ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Energy bands in solids

In the case of an isolated atom the electron in any orbit possesses a fixed energy.
But the energy of electron in an orbit of an atom in a solid is greatly influenced by
the closely packed neighboring atoms. As a result this electron in any orbit of such
an atom can have a range of energy rather than a single energy. The range of
energy possessed by an electron in a solid is known as energy band.

Valence band
The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons.
The range of energy possessed by valence electrons is called valence band.

Conduction band
In certain metals the valence electrons are loosely bound to the nucleus. These
electrons are called free electrons or conduction electrons. The range of energy
possessed by conduction electron is called conduction band .
or The energy band above valence band is called conduction band.

Forbidden energy gap

The valence band and conduction band may be separated by an energy gap ‘Eg’
which is called forbidden energy gap.

Classification of solids in terms of forbidden energy gap.(Energy band

diagram).

Conductors
In conductors, valance band and conduction band overlap each other. When there
is overlap, electrons from valance band can easily move to into the conduction
band. No energy is required to move an electron from valence band to conduction
band. Eg = 0
Insulators
In an insulator forbidden energy gap is very large. There are no electrons in the
conduction band. Hence large amount of energy is required to move an electron
from valence band to conduction band.
Eg > 3eV.

Semiconductors
Semiconductors are substances whose conductivity is lies between both conductors
and insulators. In a semiconductor the forbidden energy gap is very small. A small
amount of energy is required to move an electron from valance band to conduction
band.
Because of the small band gap, at room temperature some electrons from valence
band can acquire enough energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction
band. Eg < 3eV. ( For Si, Eg =1.1 eV, For Ge ,Eg =0.72eV)
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
An extremely pure semiconductor is called an intrinsic semiconductor. At low
temperature, intrinsic semiconductor behaves as an insulator due to the presence of
covalent bond. At room temperature, electrons from a covalent bond come out due
to thermal agitation. This vacancy with the effective positive electronic charge is
called a hole. The hole behaves as an apparent free particle with effective positive
charge.
In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons, ne is equal to the number
of holes, nh. That is ne = nh = ni where ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is very low. As such, they are not
used in electronic devices. Hence there is a necessity of improving their
conductivity. This can be done by adding suitable impurities in it. The resulting
semiconductor is called an extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding
impurity to a semiconductor is called doping.
There are two types of dopants used in doping the semiconductor Si or Ge:
(i) Pentavalent (valency 5); like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc

(ii)Trivalent (valency 3); like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), etc
 (i) n-type semiconductor

If a pure semiconductor is doped with pentavalent impurities like Arsenic or

antimony, the resulting semiconductor is called n-type semiconductor. Four of the
five valence electrons of impurity atom form covalent bonds with four electrons of
Si or Ge leaving one electron free. This electron is responsible for conduction in n-
type semiconductors.

Thus, with proper level of doping the number of conduction electrons can be made
much larger than the number of holes. Hence in an n-type semiconductor, electrons
become the majority carriers and holes the minority carriers.
For n-type semiconductors, we have, ne > nh.

The semiconductor’s energy band structure is affected by doping. In

the case of n-type semiconductors, additional energy states due to donor
impurities (ED) also exist.
With very small supply of energy electron from donor energy level can move to
the conduction band. Therefore, donor enegy level is slightly below Ec.
(ii) p-type semiconductor

If a pure semiconductor is doped with trivalent impurities like Boron or Indium,

the resulting semiconductor is called p-type semiconductor. The three valence
electrons impurity atom form covalent bonds with three electrons of Si or Ge atom.
Then there is a deficiency of one electron to complete the covalent bond with
fourth electron of the Si or Ge atom. So the bond between the fourth neighbour and
the trivalent atom has a vacancy or hole .This hole is responsible for conduction in
p-type semiconductors.
Thus, for such a material, the holes are the majority carriers and electrons are
minority carriers. For p-type semiconductors, we have,
nh> ne.

The semiconductor’s energy band structure is affected by doping. In the case of

p-type semiconductors, additional energy states due to acceptor impurities (EA)
also exist.
With very small supply of energy, electron from the valence band can jump to the
level EA. Therefore, acceptor energy level is slightly above the valence band E V.

