Unit 6 Ecology

 Ecology: - is study of r/ships of organisms to one another & to their environment.

 The scientist who studies ecology is known as ecologist.
 Ecologists use both qualitative & quantitative research.
 They gather qualitative information by observing organisms & their environment.
 They gather quantitative data by making measurements & doing experiments.
 Ecologists study organisms both in laboratory & in the field where they live.
BIOTIC & ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
a. Abiotic factors:-are non-living components of ecosystem that influence distributions of organisms in their environment.
 E.g. Abiotic factors include: energy, light, temprature, H 2O, nutrients, salinity, etc.
Energy:
 All organisms require usable source of energy to live.
 Solar energy from sunlight, captured by chlorophyll during process of photosynthesis, powers most ecosystems.
 Lack of sunlight is rarely the most important factor limiting plant growth for terrestrial ecosystems, although shading by trees does
create intense competition for light among plants growing on forest floors.
 In many aquatic enviroment, however, light cannot penetrate beyond certain depths.
 As a result, most photosynthesis in a body of water occurs near the surface.
 Surprisingly, life also thrives in envy’s that are completely dark.
 These ecosystems are powered by bacteria that derive energy from oxidation of inorganic chemicals such as H 2S. Bacteria with
similar metabolic talents support communities of caved dwelling organisms.
 Temp. Is an important Abiotic factor b/c of its effect on metabolism?
 Few organisms can maintain a sufficiently active metabolism at temp. Close to 0°C (32°F), & temp. Above 45°C (113°F) destroy
enzymes of most organisms.
 Most organisms function best within a specific range of environmental temp.
 H2O is essential to all life.
 Aquatic organisms are surrounded by H2O, but they face problems of H2O balance if their own solute conc. does not match that of
their surroundings.
 For terrestrial organisms, 10 threats are drying out in air.
 Many land animals have H2Otight coverings that reduce H2O loss, such as reptilian scales. Most plants have waxy coatings on their
leaves & other aerial parts.
 The distribution & abundance of photosynthetic organisms, including plants, algae, & photosynthetic bacteria, depend on availability
of inorganic nutrients such as comps of N2 & P.
 Plants obtain these nutrients from soil.
 Soil structure, pH, & nutrient content often play major roles in determining distribution of plants.
 In many aquatic ecosystems, low levels of N2 & P limit growth of algae & photosynthetic bacteria.
 Several Abiotic factors are important in aquatic, but not terrestrial, ecosystems.
 While terrestrial organisms have a plentiful supply of O2 from air, aquatic organisms must depend on O2 dissolved in H2O.
 This is a critical factor for many sps of fish.
 Cold, fast-moving H2O has higher O2 content than warm or stagnant H2O.
 Salinity (saltiness), currents, & tides also play a role in many aquatic ecosystems.
 Some Abiotic factors affect terrestrial, but not aquatic, ecosystems.
 E.g. /, wind is often important factor on land.
 Wind increases an organism’s rate of H2O loss by evaporation.
 The resulting increase in evaporative cooling can be advantageous on a hot summer day, but it can cause dangerous wind chill in the
winter.
 In some ecosystems, frequent occurrences of natural disturbances such as storms or fire play a role in the distribution of organisms.
b. Biotic factors: - are living components of ecosystem that influence distributions of organisms in their enviroment.
 Often, ability of a sps to survive & reproduce is reduced by its interactions with other sps, such as predators (organisms that kill their
prey) or herbivores (organisms that eat plants/algae).
 Herbivores could affect distribution of a food sps.
 In addition to predation & herbivores, presence or absence of pollinators, food resources, parasites, pathogens, & competing
organisms can act as a biotic limitation on sps distribution.
 Such biotic limitations are common in nature.
ECOLOGICAL LEVELS
 Ecologists study individual organisms.
 They study r/ships among organisms of the same sps & connections among organisms of d/t sps.
 They also study effects of Abiotic factors on sps that live together.
  To make it easier to examine all of these biotic & Abiotic interactions, ecologists have organized living world into levels.
 The levels are organism by itself, populations, communities, ecosystems & biosphere.
