‘0 G Likiime Gecupratad STUDY MATERIAL DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER TPL Chapter 11: JAR tthe DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER ppp 4054 Work function: : : ‘The minimum energy required by a free electron to just liberate from the metal surface is called Work function It is denoted by }, SL unit of work function is joule (J) Practical unit is eV (electron volt). Define eV: It is the energy gained by an electron when it has been acc by a potential difference of 1 volt LeV=1.602x10-19 5 i Note: 1. Work function depends on nature of metal surface and properties of metal. 2. Platinum has highest work function (4, = 5.65 eV) Caesium has lowest work function ($, = 2.14eV) Electron emission: The liberation of free electrons from a metal surface is called electron emission. ‘Types of eléctron emission: According to the electron theory of metals, a large number of loosely bound electrons: (free electrons) exist in a metal. Thus electrons can be liberated from a metal surface by any one of the following methods. : 1. Thermionic emission 2. Photoelectric emission 3. Field emission 4. Secondary emission ee 1. The process of emission of free electrons from the metal surface by suitably heating a metal is called Thermionic emission. 2. The process of emission of free electrons from the metal surface when a light of suitable frequency incident on it is called Photoelectric emission. The electrons emitted from this method are called photoelectrons 3. The process of emission of free electrons from the metal surface by applying a strong electric field to a metal is called Fleld emission or cold cathode emission. (Electric field is of the order of 108 v/m.) 4. The process of emission of electrons from the surface of a metal, usi ga beam of accelerated charged particles (like electrons) is called Secondary emission. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS: 1 @ scanned with OKEN Scannererrmereeeeeeetcees ee —e STUDY MATERIAL. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER " % PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT: : “The phenomenon of emis light of suitable frequency incident on itis called Photoclectri Photoelectric effect was discovered by Heinrich Hertz The current constituted by photoelectrons is called photoelectric 1 urtent ion of free electrons from metal surface wh 2 affect.” or photocurrent. In photoelectric effect light energy is conver Photoelectric effect follows law of conservation of energy. ed into electrical energy. iin Hertz’s observations on photoclectric effect: ‘The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894). In his experimental investigation on the production of electromagnetic waves by means of a spark discharge, Hertz observed that high voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced (increased) when the emitter plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp. When light falls on a metal surface, some electrons near the surface absorb enough energy from the incident radiation to overcome the attraction of the ‘al of the surface. After gaining sufficient energy from e from the surface of the metal-into the positive ions in the materi the iricident light, the electrons escap surrounding space- Lenard’s observations on Photoelectric effect Lenard observed that (i) When ultraviolet radiations evacuated glass tube enclosing two cle the circuit. (ii) As soon as # stopped. ‘These observation’ (C), electrons are ejected from i were allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an cctrodes (metal plates), current flows in ne ultraviolet radiations were stopped, the current flow also emitter plate t which are attracted towards the positive collector plate (A). ‘Thus, light falling on the surface of the emitter causes current in the external circuit. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS - i @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL DUST NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER wet Hallwachn observationn on photoelectrie effect = And connected Hallwachs, an T8RK, undertook the study further and ne ely charged ane plate tan eleciraseape He abserved that (9) The gine plate lost its charge when i was illuminated by ultraviolet bight The uncharged by ultraviolet J ne ph le positively charged when it was irrady (ii) Positive charge on a positively charged zine plate was found to be further enhanced when it was illuminated by ultraviolet light From these ob: tions he conclud " ed that n (electrons) were emitted from the zine pla gatively charged particles under the action of ultraviolet light Note: It was found that certain metals like zine, cadmium, magne responded only to ultraviolet light, having short wavelength, to caus emission from the surface. However, some alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium and rubidium were All these photosensitive substances emit electrons w light. After the discovery of electrons, photoelectrons. The phenomenon is called pl tron, nitive even to visible light. hen they are illuminated by these electrons were termed as hotoelectric effect. ” “Experimental study of photoelectric effect Figure- shows an experimental Quartz arrangement to study. photoelectric ee effect. C is the cathode (emitter Plate) coated with a photosensitive pee eensitive material. A is the anode or collector plate placed in front of C. Both these electrodes are cuated E i tube y +. Electrons enclosed in a | evacuated glass tube G provided 1 ' with Quartz window. The battery (A= Commiator maintains potential difference [< S $n between plates A and C that can be varied. The polarity of the A and C Lananal can be reversed by a Commutator. When the anode plate A is positive witht Fespect to the cathode plate C then electrons are attractel the quartz window radiation of suitable cathode. A; liberated to it. Throunh frequency is made to fall on the soon as the radiation fails on the cathode photocle | Pholoclectrons move towards the anode and produce Photoelectric current This current 4s recorded by a microammet x DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS : i @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSameera aan RE STUDY MATERIAL DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER Ney Experimental observations made on photoelectric effect: : (= ‘Stopping potentiat//// | a ap Alas Photoelectric current —> SS |-— retaring’potenia) ate ale > (Be. 4) L (fig. 2) 1. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation (above the threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is directly Proportional to the intensity of incident light (fig. 1). 