Note that the crystal maintains an overall charge neutrality as the charge of
additional charge carriers is just equal and opposite to that of the ionised cores in
the lattice.(contains equal number of electrons and protons)
The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor is given by
ne nh = ni2
Formation of p-n junction
Consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor wafer. By adding a small quantity of
pentavalent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-type
semiconductor.. The wafer now contains p-region and n-region and a junction
between p, and n region.
Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction: diffusion
and drift.

We know that in an n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons is more

compared to the concentration of holes. Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor, the
concentration of holes is more than the concentration of electrons. During the
formation of p-n junction, and due to the concentration charge carriers, holes
diffuse from p-side to n-side and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side. This
motion of charge carries gives rise to diffusion current.
When an electron diffuses from n to p, it leaves behind a positive charge on n-
side. That is a layer of positive charge (or positive space-charge region) on n-side
of the junction is developed.
Similarly, when a hole diffuses from p tn, it leaves behind a negative charge
which is immobile. That is a layer of negative charge (or negative space-charge
region) on the p-side of the junction is developed. This space-charge region on
either side of the junction together is known as depletion layer.
Due to the positive space-charge region on n-side of the junction and negative
space charge region on p-side of the junction, an electric field directed from
positive charge towards negative charge develops. Due to this field, an electron on
p-side of the junction moves to n-side and a hole on n-side of the junction moves to
p-side. The motion of charge carriers due to the electric field is called drift. Thus a
drift current flows in a direction opposite to the diffusion current.
Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion
process continues, electric field at the junction increases and hence drift current
increases. This process continues until the diffusion current equals the drift current.
Thus a p-n junction is formed.
The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by the p-region
causes a difference of potential across the junction. This potential difference is
called potential barrier. This potential barrier tends to prevent the further
movement of charge carriers across the junction
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided
at the ends. A p-n junction diode is symbolically represented as shown in Fig.

Forward bias
When an external voltage V is applied across a semiconductor diode such that p-
side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and n-side to the negative
terminal , it is said to be forward biased.

The direction of the applied voltage (V ) is opposite to the barrier potential V0. As a
result, the depletion layer width decreases and the barrier height is reduced The
effective barrier height under forward bias is (V0 – V ).

If the applied voltage is small, the barrier potential will be reduced only slightly
below the normal value, and only a small number of carriers in the material cross
the junction. So the current will be small. If we increase the applied voltage
significantly, the barrier height will be reduced and more number of carriers will
have the required energy. Thus the current increases.

Due to the applied voltage, electrons from n-side cross the depletion region and
reach p-side. Similarly, holes from p-side cross the junction and reach
the n-side.( This process under forward bias is known as minority carrier injection)
Then a relatively large amount of current flows through the junction. In a forward
biased p-n junction, depletion layer becomes thin and junction offers low
resistance.
Reverse bias
When an external voltage (V ) is applied across the diode such that n-side is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery and p-side to the negative
terminal, it is said to be reverse biased.

The direction of applied voltage is same as the direction of barrier potential. As a

result, the barrier height increases and the depletion region widens due to the
change in the electric field. The effective barrier height under reverse bias is
(V0 + V ). This suppresses the flow of electrons from n tp and holes from p tn
and practically no diffusion current. However, a small amount current flows
through the junction due to drift of minority carriers. This current is called reverse
current. This reverse current increase rapidly at a critical voltage called reverse
break down voltage.
In a reverse biased p-n junction, depletion layer becomes thick and junction offers
very high resistance.
.
Forward bias characteristics
The circuit arrangement for studying the forward bias characteristics of a diode,
(i.e., the variation of current as a function of applied voltage).
The battery is connected to the diode through a reheostat so that the applied
voltage to the diode can be changed. The positive terminal is connected to the p-
region and negative terminal is connected to the n-region of the diode. In the
beginning, if the applied voltage is low , practically no current flows through the
junction. It is because potential barrier opposes the applied voltage. As soon as the
applied voltage is greater than the potential barrier, the forward current increases
rapidly, The voltage at which forward current increases rapidly is called knee
voltage or threshold voltage. (~0.2V for germanium diode and ~0.7 V for silicon
diode).For diode , we define a quantity dynamic resistance , rd = ΔV/ ΔI.