 The traditional ecological investigation usually starts at level of the individual.
POPULATION
 A population: - is a group of interbreeding organisms that are members of same species living in same area at same time.
 Members of same population may compete with each other for food/water/mates/other resources.
 Some sps have adaptations that reduce competition within a population.
 For instance, frogs have a life cycle in w/c the young tadpoles & adult frogs look very d/t & have d/t diets.
 Tadpoles eat algae & adult frogs eat insects; therefore, they are not competing with each other for food.
BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY
 A biological community consists of d/t sps within an area, typically a 3D space, & interactions within & among these sps.
 E.g. of interactions include predation, parasitism, herbivores, competition, and pollination.
 In a biological community, changes in one population may cause changes in other populations.
 For instance, if the number of mouse-eating birds (e.g., hawks) in a community increases slightly, number of mice in that community
will decrease slightly.
 In a healthy forest community, there are many populations.
 That depends on each other.
 These might include birds eating insects, mushrooms growing from decaying leaves/bark.
 While this population. Are connected to each other, they are all affected by Abiotic factors.
 These r/ships b/n d/t populations & their surroundings create an ecosystem.
 In a healthy forest community, there are many populations. That depends on each other.
 These might include birds eating insects, mushrooms growing from decaying leaves/bark.
 While this population. Are connected to each other, they are all affected by Abiotic factors.
 These r/ships b/n d/t populations & their surroundings create an ecosystem.
ECOSYSTEMS
 The community of organisms in a habitat, plus non-living part of the enviroment (e.g., air, water, soil, light, etc.) makes up an
ecosystem.
 A lake is ecosystem, w/c consists of plant & animal communities mentioned above, & water, minerals, dissolved O 2, soil & sunlight
on w/c they depend on.
 An ecosystem is self-supporting. In a woodland ecosystem, the plants absorb light & rainwater for photosynthesis; the animals feed
on plants & on each other.
 The dead remains of animals & plants, acted upon by fungi & bacteria, return nutrients to the soil.
 Lakes & ponds are clear examples of ecosystems. Sunlight, H2O & minerals allow plants to grow & support animal life.
 The recycling of materials from the dead organisms maintains the supply of nutrients.
 So, a population of carp forms part of animal community living in a habitat called a lake.
 The communities in this habitat, together with their watery environment, make up a self-supporting ecosystem.
 A carp is a secondary consumer at top of a food chain, where it is in competition with other sps of fish for food & with other carp for
food & mates. The whole of that part of Earth’s surface w/c contains living organisms (called the biosphere) may be regarded as one
vast ecosystem. No new material (in significant amounts) enters the Earth’s ecosystem from space & there is no significant loss of
materials. The whole system depends on a constant input of energy from the Sun & recycling of chemical elements.
Types of ecosystems
 An ecosystem is made of all of d/t populations in a biological community & community’s Abiotic factors.
 There are 2 major kinds of ecosystems—terrestrial & aquatic.
 Terrestrial ecosystems are those located on land. E.g. include forests, fields, & a rotting log.
 Aquatic ecosystems are found in both freshwater & salt water.
 Freshwater ecosystems include ponds, lakes, & streams.
 Oceans are a type of saltwater/ marine, ecosystem.
BIOMES
 A biome is a major terrestrial or aquatic life zone characterized by vegetation type in terrestrial biomes & physical environment in
aquatic biomes.
Terrestrial Biomes
 Terrestrial biomes vary greatly. E.g., at North Pole, weather is very cold & there are no plants.
 As you move south, weather gets warmer & there is a change in size, number, & kinds of plants that cover ground.
 As you continue south, temp. Rise & you encounter forests.
 Still farther south are grasslands & deserts, with high summer temp. & little rainfall.
 Near equator, you find abundant growth & much rainfall.
THE TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS
  Tropical rain forests of evergreen broad-leaf trees form b/n latitudes 10°N & S in equatorial Africa, the East Indies, Southeast Asia,
South America, & Central America.
 Rain that falls throughout the year sums to an annual total of 130--200 cm.
 Regular rains, combined with an average temp.
