Child Rights and Child Poverty in Developing

Countries

Summary Report to UNICEF

By

David Gordon
Christina Pantazis
Peter Townsend

With Ceema Namazie and Shailen Nandy

Centre for International Poverty Research

University of Bristol
8 Priory Road
Bristol BS8 1TZ
United Kingdom
 Child Rights and Child Poverty in Developing Countries
1. Introduction
In recent years, UNICEF reports, such as The State of the World's Children 2000,
continue to emphasise the grim truth that poverty denies the most basic rights of
women and children – as set out in the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and,
more elaborately, in the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. Poverty damages
survival and development. It can cause disability and early death. It can delay or
even permanently obstruct children’s inclusion and participation in society. We have
learned, from widely-based research, that basic social services for children are a key
element in ensuring the success of poverty reduction programmes. Another element
is the level of family resources required for minimal development which explains why
UNICEF has argued that "poverty reduction begins with children".

Some trends in the 1980s and 1990s have deepened public concern. Since 1987,
the number of people in developing countries other than in East Asia and the Pacific,
with less than $1 a day, has increased by 12 million a year. In many countries, the
extreme poor have been “left further behind”. In addition, “the evidence is compelling
that the 1990s saw a widening in the gap between rich and poor countries as well as
between rich and poor people within countries, both in terms of incomes and social
outcomes.”1

The World Declaration and Plan of Action, adopted by the World Summit for
Children, set forth a vision of a "first call" for children by establishing seven major and
20 supporting goals that were quantifiable and considered achievable by the year
2000. This optimism depended on favourable conditions including an early
breakthrough in specifying numbers at risk in different countries and in causes of
deprivation and non-fulfilment of rights that could lead directly to changes in policy.

This report pursues three related objectives. The first is to conceptualise further the
notions of child poverty and child rights, identify their relationship and measure their
dimensions. The second is to estimate the number of children at risk globally and by
region, addressing the methodological problems of measuring both the extent and
severity of child poverty, as well as the numbers without access to internationally
agreed rights. The third objective is to review appropriate policies to reduce child
(and overall) poverty and extend access to rights.

The definition of child poverty involves two related elements - conceptualisation and
measurement. Should child poverty be defined independently or should it be defined
in relation to the adults in the household? According to the Convention on the Rights
of the Child (CRC), the answer is that it should be defined independently. The CRC
gives children the rights to survive, develop, participate and be protected. Articles in
the Convention as well as in the Universal Declaration are concerned with living
standards and aspects of material and social deprivation. The concept of poverty
can be defined in relation to these rights, so that estimates of child poverty may be
constructed on the basis of access to a number of specific economic and social
rights. Thus, direct and indirect indicators like percent of population below the
national and international poverty lines, GDP per capita of the poorest 20%, infant
and child mortality rates, low birth-weight rate, percent of one-year-olds fully
immunised, percent of children not reaching education grade 5, daily per capita rate
of calories intake, percent access to safe drinking water and sanitation and ante-natal

1
UNICEF (2000), Poverty Reduction Begins with Children, New York, UNICEF, pp. 9, 17, and 45.

2
care received provide illustrations of the data that were examined in preparing this
report.

2. Conceptualising Child Rights

Concern about the fulfilment of human rights has grown steadily since the Second
World War. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights applies to everyone –
whatever their age, however, only two of its articles include specific reference to
children (education and social protection during childhood). The United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted unanimously by the UN General
Assembly in 1989, sought to remedy this omission. International agencies,
governments and scientists have been slow to catch up with the implications of the
Convention, although 191 governments ratified it in the ten years following adoption.

In 2001, discussion of child rights tends to deal with particular rights rather than rights
representative of the Declaration or the Convention as a whole. Steps remain to be
taken to bring different indicators together to permit measures to be taken of the
numbers of children in different countries lacking access to a number of rights or to
rights in general. UNICEF has decided, as an experiment, to examine indicators of
development collected and published by international agencies such as the World
Bank, UNICEF and UNDP, to find whether a ‘conventional’ international measure can
be constructed and whether and why that measure falls short of what is desirable.

Measuring Child Rights

Graphic examples of non-fulfilment of individual child rights are often given in
national and international reports, arousing anger and compassion. However,
information on conditions in each country is rarely assembled in a form that can be
easily generalised and overall severity compared. The fact that children may be in a
worse plight than adults is seldom investigated systematically to discover the extent
of that situation. A more distinctive approach on behalf of children is called for.

The collection of statistics has a long history. Efforts have been made repeatedly to
standardise certain sets of information to allow generalisations to be made about
conditions that vary widely across the world. International agencies produce reports,
many on an annual basis, to improve the level of scientific and public knowledge.

There are three problems in looking for information on child rights. Conceptions
made on the basis either of international agreement or on other grounds have not
been operationalised in a potentially measurable form and sub-divisions of those
rights have not been distinguished. In addition, much of the relevant information is
indirect: it applies to the household as a whole or to adults, especially parents, in the
families to which the children belong.

Two Practicable Courses of Action

How might these problems be brought under control? A preliminary step is to search
the reports from the international agencies for useful indicators of conditions and then
consider whether some of them can be re-assembled to give a more rounded picture
of the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of child rights.

The Universal Declaration on Human Rights has 30 Articles affirming a wide range of
rights – to life, liberty and security; freedom from torture and degrading treatment;
non-discrimination; freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention or exile; equality before
the law; freedom of movement; property ownership; freedom of thought, conscience
and religion; equal access to public service; social security; work; reasonable
limitation of working hours; just remuneration and social protection; education;
standard of living adequate for health; special care and assistance in motherhood

3
and childhood; and free participation in cultural life. We decided to group the Articles
of the Declaration into seven categories, with indicators of the relative satisfaction of
those rights drawn from the statistical data collected by the international agencies. To
these seven categories it was found possible to assign a total of 10 ‘direct’ measures
and 17 ‘indirect’ measures of child rights (the latter applying to adults as well as
children). The indicators themselves had to be re-cast to achieve consistency for
purposes of comparison between countries and possible aggregation. The results for
two countries, compared with data for high-income countries, are illustrated in Table
1.