Reverse bias characteristics

The circuit arrangement for studying reverse bias characteristics as shown in
figure. The positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-region and
negative terminal is connected to the p-region of the diode.

When a small reverse voltage is applied, the junction offers very high resistance
and practically no current flows through the junction. However, a small amount
current (reverse current) flows through the junction due to drift of minority
carriers. When the reverse voltage exceeds a particular value called break down
voltage the current increases rapidly.
The diode reverse current is not very much dependent on the applied voltage. Even
a small voltage is sufficient to sweep the minority carriers from one side of the
junction to the other side of the junction. The current under reverse bias is
essentially voltage independent upto a critical reverse bias voltage, known as
breakdown voltage.
As the reverse bias voltage is increased, the electric field at the junction becomes
significant. When the reverse bias voltage V = Vz, then the electric field strength is
high enough to pull valence electrons from the host atoms on the p-side which are
accelerated to n-side. These electrons account for high current observed at the
breakdown. The emission of electrons from the host atoms due to the high electric
field is known as internal field emission .

p-n junction diode as a rectifier

The device which converts a.c into dc is called a rectifier.
Half-wave rectifier
A rectifier which rectifies only one of the half cycles of ac is called a half wave
rectifier.
Principle
A junction diode offers low resistance when it is forward biased and high
resistance when it is reverse biased.
Arrangement
The ac supply is fed across the primary coil of a step down transformer. The
secondary coils of the transformer are connected to the junction diode and a load
resistance RL. The out put is obtained across the load resistance.
Working
During the first half cycle, the end A becomes positive with respect to end B, the
diode is forward biased. Hence the diode conducts and a current flows through the
load resistance RL. During the second half cycle, the end B becomes positive with
respect to end A, the diode is reverse biased. Therefore no current flows through
the circuit. Thus a half wave rectifier gives a discontinuous pulsating dc across the
load resistance.

Full-wave rectifier.
A rectifier which rectifies both the haves of the ac cycle is called a full wave
rectifier.
Principle
A junction diode offers low resistance when it is forward biased and high
resistance when it is reverse biased.
Arrangement
The ac supply is fed across the primary coil of a step down transformer. The circuit
uses two diodes and a centre tap transformer. A load resistance RL is connected
between the n- sections of the diode and centre tap of the transformer.
Working
The voltage at any instant at A (in put of diode D1)and B (in put of the diode D2)
with respect to centre tap transformer are out phase with each other. Suppose the
input voltage to A with respect to the centre tap at any instant is positive. It is clear
that, at that instant, voltage at B being out of phase will be negative So, diode D1
gets forward biased and conducts (while D2 being reverse biased is not
conducting). Hence, during this positive half cycle we get an output current (and a
output voltage across the load resistor RL). At another instant when the voltage at
A becomes negative with respect to centre tap, the voltage at B would be positive.
Hence the diode D1 would not conduct but diode D2 would, giving an output
current and output voltage (across RL) during the negative half cycle of the input
ac. Thus, we get output voltage during both the positive as well as the negative half
of the cycle. Obviously, this full wave rectifier is more efficient than the half wave
rectifier.
FILTER CIRCUIT (Role of capacitor in filtering)

When the voltage across the capacitor is increasing, it gets

charged. When the voltage across the capacitor is decreasing, it
gets discharged through the load. In the next half-cycle it again
gets charged. Then a constant dc voltage is developed across
load resistance.
Photodiode

A Photodiode is a special purpose p-n junction diode that acts as a photo detector.
It is operated under reverse bias.

When a photon of energy (hν)greater than the energy gap (Eg) incident on the p-n
junction, then electron-hole pairs are generated near the depletion layer. Due to
electric field of the junction, electrons reach n-side and holes reach p-side.
Electrons are collected on n-side and holes are collected on p-side giving rise to an
emf. When an external load is connected, current flows. The magnitude of the
photocurrent depends on the intensity of incident light (photocurrent is
proportional to incident light intensity. Hence the measurement of the change in
reverse current gives the value of intensity of light. Thus , it is used as a photo
detector.