 Of 25°C (77°F) & little variation in day length, allow photosynthesis to continue year-round.
 Plants are vertically layered,& competition for light is intense
 Broad-leaf evergreen trees are dominant in tropical rain forests.
 Tropical forests are home to millions of animal species.
 In fact, animal diversity is higher in tropical forests than in any other terrestrial biome.
 The animal sps includes amphibians, birds & reptiles, mammals & arthropods.
 Deforestation is an ongoing threat to tropical rain forests.
 Tropical forests are located in developing countries with fast-growing human populations who look to forest as a source of lumber,
fuel, & potential agricultural land.
 Deforestation in any region leaves fewer trees to remove CO2 from atm.
DESERT
 Deserts receive an average of less than 10 cm of rain per year.
 Maximum air temp. In hot deserts may exceed 50°C while in cold deserts air temp. May fall below –30°C.
 They cover about one-fifth of Earth’s land surface & many are located at about 30°north and south latitude. E.g. of desert biome
include Chile’s Atacama Desert & China’s Gobi desert.
 Lack of rainfall keeps humidity in deserts low.
 With little H2O vapor to block the sun’s rays, intense sunlight reaches & heats ground.
 At night, lack of insulating water vapor in air allows the temp. To fall fast.
 The plants include succulents such as cacti or euphorbs, deeply rooted shrubs, & herbs that grow during infrequent moist periods.
 Desert plant adaptations include tolerance of heat & desiccation, H2O storage, & reduced leaf surface area.
 The desert fauna include snakes & lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, migratory & resident birds, and seed-eating rodents.
 Many sps are nocturnal.
 H2O conservation is a common adaptation with some sps surviving solely on water obtained from breaking down carbohydrates in
seeds.
 Urbanization & conversion to irrigated agriculture has reduced natural biodiversity of some deserts.
SAVANNA
 The Savanna biome occurs in equatorial & sub-equatorial regions.
 Savannas the temperature is warm year-round, averaging 24–29°C. The biome is characterized by scattered trees found at different
densities.
 Fires are common in the dry season, & dominant plant species are fire-adapted & tolerant of seasonal drought.
 Grasses & small non-woody plants make are common.
 I.e. b/n tropical forests & hot deserts of Africa, India, & Australia.
 Africa’s savannas are famous for their abundant wildlife.
 The precipitation averages 30–50 cm per year while the dry season can last up to eight or 9 months.
 These plants grow rapidly in response to seasonal rains & are tolerant of grazing by large mammals & other herbivores.
 Herbivores include giraffes, zebras, elephants, a variety of antelopes, & immense herds of wildebeests.
 Lions & hyenas are carnivores that eat the grazers. During seasonal droughts, grazing mammals often migrate to parts of savanna
with more forage & scattered watering holes.
 The earliest humans may have lived in savannas. Fires set by humans may help maintain this biome, though overly frequent fires
reduce tree regeneration by killing the seedlings & saplings.
 Cattle ranching & over-hunting have led to declines in large-mammal populations.
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
 Temperate grasslands are warm in summer, but cold in winter.
 Annual rainfall is 25 -100 cm, with rains throughout year.
 Grass roots extend profusely through thick topsoil & help hold it in place, preventing erosion by constant winds.
 North America’s grasslands are short grass & tall grass prairies.
 During the 1930s, much of short grass prairie of American Great Plains was plowed to grow wheat.
 Tall grass prairie has somewhat richer topsoil & slightly more frequent rainfall than short grass prairie.
 Nearly all tall grass prairies have now been converted to cropland.
 The Tall grass Prairie National Preserve was created in 1996 to protect the little that remains.
 North America’s prairies once supported enormous herds of elk, pronghorn antelope, & bison that were prey to wolves.
 Today, these predators & prey are absent from most of their former range.
BOREAL FORESTS
  The boreal forest, also known as taiga /coniferous forest, is found south of Arctic Circle & across most of Canada, Alaska, Russia, and
northern Europe.
 This biome has cold, dry winters & short, cool, wet summers.
 The annual precipitation is from 40- 100 cm & usually takes the form of snow.
 Little evaporation happens b/c of cold temp.