Table 1: Indicators of Children's Human Rights (Direct and Indirect): High and
Low Income Countries Compared

All “high
Human rights Selected indicators Kenya India income”
countries
Right to life [Article 3] % infant mortality (per 100 live births) 7.5 6.9 0.6
% under-five mortality (per 100 live births) 11.7 10.5 0.6
% not expected to survive to age 40 30.6 15.8 3.0
% HIV/Aids (15-49) 11.6 0.8 0.4
Right to non-discrimination Female literacy as % male rate 84 65 Not available
[Articles 2 and 7]
Female primary age group enrolment as % male 105 86 100
Female secondary age group enrolment as % 89 68 100
male
Right to an adequate standard Malnourished – Underweight children (under 5) 22 53 Not available
of living [Article 25]
% with less than $1 per day per person 26 44 Not available
% with less than $2 per day per person 62 86 Not available
% below national poverty line 42 35 Not available
Calories per person per day as % high income 58 73 100
countries
Grams protein per person per day as % high 49 49 100
income countries
Right to social security and % with no access to safe water 56 19
economic social and cultural
rights [Article 22]
% with no access to health services - 25
% with no access to sanitation 15 71
% with no access to immunisation (TB and 6 (TB) 21 (TB) -
measles) 29 34 11 (measles)
(measles) (measle
s)
Right of equal access to Number of people per doctor 6,700 2,100 400
public services [Article 21]
Number of people per nurse 4,400 - -
% GDP public expenditure on education 6.5 3.2 5.0
% GDP spent on health 2.2 0.6 6.4
Right to education [Article 26] % of relevant age groups not in primary ed. 35.0 22.8 0.5
% … not in secondary. Education 38.9 40.3 4.4
Right to participate in cultural % youths illiterate 6.7 29.1 Est. 2 or 3
life [Article 27]
% no. people per telephone line 111 45 Less than 2
% no of people per television 47 14 Less than 2

Sources: UNDP (2000), Human Development Report, New York and Oxford, Oxford University Press, Tables 1, 4, 9,
10, 11, 12, 16, 23, 28, 29; World Bank (2001), World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty, New York,
Oxford University Press, Tables 2, 4, 6, 7.

The table illustrates the wide variations that can be found. For example, although
Kenya has an under-five mortality rate only slightly higher than India, the percentage
of population not expected to survive to age 40 is twice as large. By contrast, Kenya
spends a higher percentage of GDP than India on education and health and has a
better record on access to sanitation and literacy.

4
We decided to single out the 10 ‘direct’ indicators of child rights among the 27 direct
and indirect indicators listed in Table 1 for examination as possible components of a
single index. Following investigation, we decided that one of these (immunisation
against measles) posed particular difficulties of interpretation and so was excluded.
Infant and under-five mortality in each country were found to be highly correlated so
we decided to include only under-five mortality in the index. In addition, primary
school and secondary school enrolment were also found to be highly correlated, so
they were combine into a single indicator.

We then aggregated the seven resulting individual indicators so that countries and
regions could be compared overall in terms of the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of as
many as possible of the principal Articles of the Universal Declaration. Within each
region, countries were ranked on a continuum standardised by comparable fulfilment
of child rights – very much above average, above average, average, below average,
and very much below average. An illustration for Sub-Saharan Africa is given in
Figure 1, which shows remarkable disparities. Countries which were very much
below average for the region of 47 countries included Niger, Liberia, Chad, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Guinea, Nigeria, Somalia and Burkina
Faso. Countries which were very much above average included the Seychelles,
Mauritius, South Africa, Botswana, Swaziland, Namibia and Cape Verde.

An example of the spread of results is given by looking at under-five mortality. In the

countries very much below average, under-five mortality ranged from 16.5 to 28.0 per
100 live births whereas, in those countries that were very much above average, such
mortality ranged from 1.8 to 9.0. Again, the percentage of youths estimated to be
illiterate varied for the first group between 15.3 and 78.4 and for the second group
between 6.5 and 12.6. We must emphasise that, had information been available for
other child-centred indicators – like HIV/Aids, the results shown by the chart would
have been different.

Our next step was to reproduce the results for other regions of the world and Figure 2
provides an illustration. In a subsequent report, we will set out the detailed findings
with full commentary on the conclusions that may be drawn substantively and
methodologically. Our belief is that, while the method of approach is necessarily
limited because the information that is available for most countries is neither as
extensive nor as reliable as scientists would wish, it brings new focus to the analysis
of trends in human rights. The method generates great interest in the results for
different countries at similar levels of development. It provokes ideas about the
improvements that can be made in the comparative analysis of the situation within
and between different regions of the world.

5
-3.00 -2.50 -2.00 -1.50 -1.00 -0.50 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50
Dominica
Slovakia
Ireland
Bahamas
Sweden
Netherlands
France
Finland
Czech Republic
Hungary
Japan
Norway
Seychelles
Antigua and Barbuda
Canada
United Kingdom
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Israel
Bahrain
Portugal
Slovenia
Iceland
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Russian Federation
Austria
Uruguay
Korea, Rep. of
Greece
Lithuania
Chile
Belarus
Ukraine
United States
Germany
Cuba
Moldova, Rep. of
Poland
Australia
Macedonia, TFYR
Luxembourg
Cyprus
Argentina
Denmark
Grenada
Brunei Darussalam
Latvia
Jordan
Barbados
Armenia
Saint Kitts and Nevis
New Zealand
Spain
Romania
Kazakhstan
Estonia
Switzerland
Bulgaria
Trinidad and Tobago
Croatia
Singapore
Panama
Dominican Republic
Fiji
Azerbaijan
Saint Lucia
Jamaica
Costa Rica
Belgium
Venezuela
Tunisia
Samoa (Western)
Paraguay
Hong Kong, China (SAR)
Peru
Kyrgyzstan
Albania
Brazil
Malaysia
Qatar
Lebanon
Italy
Uzbekistan
Tajikistan
Guyana
South Africa
Colombia
United Arab Emirates
Iran, Islamic Rep. of
China
Suriname
Mexico
Georgia
Mauritius
Malta
Turkmenistan
Sri Lanka
Belize
Kuwait
Ecuador
Botswana
Philippines
Thailand
El Salvador
Oman
Mongolia
Turkey
Algeria
Swaziland
Syrian Arab Republic
Honduras
Egypt
Fulfilment of Child Rights in the World