Light emitting diode

It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits spontaneous
radiation.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons are sent from n side to p side (where
they are minority carriers) and holes are sent from p side to n side (where they are
minority carriers). At the junction boundary the concentration of minority carriers
increases. Thus at the junction boundary on either side of the junction, excess
minority carriers are there which recombine with majority carriers near the
junction. On recombination, the energy is released in the form of photons. Photons
with energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap are emitted.
The V-I characteristics of a LED is similar to that of a Si junction diode.

Gallium Arsenide Phosphide is used for making LEDs at visible region. GaAs is
used for making LEDs at infrared region.
Wavelength of light emitted by LED depends on band gap(Eg) and Intensity
depends on Forward voltage /current
LEDs find extensive use in remote controls, burglar alarm systems, optical
communication
Advantages
(i) Low operational voltage and less power.
(ii) Fast action.
(iii) Light emitted is nearly monochromatic.
(iv) Long life.

Solar cell
A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation
falls on the p-n junction. No external bias is applied for solar cell.
A p –type Si wafer is taken over which a thin n - type Si is grown on one-side.

The generation of emf by a solar cell is due to the following three basic processes:
1.generation, 2. separation and 3.collection—
When light with energy (hν)greater than the energy gap (Eg) incident on the p-n
junction, then electron-hole pairs are generated near the depletion layer. These
electrons hole pairs are separated due to electric field at the junction. Electrons are
swept to n-side and holes to p-side. The electrons reaching the n-side are collected
at the ends. Thus p-side becomes positive and n-side becomes negative giving rise
to photovoltage.
When an external load is connected as shown in a photocurrent I flows through the
load.
V-I characteristics of a solar cell.

The important criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell fabrication are
(i) band gap (1.0 to 1.8 eV), (ii) high optical absorption.
Solar cells are used to power electronic devices in satellites and space vehicles and
also as power supply to some calculators.

Questions
1. The current in the forward bias is known to be more than the current in the
reverse bias . What is the reason then to operate the photodiodes in reverse
bias?

Consider the case of an n-type semiconductor. Obviously, the majority

carrier density (n) is considerably larger than the minority hole density p
(i.e., n >> p).
The fractional change in the majority carriers (i.e., Δn/n) would be much less
than that in the minority carriers (i.e., Δp/p).
Therefore, the fractional change due to reverse bias current is more easily
measurable than the fractional change in the forward bias current. Hence,
photodiodes are preferably used in the reverse bias condition for measuring
light intensity.
2. Name the factor which depends on wavelength and intensity of light emitted
by LED.
Wavelength of light emitted by LED depends on band gap(Eg) and Intensity
depends on Forward voltage /current.
3. Why are Si and GaAs are preferred materials for solar cells?
Silicon has Eg ~ 1.1 eV while for GaAs it is ~1.53 eV. GaAs is better (in
spite of its higher band gap) than Si because of its relatively higher
absorption coefficient.
4. Mention the important considerations required while fabricating a pn
junction diode to be used as a LED. What should be the order of band gap of
an LED if it is required to emit light in the visible range?
(heavily doped, visble led Eg atleast 1.8eV) 3eV to 1.8eV
5. How does the thickness of the depletion layer vary with increase in doping
concentration?
Thickness of the depletion layer decreases.
6. Whether an n-type or p-type semiconductor crystal is charged or neutral?
The crystal maintains an overall charge neutrality as the charge of additional
charge carriers is just equal and opposite to that of the ionised cores in the
lattice.(contains equal number of electrons and protons)
7. C, Si and Ge have same lattice structure. Why is C insulator while Si and Ge
intrinsic semiconductors?
The 4 bonding electrons C,Si or Ge lie, respectively, in the second, third and
fourth orbit. Hence, energy required to take out an electron from these atoms
(i.e., ionisation energy Eg ) will be least for Ge, followed by Si and highest
for C. Hence, number of free electrons for conduction in Ge and Si are
significant but negligibly small for C.
8. Can we take one slab of p-type semiconductor and physically join it to
another n-type semiconductor to get p-n junction?
No! Any slab, howsoever flat, will have roughness much larger than the
inter-atomic crystal spacing and hence continuous contact at the atomic level
will not be possible. The junction will behave as a discontinuity for flowing
the charge carriers.