 The long & cold winters in boreal forest have led to predominance of cold-tolerant cone-bearing (coniferous) plants.
 These are evergreen coniferous trees like pines & spruce w/c retains their needle-shaped leaves year-round.
 This benefits evergreen trees, w/c grow faster than deciduous trees in the boreal forest.
 In addition, soils in boreal forest regions tend to be acidic with little available nitrogen. Plant sps diversity is less than that seen in
temperate forests & tropical wet forests.
TEMPERATE BROAD-LEAF FOREST
 Temperate broad-leaf forest is found mainly at mid-latitudes in N. Hemisphere, with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia,
and New Zealand.
 The precipitation can average from about 70 to over 200 cm annually.
 In winter temp. Average 0°C while in summers, with temp. Up to 35°C are hot & humid.
 The dominant plants are deciduous trees, w/c drop their leaves before winter, when low temp. Would reduce photosynthesis &
make water uptake from frozen soil difficult.
 Many mammals hibernate in winter, while many bird sps migrate to warmer climates.
 Temperate broad-leaf forest has been heavily settled on all continents.
 Logging & land clearing for agriculture & urban development cleared virtually all original deciduous forests in North America.
 However, owing to their capacity for recovery, these forests are returning over much of their former range.
TUNDRA
 Tundra cover expansive areas of the Arctic, amounting to 20% of Earth’s land surface.
 The precipitation averages from 20- 60 cm annually in arctic tundra but may exceed 100 cm in alpine tundra.
 Winters are cold, with averages in some areas below –30°C while summer temperatures generally average less than 10°C.
 High winds & low temp. Produce similar plant communities, called alpine tundra, on very high mountaintops at all latitudes,
including the tropics.
 The vegetation of tundra is mostly herbaceous, consisting of a mixture of mosses, grasses, & forbs, along with some dwarf shrubs &
trees and lichens.
 A permanently frozen layer of soil called permafrost restricts growth of plant roots.
 Large grazing musk oxen are resident, while caribou & reindeer are migratory. Predators include bears, wolves, and foxes.
 Many bird species migrate to the tundra for summer nesting.
 The major human impacts are mineral and oil extraction.
Aquatic biomes
 Aquatic biomes, w/c occupy roughly 75% of Earth’s surface, are determined by their salinity & other physical factors.
 Freshwater biomes (lakes, streams and rivers,& wetlands) typically have salt concentration. of less than 1%. The salt concentration.
of marine biomes (oceans, intertidal zones, & coral reefs) are generally around 3%.
WHAT ARE THE LAKES?
 Standing bodies of H2O range from ponds a few square meters in area to lakes covering thousands of square kilometers.
 The salinity, oxygen conc., & nutrient content differ greatly among lakes & can vary with season.
 Rooted & floating aquatic plants in lakes live close to shore.
 Here, sunlight penetrates all the way to the lake bottom; aquatic plants & algae that attach to bottom are primary producers.
 Also a variety of phytoplankton, including cyan bacteria & zooplankton live in open water zone of a lake.
 Fishes live in all zones with sufficient O2. Runoff from fertilized land & dumping of wastes lead to nutrient enrichment, w/c can
produce large numbers of algae (an algal “bloom”) oxygen depletion, and fish kills.
WETLANDS
 Wetlands are enviroment in w/c soil is either permanently or periodically saturated with water.
 Wetlands are d/t from lakes b/c they are shallow bodies of water.
 There are several types of wetlands including marshes, swamps, bogs, mudflats, & salt marshes.
 B/c of high organic production by plants & decomposition by microbes & other organisms, both H2O & soils are periodic low in
dissolved O2.
 Wetlands have a high capacity to filter dissolved nutrients & chemical pollutants.
 Wetlands are among most productive biomes on Earth.
 Woody plants dominate vegetation of swamps, while bogs are dominated by sphagnum mosses.
 Wetlands are home to a diverse community of invertebrates, birds, & many other organisms.
 Wetlands help purify water & reduce peak flooding. Draining & filling have destroyed up to 90% of wetlands in Europe.