Namibia
Viet Nam
Zimbabwe
Saudi Arabia
Nicaragua
Cape Verde
Solomon Islands
Indonesia
Based on 7 Direct Indicators of Health & Education

Maldives
Lesotho
Bolivia
Equatorial Guinea
Vanuatu
Myanmar
Kenya
São Tomé and Principe
Morocco
Congo
Guatemala
Malawi
Lao People's Dem. Rep.
Iraq
Papua New Guinea
Rwanda
Zambia
Tanzania, U. Rep. of
Ghana
Cameroon
Sudan
Gambia
Cambodia
Comoros
India
Madagascar
Togo
Nepal
Uganda
Côte d'Ivoire
Senegal
Eritrea
Yemen
Benin
Pakistan
Mozambique
Haiti
Bangladesh
Nigeria
Bhutan
Mauritania
Central African Republic
Guinea-Bissau
Angola
Burundi
Congo, Dem. Rep. of the
Djibouti
Sierra Leone
Gabon
Mali
Ethiopia
Burkina Faso
Niger Guinea
Chad
-3 .0 0
-2 .5 0
-2 .0 0
-1 .5 0
-1 .0 0
-0 .5 0
0 .0 0
0 .5 0
1 .0 0
Seychelles

South Africa

Mauritius

Botswana

Swaziland

Namibia

Zimbabwe

Cape Verde

Lesotho

Equatorial Guinea

Kenya

São Tomé and Principe

Congo

Malawi

Rwanda

Zambia

Tanzania, U. Rep. of

Ghana

Cameroon

Sudan

Gambia

Comoros

Madagascar

Togo

Uganda

Côte d'Ivoire

Senegal

Eritrea

Benin

Mozambique

Nigeria

Mauritania

Central African Republic

Guinea-Bissau

Angola

Burundi
S u b S a h a ra n A fric a - R a n k in g s b a s e d o n 7 d ire c t in d ic a to rs o f c h ild h e a lth & e d u c a tio n

Congo, Dem. Rep. of the

Sierra Leone

Gabon

Mali

Ethiopia

Burkina Faso

Guinea

Chad

Niger
The methodology will be discussed in detail in the final report. Data were initially
analysed at a regional level2 to see how countries within regions compared. We
calculated the mean and standard deviation for each of the seven indicators and
produced Z-scores [(x-mean)/SD] for each country. The Z-scores for each indicator
show us how far a country is above or below the regional mean, providing a basis for
comparison of 'performance'. The Z-scores for each country across the different
indicators3 were then added together to produce a 'Total Z-score'. Since some
countries did not provide data for all seven indicators, this total Z-score was divided
by the number of indicators each country had provided data for, to produce a 'Final
Score'4 which was used to rank the countries and represents the country's
performance within its region over a set of seven direct indicators of progress on
child rights.

These steps were then repeated, at world level, using a world mean and standard
deviation to produce Z-scores for all countries. A final score for each country was
produced and these were ranked to produce Figure 2.

Using the UN CRC

A second practicable course of action is to build on the UN Convention on the Rights
of the Child. The shortcomings of present methods of assessing and monitoring
rights are immediately relevant. Relatively little ‘indicator’ information can be added
on a cross-national basis from what can be gleaned from the data discussed above
which are relevant to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. We decided to
organise the rights listed in the Convention into 10 representative categories. The
decision was based on an innovative report by the UNICEF Division of Evaluation,
Policy and Planning in 19985 in which Articles of the Convention were grouped into
15 categories. A number of possible indicators in each category were proposed
although some of these were not available. A cluster of four general principles were
considered to be the essential, over-arching, themes of the CRC which guide the
realisation of all the rights of the child: the principle of non-discrimination (Article 2);
the principle of the best interests of the child (Article 3); the principle of respect for
the child’s views and right to participate (Articles 12-15); and the principle of the
child’s right to survival and development (Article 6).

Whilst a wide range of information is desirable, it seems important to build on such

information as is already available or might become available in the early future and
yet also to insist on representing a wide selection of the Articles of the Convention. A
list of 10 categories is set out in Table 2. Some data are available and other data, on
the basis of country surveys, could be added soon. Because of the swift recent
development of country demographic and health surveys and anti-poverty surveys,
there is a reasonable prospect of adding to the number of countries with a minimal
range of information about child rights. We are conducting research from a number

2
Regions were those defined by UNICEF. These were South Asia, East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa,
Middle East and North Africa, Central and Eastern Europe/Commonwealth of Independent
states/Baltic States, Latin America and Caribbean, and Industrialised Countries.
3
For two of the indicators (female primary and secondary enrolment as % male) we produced the Z-
score by using [(mean-X)/standard deviation] to ensure the results all flowed in the same direction
- i.e. a higher percentage score for these indicators was considered a good, while high percentage
scores for the other indicators (% not immunised, % malnourished etc.) were considered bad.
4
Had we divided the total Z-scores by 7, it would have been the equivalent of replacing the missing
values by the regional averages.
5
Division of Evaluation, Policy and Planning (1998), Indicators for Global Monitoring of Child Rights,
summary report of an international meeting sponsored by UNICEF 9-12 February 1998, New York,
UNICEF.
 of surveys and, after further consultation and experiment, the list in Table 2 may be
modified and confirmed.

