of the
company’s stock.

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 The Limiting Case: The Market Portfolio
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 The big assumptions & the follow up: Assuming diversification costs
nothing (in terms of transactions costs), and that all assets can be
traded, the limit of diversification is to hold a portfolio of every
single asset in the economy (in proportion to market value). This
portfolio is called the market portfolio.
 The consequence: Individual investors will adjust for risk, by
adjusting their allocations to this market portfolio and a riskless
asset (such as a T-Bill):
Preferred risk level Allocation decision
No risk 100% in T-Bills
Some risk 50% in T-Bills; 50% in Market Portfolio;
A little more risk 25% in T-Bills; 75% in Market Portfolio
Even more risk 100% in Market Portfolio
A risk hog.. Borrow money; Invest in market portfolio

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 The Risk of an Individual Asset
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 The essence: The risk of any asset is the risk that it adds to
the market portfolio Statistically, this risk can be measured by
how much an asset moves with the market (called the
covariance)
 The measure: Beta is a standardized measure of this
covariance, obtained by dividing the covariance of any asset
with the market by the variance of the market. It is a measure
of the non-diversifiable risk for any asset can be measured by
the covariance of its returns with returns on a market index,
which is defined to be the asset's beta.
 The result: The required return on an investment will be a
linear function of its beta:
 Expected Return = Riskfree Rate+ Beta * (Expected Return on the
Market Portfolio - Riskfree Rate)

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 Limitations of the CAPM
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1. The model makes unrealistic assumptions

2. The parameters of the model cannot be estimated precisely
 The market index used can be wrong.
 The firm may have changed during the 'estimation' period'
3. The model does not work well
 - If the model is right, there should be:
 A linear relationship between returns and betas
 The only variable that should explain returns is betas
 - The reality is that
 The relationship between betas and returns is weak
 Other variables (size, price/book value) seem to explain differences
in returns better.

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 Alternatives to the CAPM
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 Why the CAPM persists…
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 The CAPM, notwithstanding its many critics and limitations,

has survived as the default model for risk in equity valuation
and corporate finance. The alternative models that have been
presented as better models (APM, Multifactor model..) have
made inroads in performance evaluation but not in
prospective analysis because:
 The alternative models (which are richer) do a much better job than
the CAPM in explaining past return, but their effectiveness drops off
when it comes to estimating expected future returns (because the
models tend to shift and change).
 The alternative models are more complicated and require more
information than the CAPM.
 For most companies, the expected returns you get with the the
alternative models is not different enough to be worth the extra
trouble of estimating four additional betas.

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 Application Test: Who is the marginal investor in
your firm?
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 You can get information on insider and institutional

holdings in your firm from:
 http://finance.yahoo.com/
 Enter your company’s symbol and choose profile.

 Looking at the breakdown of stockholders in your

firm, consider whether the marginal investor is
 An institutional investor
 An individual investor

 An insider

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