STREAMS & RIVERS
  The most prominent physical characteristic of streams & rivers is speed & volume of their flow. Headwater streams are generally
cold, clear, swift, & turbulent.
 Farther downstream, where numerous tributaries may have joined, forming a river, H 2O is generally warmer & more turbid b/c of
suspended sediment.
 The salt & nutrient content of streams & rivers increases from headwaters to the mouth.
 Headwaters are generally rich in O2.
 A great diversity of fishes & invertebrates inhabit unpolluted rivers & streams.
 Municipal, agricultural, & industrial pollution degrade water quality & kill aquatic organisms.
 Damming & flood control impair the natural functioning of stream & river ecosystems & threaten migratory species such as salmon.
ESTUARIES
 An estuary is a transition area b/n river & sea.
 Seawater flows up estuary channel during a rising tide & flows back down during falling tide.
 Often, higher-density seawater occupies bottom of channel & mixes little with lower-density river water at the surface.
 Salinity varies spatially within estuaries, from nearly that of fresh H2O to that of seawater.
 Nutrients from river make estuaries, like wetlands, among the most productive biomes.
 Salt marsh grasses & algae, including phytoplankton, are the major producers in estuaries.
 Estuaries support an abundance of worms, oysters, crabs, & many fish species that humans consume.
 Many marine invertebrates & fishes use estuaries as a breeding ground or migrate through them to freshwater habitats upstream.
 Estuaries are also crucial feeding areas for waterfowl & some marine mammals.
 Filling, dredging, & pollution from upstream have disrupted estuaries worldwide.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
 Changes in composition of terrestrial communities are most apparent after a severe disturbance, such as a volcanic eruption or a
glacier, strips away all the existing vegetation.
 The disturbed area may be colonized by a variety of species, w/c are gradually replaced by other sps, w/c are in turn replaced by still
other sps a process called ecological succession.
 When this process begins in a virtually lifeless area, such as on a new volcanic island or on rubble (moraine) left by a retreating
glacier, it is called primary succession.
 During primary succession, only life-forms initially present are often prokaryotes & protists.
 Lichens & mosses, w/c grow from windblown spores, are commonly 1st macroscopic photosynthesizes to colonize such areas.
 Soil develops gradually as rocks weather & organic matter accumulates from decomposed remains of the early colonizers.
 Once soil is present, lichens & mosses are usually overgrown by grasses, shrubs, & trees that sprout from seeds blown in from
nearby areas or carried in by animals.
 Eventually, an area is colonized by plants that become the community’s dominant form of vegetation (climax community).
 Producing such a community through 1st succession may take hundreds or thousands of years.
 Early-arriving sps & lateral arriving ones may be linked by one of 3 key processes- facilitating, inhibiting & tolerating.
 In contrast to 10 succession, 20 succession involves the re-colonization of an area after a major disturbance has removed most but
not all of the organisms in a community.
 Following the disturbance, area may return to something like its original state.
 For instance, in a forested area that has been cleared for farming & later abandoned, the earliest plants to decolonize are often
herbaceous species that grow from windblown or animal-borne seeds.
 If area has not been burned or heavily grazed, woody shrubs may in time replace most of the herbaceous species, & forest trees
may eventually replace most of the shrubs.
ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
 Some key r/ships in life of organism are its interactions with individuals of other sps in community.
 These inter specific interactions include competition, predation, herbivores, parasitism, mutualism,& commensalism.
1. COMPETITION (-/-)
 Competition is interaction that occurs when individuals of d/t/same species each use a resource that limits the survival &
reproduction of both individuals.
 Weeds growing in a garden compete with garden plants for soil nutrients & water.
 Predators compete for prey such as hares. In contrast, some resources, such as O2, are rarely in short supply on land; most terrestrial
sps use this resource but do not usually compete for it.
2. PREDATION (+/-)
 Predation is interaction in w/c an individual of one sps, predator, kills & eats an individual of other sps, prey.
 E.g., a rotifer (a tiny aquatic animal that is smaller than many unicellular protists) that kills a protist by eating it can also be
considered a predator.