Table 2: How rights from Articles in the Convention on the Rights of the Child
can be clustered, with possible indicators6
Rights Cluster Examples of Possible Indicators
Rights of freedom of expression and thought and to
exchange information and ideas [Articles 13 and 14]
Right of access to information in the media ad books Percentage of children and mothers with access to
to promote social and mental well-being [Articles 13 or possession of information mediums.
and 17] Source: Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS).
Right to protective measures against violence, Number of children economically active. Source:
7
maltreatment, injury, exploitation, abuse, including International Labour Office.
sexual abuse, illicit drugs and deprivation [Articles
19, 20, 32, 33, 34 and 37]
Rights in disablement of assistance for special
needs and actively participate in community life
[Article 23]
Right to highest attainable standard of health and Percentage of children immunised; Percentage of
access to adequate nutritious foods, clean drinking untreated incidents of diarrhoea and the form of
water, pollution free environment and preventive and treatment received; Percentage of malnourished
curative health care services [Article 24] children. Sources: DHS and MICS
Right to benefit from social security, incl. Social Percentage of population protected by family
insurance [Article 26] benefits. Sources: ILO8
Right to standard of living adequate for physical,
mental, spiritual, moral and social development and
material assistance and support programmes –
particularly for nutrition, clothing and housing [Article
27]
Right to free primary education and where Number of children between 7-18 years who have
appropriate free secondary education to enlarge not received any primary or secondary education.
access to education [Article 28] Source: DHS
Proportion of children aged 10-12 years reaching a
specific level of learning achievement in literacy
numeracy and life skills. Source: MICS

Right to recreational activities and full participation

[Article 31]
Right to measures promoting recovery and social Percentage of under eighteens in armed force.
integration following neglect, abuse, exploitation, Source: Save the children database9
suffering in armed conflict, torture or other degrading
treatment. [Article 39]

What conclusions may be drawn from the method of approach?

1) Despite growing public discussion of rights, little attempt has been made to group
available information so that the situation in different parts of the world may be
strictly compared. If this were done, commentaries on shortcomings would be

6
The purpose of Table 2.1 is to demonstrate the diverse nature of the Convention and how rights can
be clustered (with illustrations of indicators of compliance or fulfilment). Table 2.2 below
develops this by specifying those rights which can be measured in relation to material and social
deprivation and, hence, poverty.
7
Data is given for regions. Source:
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/decl/download/global3/part1chapter2.pdf
8
Data coverage of nations is incomplete.
9
Data coverage of nations is incomplete. Source:
http://www.rb.se:8082/www/childwar.nsf/HTML/Forsta?OpenDocument

9
 more robust and deficiencies in data collection clearly exposed. Cumulative
assembly of information for different countries would also call attention to the
severity of overall conditions in certain countries - an ’index’ of access to rights
would be constructed. One problem is unwillingness on the part of the
governments of high-income countries to collect, or publish, certain kinds of
information on a directly comparable basis about human rights in their own
territories. This includes forms of discrimination, subjection to inhumane or
degrading treatment, rights of asylum seekers, right to social security and to an
adequate standard of living; and access to public services. A partial
consequence of this is that access to rights, when selectively measured, is shown
to be greater in high-income than in low income countries in all cases.

2) There are relatively few examples of ‘direct’ measures of fulfilment or non-

fulfilment of particular child rights. Although our list may be incomplete, there are
only 10 examples of direct measures in Table 1: infant mortality; child mortality;
underweight children; female primary age-group and secondary age-group
enrolments as percentages of the relevant male enrolments; percentage of
relevant age-groups in primary and secondary education; percentage of youths
illiterate and percentage with no access to immunisation (TB and measles). The
other 17 measures are indirect – applying to adults as well as children.

3) There are few (if any) data about access to certain forms of child rights. They
include subjection to cruel, degrading or inhuman treatment; subjection to
arbitrary family interference and lack of social protection of family; special care
and assistance in childhood; access to asylum free from persecution; social
security and economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for dignity and
free development of personality.

4) Data about access to different forms of rights is difficult to accumulate and

therefore to generalise. This is partly a question of converting existing
information into a form relevant to accumulation. Thus, some data are measures
of positive access to rights - like access to educational enrolment, whereas other
data are measures of negative access to rights - like population without access to
safe water, health services and sanitation. In Table 1, an attempt has therefore
been made to begin the process of transforming variables into comparable and
reasonably consistent categories.

10
3. Measuring Child Poverty in the Developing World
There is currently no consistent estimate of the extent or severity of child poverty in
developing countries. The World Bank has not produced any estimates of child
poverty using its ‘dollar a day’ thresholds except for a few countries in Central and
South America. UNICEF has estimated that approximately half of all those living
below the World Bank’s various ‘poverty thresholds’ are likely to be children (e.g.
aged less than 18) but this is a global estimate produced using indirect methods and
is not decomposable to region or country level. A different methodology is needed to
estimate child poverty at region and country level.

What is poverty?
Social science research has shown that all cultures seem to have a concept and
definition of poverty although these definitions often vary (Gordon and Spicker,
1999). A major problem with many previous attempts to measure poverty on a global
scale is that there was no agreed definition of poverty. This situation changed at the
World Summit on Social Development in Copenhagen (UN, 1995). Among the
innovations agreed in the 1995 Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action
was the preparation of national anti-poverty plans based on measures in all countries
of ‘absolute’ and ‘overall’ poverty. The aim was to link (if not reconcile) the difference
between First and Third World conceptions, allow more reliable comparisons to be
made between countries and regions and make easier the identification of
acceptable priorities for action. In developing anti-poverty strategies, the
international agreement at Copenhagen was a breakthrough which resulted in the
governments of 117 countries agreeing to the two definitions of absolute and overall
poverty.

Absolute poverty is defined as "a condition characterised by severe deprivation of

basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health,
shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on
access to services."

Overall poverty takes various forms, including "lack of income and productive
resources to ensure sustainable livelihoods; hunger and malnutrition; ill health;
limited or lack of access to education and other basic services; increased morbidity
and mortality from illness; homelessness and inadequate housing; unsafe
environments and social discrimination and exclusion. It is also characterised by lack
of participation in decision-making and in civil, social and cultural life…”

11
Previous measures of poverty by international organisations
Three international agencies – the International Fund for Agricultural Development
(IFAD), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Bank have
produced estimates of world poverty. All three use very different approaches to
measuring poverty and, unfortunately, none of them have attempted to measure the
extent of child poverty.

International Fund For Agricultural Development

The IFAD is one of the world’s foremost authorities on rural poverty and it has
constructed four poverty indices which are designed to measure rural poverty and
deprivation (Jazairy et al, 1995):

1. The food security index (FSI) - attempts to measure the composite food security
situation of a country.
2. The integrated poverty index (IPI) - is an economic index which is calculated by
combining the headcount measure of poverty with the income-gap ratio, income
distribution below the poverty line, and the annual rate of growth of per capita GNP.
3. The basic needs index (BNI) - is designed to measure the social development of rural
areas. It is composed of an education index and a health index.
4. The relative welfare index (RWI) – is the arithmetic average of the other three indices
(FSI, IPI, BNA).

United Nations Development Programme

The UNDP has produced a large number of different indices that are designed to
measure poverty, inequality and other developmental issues. The Human
Development Index (HDI) is a composite index based on three indicators: longevity -
as measured by life expectancy at birth; educational attainment - as measured by a
combination of adult literacy (two thirds weight) and combined primary, secondary
and tertiary enrolment ratios (one-third weight); and standard of living - as measured
by real GDP per capita (PPP$).

The 1997 Human Development Report defined poverty within the human
development perspective and introduced the term ‘human poverty’, drawing heavily
on Sen’s ‘capability’ concept. While the HDI focuses on the average achievements
of a country, the Human Poverty Index (HPI) focuses on the most deprived. The HPI
is made up of five weighted components (UNDP, 1997):

1. The percent of people expected to die before age 40

2. The percent of adults who are illiterate
3. The percent of people with access to health services
4. The percent of people with access to safe water
5. The percent of children under five who are malnourished

Aspects of human poverty that are excluded from the index due to absence of data or
measurement difficulties, are lack of political freedom, inability to participate in
decision making, lack of personal security, inability to participate in the life of the
community and threats to sustainability and intergenerational equity.

UNDP also gives information on ‘income’ measures of poverty in different countries,

using World Bank data rather indiscriminately on $1, $2 or $4 a day (and even $14.4
a day in the case of the U.S.) and has begun to distinguish ‘extreme’ poverty and
poverty (UNDP, 1998; 1999).

12
World Bank
The World Bank has produced the most influential measurement of World Poverty
and devoted its annual reports in both 1990 and 2000 to poverty eradication issues.
The World Bank produces a "universal poverty line [which] is needed to permit cross-
country comparison and aggregation" (World Bank, 1990, p27). Poverty is defined
as "the inability to attain a minimal standard of living" (ibid, p26). Despite
acknowledgement of the difficulties of capturing the contribution to standards of living
of public goods and common-property resources in any measure of poverty, the
World Bank settled for a measure which is ‘consumption-based’ - and which
comprises "two elements: the expenditure necessary to buy a minimum standard of
nutrition and other basic necessities and a further amount that varies from country to
country, reflecting the cost of participating in the everyday life of society." (World
Bank, 1990, p26; our emphasis).

The first of these elements is "relatively straightforward" because it could be

calculated by "looking at the prices of the foods that make up the diets of the poor"
(ibid, pp26-27). However, the second element is "far more subjective; in some
countries indoor plumbing is a luxury, but in others it is a 'necessity'" (ibid, p27).
Surprisingly, for operational purposes, the second element was set aside. The first
was assessed as PPP (Purchasing Power Parity) - $370 per person per year at 1985
prices for all the poorest developing countries. Those with incomes per capita of less
than $370 were deemed ‘poor’, while those with less than $275 per year were
‘extremely poor’. This approximate $1 of consumption per person per day poverty
line was chosen from a World Bank study of minimum income thresholds used in the
10 ‘poorest’ countries to assess eligibility for welfare provision (Ravallion et al, 1991).

The World Development Report on Poverty in 2000 used a similar methodology to

revise the poverty line estimate to $1.08 per person per day at 1993 Purchasing
Power Parity (Chen and Ravallion, 2000).

No allowance was made by the World Bank in either 1990 or 2000 for the second
'participatory' element of its poverty definition. The logic of the Bank's own argument
is not followed, the minimum value of the poverty line is underestimated and the
number of poor in the world are therefore also underestimated.

There are particular strengths in what the World Bank’s initial approach. The 1985
standard is simple to comprehend and apply. It does not depend on the arduous and
continuous collection and compilation of data about types as well as amounts of
resources, changing patterns of necessities and changing social construction of
standards of living. However, there are weaknesses that are now becoming
pronounced. Measures of the extent of poverty are often based on general statistics
of national income or expenditure instead of survey data about individual and family
conditions. Need is too narrowly interpreted as a lack of ‘material’ goods like food
and fuel instead of a lack of capacity to fulfil social roles and relationships. What is
claimed to be a ‘global’ poverty line turns out to be intended only for the poorest
nations, with different measures ($2 and $4 a day) being used for two groups of next-
to-poorest countries. It is not an international standard open to scientific investigation
and verification.

The biggest problem is that the second part of the Bank’s definition is not costed and
added into the equation. Even the first part, surprisingly, has not been confirmed in
follow-up studies. Variations in the sheer quantity of the diet required among
populations with widely different work and other activity obligations and customs, as
well as in the types of diet socially preferred or indeed available in local markets, and
at what cost, are left unexplored. The type, number and amounts of necessities

13
other than food are not listed. These points apply in particular to children – who
depend on a level of income (including income in kind) for growth, development,
protection and social inclusion.