 B/c eating & avoiding being eaten are prerequisites to reproductive success, the adaptations of both predators & prey tend to be
refined through natural selection.
3. HERBIVORY (+/-)
 Herbivores is an exploitative interaction in w/c organism— an herbivore—eats parts of a plant or alga, thereby harming it but usually
not killing it.
 E.g. of herbivores include cattle, sheep, giraffe & goat. However, most herbivores are invertebrates, such as grasshoppers,
caterpillars, & beetles Herbivores have many specialized adaptations.
2. PREDATION (+/-)
 Predation is interaction in w/c an individual of one sps, predator, kills & eats an individual of other sps, prey.
 E.g., a rotifer (a tiny aquatic animal that is smaller than many unicellular protists) that kills a protist by eating it can also be
considered a predator.
 B/c eating & avoiding being eaten are prerequisites to reproductive success, the adaptations of both predators & prey tend to be
refined through natural selection.
3. HERBIVORY (+/-)
 Herbivores is an exploitative interaction in w/c organism— an herbivore—eats parts of a plant or alga, thereby harming it but usually
not killing it.
 E.g. of herbivores include cattle, sheep, giraffe & goat. However, most herbivores are invertebrates, such as grasshoppers,
caterpillars, & beetles Herbivores have many specialized adaptations.
2. PREDATION (+/-)
 Predation is interaction in w/c an individual of one sps, predator, kills & eats an individual of other sps, prey.
 E.g., a rotifer (a tiny aquatic animal that is smaller than many unicellular protists) that kills a protist by eating it can also be
considered a predator.
 B/c eating & avoiding being eaten are prerequisites to reproductive success, the adaptations of both predators & prey tend to be
refined through natural selection.
3. HERBIVORY (+/-)
 Herbivores is an exploitative interaction in w/c organism— an herbivore—eats parts of a plant or alga, thereby harming it but usually
not killing it.
 E.g. of herbivores include cattle, sheep, giraffe & goat. However, most herbivores are invertebrates, such as grasshoppers,
caterpillars, & beetles Herbivores have many specialized adaptations.
 Many herbivorous insects have sensors on their feet that enable them to distinguish b/n plants based on their toxicity or nutritional
value.
 Goats also use their sense of smell to examine plants, rejecting some & eating others.
 Other herbivores also have specialized teeth or digestive systems adapted for processing vegetation.
4. PARASITISM (+/-)
 Parasitism is exploitative interaction in w/c one organism, the parasite, derives its nourishment from another organism, its host, w/c
is harmed in process.
 End parasites such as parasitic roundworms live and feed inside their host.
 Ectoparasites such as a tick feeds while attached to a host’s external surface.
 Many parasites have complex life cycles involving multiple hosts.
 The blood fluke, w/c currently infects approximately 200 million people around the world, requires 2 hosts at d/t times in its
development: humans & freshwater snails.
5. MUTUALISM (+/+)
 Mutualism is interaction that benefits individuals of both of the interacting sps.
 Mutualisms are common in nature, including cellulose digestion by microorganisms in digestive systems of termites & ruminant
mammals, animals that pollinate flowers or disperse seeds, nutrient exchange b/n fungi & plant roots in mycorrhizae, &
photosynthesis by unicellular algae in corals.
 In some mutualisms, such as acacia-ant, each of the interacting individuals depends on the other for their survival & reproduction.
 Both partners in a mutualism incur costs as well as benefits.
 In mycorrhizae, for example, the plant often transfers carbohydrates to the fungus, while the fungus transfers limiting nutrients,
such as phosphorus, to the plant.
6. COMMENSALISM (+/0)
 Commensalism is interaction that neither benefits individuals of one of the interacting sps but neither harm nor helps the individuals
of other species.
 For instance, cattle egrets feed on insects flushed out of the grass by grazing bison, cattle, horses, & other herbivores.
 B/c birds increase their feeding rates when following the herbivores, they clearly benefit from the association.
 Much of time, herbivores are not affected by birds.
 At times, however, herbivores too may derive some benefit; for example, birds may remove & eat ticks & other ectoparasites from
herbivores’ skin, or they may warn herbivores of a predator’s approach.