The level must therefore attract demanding scrutiny and justification. If the logic of
the Bank’s initial definition were to be consistently followed, the minimum value of the
poverty line would necessarily be higher and the number of poor in the world much
higher than currently estimated.

One recurring problem has been the lack of quantitative illustration of the poverty
problems of different types of family or household. Information was collected about
average consumption of calories or protein by males and females of different age,
including children, but the distribution by income or occupational status or by
reference to other features of standard of living, such as housing, conditions of work,
environmental and sanitary facilities and access to health and education, has not
comprised an essential part of the investigative strategy.

Our conclusion is that the World Bank’s operational definition of a poverty line is not
suitable for international comparison. It is therefore an unreliable basis for analysis
of the nature of child poverty, causes of trends and the construction of effective anti-
poverty policies. An alternative approach is available from the 1995 World Summit
for Social Development – namely to build measures of ‘absolute’ and ‘overall’ poverty
for purposes of consistent international comparison and analysis.

4. An International Poverty Line - the Need for a New Approach

As time goes on, social polarisation in many countries is making the construction of
an international poverty line ever more necessary – because the poorest conditions
in the world now apply conspicuously to some sections of population in middle
income and even high income countries.

This structural ‘bias’ cannot be remedied by economic growth governed only by

market considerations but by ‘redistribution with growth’. According to such
evidence, high priority in anti-poverty policies plainly has to be given to children,
elderly and disabled people who cannot gain paid employment and those in the
labour market whose earnings are insufficient to ensure a household income
adequate for health, well-being and social viability.

Extreme Impoverishment: the Former Planned Economies - the Case of Kyrgyz

In the preparation of this report, the extreme impoverishment of children in one
country was examined. The republics composing the former Soviet Union betray
extreme cases of impoverishment - among both children and adults. If global market
forces are producing a more unequal distribution of wealth within as well as between
countries, as testified in an increasing number of agency reports, then extreme cases
like these deserve as much attention as cases in Sub-Saharan Africa. Extremes can
be the real test of theory as well as of policy amelioration.

This report shows that child poverty in the transitional economies should be given
priority along with the developing regions in the elucidation of trends in world poverty
and of causes and severity. Economic and social changes have involved social
polarisation of a dramatic kind.

14
UNICEF was one of the first organisations to capture a sense of the depths of the
social crisis that had so quickly developed.10 The four years 1989-1993 had
"aggravated the situation of children and particularly adolescents….. Child poverty
rates have generally risen much faster than for any other group because of the rapid
spread of unemployment and low-paying jobs, together with the less than
proportional indexation of child allowances.”11

On behalf of UNICEF, a special analysis of survey data from the Republic of

Kyrgyzstan was carried out to distinguish poverty rates in households with and
without children. The 1996 poverty line for Kyrgyz, according to the definition used
by the National Statistical Committee, was $1136 per capita and “severe poverty”
was arbitrarily fixed at half this amount – namely $568.

Table 3 shows that more households with children were in poverty than those
without. Above average figures were registered for lone parents and families with
three or more children. Families with one or two children had below-average poverty
rates (though still higher than households without children). Altogether nearly 45% of
households were in poverty (defined as half the mean household value).

Table 3: Kyrgyz - Poverty in different types of household (%)

Type of household Households Individuals in Households

With children
1 adult, children 50.0 55.3
2 adults, 1-2 children 37.3 38.5
2 adults, 3+ children 70.6 71.2
3+ adults, 1-2 children 44.1 46.9
3+ adults, 3+ children 65.1 66.1

No children
1 adult 21.4 21.4
2 adults 25.0 25.0
3+ adults 28.0 28.5
All types 44.6 52.4
Total number poor 869 4,708
Total number in sample (1,947) (8,988)

The extent of poverty was greater in urban than rural households – nearly 55%
compared with 28%. However, the rate in rural households with two adults and three
or more children was 77%.

Those experiencing severe poverty (less than one quarter of the mean household
income) followed a corresponding pattern. The rate of severe poverty for rural
households with two adults and three or more children was 35%.

10
UNICEF (1994), Crisis in Mortality, Health and Nutrition: Central and Eastern Europe in Transition:
Public Policy and Social Conditions, Economies in Transition Studies, Regional Monitoring Report
No. 2, Florence, UNICEF.

11
Ibid, pp5 and 9.

15
Many social scientists12 and even the World Bank13 have found that the problem of
poverty in the region has become extreme and, in urgently investigating the origins
and development of such an extreme case, important lessons can be learned for
anti-poverty policies in general throughout the world – especially in reducing the
poverty of children.

5. Problems in Measuring Child Poverty

In the pioneering research reported here, UNICEF is undertaking two approaches to
child poverty. One is to examine existing data about incomes of households with and
without children and account for the extent and severity of child deprivation, access
to necessary services and the kind of policies that had improved conditions of
children in other countries or in the previous history of particular countries. The
second approach is to devise improvements to the national surveys introduced as a
result of the 1995 World Summit on Social Development and the country studies
issued by the international agencies and collect information directly about and also
from children. This could pave the way for a renewed determination to restore the
two-part treatment of the poverty measure originally put forward by the World Bank in
1990.

The aim of this research is to produce an assessment of the extent and nature of
child poverty in developing countries at regional level, which is compatible with the
definitions of poverty adopted by the governments of 117 countries at the World
Summit on Social Development in Copenhagen. It would be preferable if this
measurement could build on the work of one or more of the UN agencies that have
measured world poverty in the past. Unfortunately, this does not appear to be
possible. The index approach adopted by the IFAD and UNDP combines aggregated
administrative statistics on different aspects of poverty but does not allow a
quantitative estimate to be made of the numbers and proportions of children living in
poverty.

By contrast, the World Bank’s estimates of ‘poverty’ are based on household survey
data which does make possible estimates at individual level. Unfortunately, the
World Bank’s method of measuring poverty by low per capita consumption
expenditure is singularly unsuitable for measuring child poverty and does not
conform with the definitions of poverty adopted at the Copenhagen Summit. For
example, the definition of absolute poverty implies that a child is ‘poor’ if she suffers
from severe educational deprivation. In accordance with a number of UN resolutions,
this could be operationalised as her lack of receipt of primary education (see later
discussion). There might be a number of reasons why a child does not receive
primary education and low family income is often a very important factor. However, a
lack of government investment in schools and infrastructure can also prevent children
from being educated as can prejudice and discriminatory attitudes that consider that
certain children are not ‘worth’ educating. Whichever of these reasons is true, either
singularly or in combination, the end result will be the same in that the child will suffer
from severe educational deprivation.

Therefore, there is a need to look beyond the World Bank’s narrow focus on per
capita consumption expenditure and at both the effects of low family income on

12
Examples are given in Gordon D. and Townsend P. (eds.) (2000), Breadline Europe: The
Measurement of Poverty, Bristol, Policy Press.
13
“In the countries of Europe and Central Asia in transition to market economies, the number of people
living on less than $1 a day [between 1987 and 1998] rose more than twenty fold.” (World Bank,
2001, p3).

16
children and the effects of inadequate service provision for children. It is a lack of
investment in good quality education, health and other public services in many parts
of the World that is as significant a cause of child poverty as low family incomes.

Absolute Poverty
In this research, we will use the definition of absolute poverty agreed at the World
Summit to produce estimates of the amount of child poverty in developing countries.
The concept of absolute poverty was a strongly contested concept of poverty until the
World Summit agreement.

There are effectively five sources of statistical indicators available on a global scale
that could be used to operationalise the World Summit definition of poverty.

1) Surveys carried out by National Statistical Offices (NSO) – A wide range of

social and economic surveys are carried out by NSO’s in every country.

2) National Census – Decennial population and housing Censuses have been

carried out in most countries of the world during the 20th Century. The UN Economic
and Social Council stressed that Population and housing censuses “are one of the
primary sources of data needed for effective development planning and the
monitoring of population issues and socio-economic and environmental trends,
policies and programmes aimed at the improvement of living standards….”

3) Living Standards Measurement Study -The LSMS Program is an initiative of the

World Bank to obtain high quality household and community survey data from
developing countries. The data from this programme are used by the World Bank (in
combination with other regional sources) to estimate global income poverty.

World Bank staff have access to data from a large number of household surveys
(often in the form of paper tables) for their consumption poverty estimates, however,
the very restricted access to LSMS survey data available to researchers means that
other data sources must be used to assess the extent of child poverty in developing
countries.

4) Demographic and Health Surveys - Since 1984, the Demographic and Health
Surveys (DHS) program has assisted countries in conducting national surveys on
fertility, family planning, and maternal and child health. The DHS are nationally
representative household surveys with sample sizes of about 5,000 households.

The women's questionnaire contains information on the following topics:

• Background characteristics (age, • Diarrhoea, fever and cough in
education, religion, etc.) children
• Reproductive history • Height and weight of children
• Contraceptive knowledge and use • Marriage
• Maternity and breastfeeding • Fertility preferences
• Immunization of children • Husband's background
• Respondent’s work status

The household and children’s sections of the DHS questionnaire cover a wide range
of topics that are relevant to the measurement of child poverty - such as; water
availability, housing characteristics, household size and composition, household
durables and sanitation facilities, children’s education, measures of child malnutrition,
access to information, etc. The broad focus of the DHS data, their extensive and up-
to-date world coverage and the ease of access to survey data make the DHS the

17
best single source of information for estimating the extent of child poverty in the
developing world. A major advantage of the DHS is their cluster sampling
methodology. As many as 3,000 to 9,000 women of childbearing age were
interviewed in each survey (average 5,400).

5) Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) – These household surveys are

specifically designed to help countries accurately assess progress for children in
relation to the World Summit for Children goals (New York, 1990) - which many
countries have carried out, or are carrying out, with UNICEF’s assistance and advice.

The MICS surveys will undoubtedly provide an rich resource for future measurement
of child poverty in developing countries (Minujin, 1999). The end-decade MICS
surveys currently underway in many countries have been developed specifically to
obtain the data for 63 of the 75 end-decade indicators. Similarly, the World Health
Surveys may in future provide additional valuable information on children.

Operational measures of Absolute Poverty

The two concepts of poverty and deprivation are tightly linked but there is general
agreement that the concept of deprivation covers the various conditions, independent
of income, experienced by people who are poor, while the concept of poverty refers
to the lack of income and other resources which makes those conditions inescapable
or at least highly likely (Townsend, 1987).

Deprivation can therefore be conceptualised as a continuum which ranges from no

deprivation through mild, moderate and severe deprivation to extreme deprivation. In
order to measure absolute poverty amongst children, it is necessary to define the
threshold measures of severe deprivation of basic human need for:

1. food 5. shelter
2. safe drinking water 6. education
3. sanitation facilities 7. information
4. health 8. access to services

In this research the threshold measures for severe deprivation will, as far as
practicable, conform to internationally agreed standards and conventions.
Theoretically, we will define ‘severe deprivation of basic human need’ as those
circumstances that are highly likely to have serious adverse consequences for the
health, wellbeing and development of children. Severe deprivations are related to
‘poor’ developmental outcomes both long and short term. Criteria for evaluating
causality from epidemiological and social science data have been described by
Bradford-Hill (1965). Table 4 shows the operational definitions of deprivation for the
criteria in the World Summit definition of absolute poverty.

18
Table 4: Operational definitions of deprivation among children
Deprivation Mild Moderate Severe Extreme
Food Bland diet of poor Going hungry on occasion Malnutrition Starvation
nutritional value
Safe Not having enough water No access to water in dwelling Long walk to water source No access to water
drinking on occasion due to lack of but communal piped water (more than 200 meters) which
water sufficient money available within 200 meters is occasionally polluted
Sanitation Having to share facilities Sanitation facilities outside No sanitation facilities in or No access to
facilities with another household dwelling near dwelling sanitation facilities
Health Facilities near by but Inadequate facilities near by Health facilities more than 1 No access to
occasional lack of access (e.g. less than 1 hour travel) hours travel away. No health facilities
due to insufficient money immunisation against diseases
Shelter Dwelling in poor repair. Few facilities in dwelling, lack No facilities, non-perm. Bldg, Roofless – no
More than 1 person per of heating, struct. problems. no privacy, no flooring, one or shelter
room 3+ per room two rooms. 5+ per room
Education Inadequate teaching due to Unable to attend secondary Unable to attend primary or Prevented from
lack of resources but can attend primary secondary education learning due to
education persecution/prejudi
ce
Information Can’t afford newspapers or No television but can afford a No access to radio, television Access to
books radio or books or newspapers information
prevented (govt
etc)

Basic Social Service deprivation

Basic Social Service deprivation is currently an under-researched area. Much
research in this field has been undertaken as part of the sustainability agenda of the
UN. For example, the Department for International Development (DFID) in the UK has
used the following definition of ‘basic infrastructure’ for sustainability (DFID, 1998).

“Basic infrastructure includes the provision of adequate water; sanitation (including

human and solid waste disposal and drainage); clean and efficient energy; adequate
and secure shelter and public buildings; plus the essential information that enables
people to utilize these services effectively. In addition, access is required for
services available on a less local basis and mobility through safe, affordable
transport (including roads, tracks and means of transport) will enable poor people to
participate in the economic, cultural and political institutions of society. Basic
infrastructure provision relates to facilities that directly impact on the sustainable
livelihoods and opportunities of people within their communities.”

Goals agreed for selected BSS indicators at UN conferences

The task group identified a range of available indicators of access to basic social
services that are consistent with the agreements achieved at recent UN conferences.
Six key areas were identified by the Task Force as:

1.population, with special emphasis on reproductive health and family planning services
2.primary health care
3.nutrition
4.basic education
5.drinking water and sanitation
6.shelter

There are twelve indicators used to measure these six key areas:

1) Percentage of population with access to health services - The percentage of the

population that can reach appropriate local health services by the local means of transport in
no more than one hour.

2) Family planning - The percentage currently using contraception, both traditional and
modern methods, among currently married women of reproductive age, including, where
possible, those in consensual unions.

19
3) Underweight prevalence among preschool children - The percentage of children under
five years of age who have a weight that is more than two standard deviations below the
median weight-for-age of the standard NCHS reference population.

4) Maternal mortality ratio - The number of deaths of women occurring over a year while
pregnant, or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the cause of death,
per 100,000 live births in that year.

5) Infant mortality rate - The probability of dying before age 1 per 1,000 newborns.

6) Under-five mortality rate - The probability of dying before age 5 per 1,000 newborns.

7) Life expectancy at birth - The average number of years that a newborn could expect to
live, if he or she were to pass through life subject to the age-specific mortality rates of a given
period.

8) School enrolment ratio - The total enrolment, regardless of age, in primary and
secondary education as a proportion of the population of primary- and secondary- school age
according to national regulations.

9) Adult illiteracy rate - The proportion of the population who are illiterate, expressed as a
percentage of the population aged 15 years or above. A person is illiterate who cannot, with
understanding, both read and write a short simple statement on everyday life.

10) Percentage of population with access to sanitation - The percentage of population

with access to a sanitary facility for human excreta disposal in the dwelling or located within a
convenient distance from the user's dwelling

11) Percentage of population with access to safe water - The percentage of population
with access to an adequate amount of safe drinking water located within a convenient
distance from the user's dwelling.

12) Floor area per person - The median floor area of a unit divided by the average
household size. This measures the adequacy of living space in dwellings. A low value for the
indicator is a sign of overcrowding.

Operational measures of Basic Social Service deprivation for children

The UN Task Group indicators discussed above are not all directly applicable to
children. For example, some are only of relevance to adults e.g. contraception, adult
illiteracy and maternal mortality and some are also aggregate population measures
which are not applicable at the individual level e.g. life expectancy and mortality
rates. However, the remaining indicators can be used as operational measures of
basic social service deprivation as could other measures which could include access
to power, fuel and transport.

6. Conclusion
1. Child poverty. Methods of measuring poverty by different international agencies
have been reviewed and none is found to be satisfactory. Social scientific advances
during the 1990s - including advances in survey methodology in developing
countries, international agreements on the definition of poverty and the use of the
World Wide Web for household survey distribution - have made possible the
measurement of the extent and nature of child poverty at world region level. In this
report we have outlined plans and methods of operationalising the measurement of
‘absolute’ child poverty (drawing on the 1995 World Summit agreement in
Copenhagen), primarily using Demographic and Health Survey Data which is
available for 68 countries.

20
2. Social polarisation. Inequalities in living standards have been growing fast
between and within countries.14 By examining in depth conditions in one country, this
report also demonstrates that child poverty in the transitional economies should be
given priority along with Sub-Saharan Africa in the elucidation of trends in world
poverty and of causes and severity.

3. Child rights according to the Universal Declaration. A major feature of the

report is the development of an index of child rights, based upon the Universal
Declaration and drawing on data made available by the international agencies. This
allows all countries to be compared in terms of their progress towards the satisfaction
of rights. There are big disparities between ‘achiever’ and ‘straggler’ countries. The
findings for the 47 countries in one region, Sub-Saharan Africa, have been given to
illustrate this sharply.

4. Child rights according to the UN CRC. The construction of a more accurate and
representative index than that based on the Universal Declaration, founded on the
Articles of the UN CRC, is described and recommended for exploration. Further
work by the research team on this index is actively proceeding.

14
“The average income in the richest 20 countries is 37 times the average in the poorest 20 – a gap that
has doubled in the past 40 years.” World Bank (2001), Attacking Poverty, World Development
Report 2000-2001, Washington D.C., World Bank (p3).

21
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