2. For a given photosensitive material and frequeticy of incident radiation, --saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity. (fig.2) iE 3. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of the incident radiation, called the threshold frequency, below “which no emission of photoelectrons takes place, no matter how intense the incident light is. 4. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or the | Stopping potential maximum kinetic energy of the | (%) meta Ay emitted- photoelectrons- incteases von Arreta linearly with the frequency of the |e a incident radiation, but. is | —of 24 8 independent of its intensity. (fig.3) Gg. 3) §. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any apparent time lag (10 s or less), even when the incident radiation is made exceedingly dim. Note: 1. The positive potential given to A with respect to C is called accelerating potential. The negative potential given to A with respect to C is called retarding potential. ~ DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS 4 @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER met rating potential increases, photorlectrte current also incre and reaches maximum value. If we increase accelerating, poten that, the photoelectric current doc ss This maximum of photoelectric current Laws of photo electric effect 1. Photo electron emission is an instantancous process. for Hae notin Hed saturation current 2. Por every metal, there is a certain minimum frequency of the incident radiation called threshold frequency below which photoclectric emission does not take place. ; 3. Photoclectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident radiation provided the frequency is greater than threshold frequency and is independent of frequency. 4. At constant frequency of incident metal, saturation current is radiation. 5. The maximum Kinetic energy and the stopping Potential of the photoelectric imgeases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation and is independent of intensity. t radiation and for a given photosensitive directly proportional to intensity of incident Threshold frequency: ‘Threshold wavelength: The maximum wavelen, Photoelectric emission takes Itis denoted by 2,. igth of incident radiation at which or below wi hich place is called Threshold wavelength. _Relation between Threshold frequency (vo) and Threshold wavelength (Ao): Cay A, Or Expression for work function: by = hv, ke » Where C=; Speed of light in free space’ s DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS ‘ @ scanned with OKEN ScannerTT E OF RADIATION AND MATTE) STUDY MATERIAL — DUAL NATURE OF N TTER e Stopping potential (Cut off potential): ‘The minimum negative potential given to the anode for which the stun electric current becomes zero is called the stopping potential. Photg Einst. IfVsis the stopping potential for photoclectrons emitted with maxim, tum ; ; see 2 ul nee velocity Vinx oF masximum kinetic energy Bmax then By =>1V2, =6V, Why bund! + Where, m is the mass of the electron, ¢ is its charge. Note: 1. If anode is made negative with respect to cathode, then current decreases. If negative potential of A increases then current decreases. 2. The stopping potential is directly proportional to frequency of incident radiation. It depends on nature of emitter material. It does not depend on intensity of incident radiation. 3. The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the number of photoelectrons emitted per second. Photoclectri. Photoclectri, Failure of wave theory of light to explain Photoelectric effect: The wave nature of light was well established by the end of the electron per unit time turns out to be small, Explicit calculations estimate thet it can take hours or more for a. nineteenth “century. The phenomena of interference, diffraction and has polarisation were explained in a natural and satisfactory way by the wave picture of light. According to this picture, light is an electromagnetic wave consisting of electric and magnetic fields with continuous distribution of energy Exp over the region of space over which the wave is extended. Let us now see if this ~ pho wave picture of light can explain the observations on photoelectric: emission Ld given in the previous section. — pa k We should note that in the wave picture, the absorption of energy by i electron takes place continuously over the entire wavefront of the radiation. f Since a large number of electrons absorb energy, the energy absorbed pet 2. ¢ t Single electron to pick up sufficient energy ° overcome the work function and come out of the metal. This conclusion is P again in striking contrast to observation (iv) that the photoelectric emission § a instantaneous. In short, the wave picture is unable to explain the most bas 4 ; features of photoelectric emission. « | DEPA DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS 6 ee @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL — DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER WPL Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect: In 1905. Einstein explained the photoelectric effect using quantum theory. According to which the radiation consists of discrete energy packets or bundles called quanta or photons. Energy of cach such photon is given by E=hv, where h is planck’s constant v is the frequency of the radiation Einstein considered that the emission of photoelectron is the result of an elastic collision between a photon of incident radiation and free electron inside the metal. In this process the entire photon energy is transferred to the electron. A part of the energy gained by the electron is used in doing work against the surface forces of the metal (surface barrier). This part of the energy represents the work function of the metal. e The remaining energy is available to the electron as its maximum kinetic energy, Thus according to Einstein’s explanation. Work function of 4 maximum kinetic energy Photon Ene ae the photo cathode of the photo electrons ie. hv= $0 +2 mVAa Where, h is Planck's constant, v is the frequency of the incident radiation, m is the mass and Vmax is the maximum velocity of the electron. This relation is called Kinsteir’s photoelectric equation. i 1 . Note: We have, hy = $0. +> MVigx-+ but $)=hvg, -. hy =hv, + ; mt, 2 4 7M = hv—hvg, 7PM eu =h(v—vo) Explanation of experimental observation: is based Ei in’: ~ Phatoelectric equation: Peat 1. If v h v/eoh/d. and speed ¢, the speed of light (ii) All photons of light of a particular frequency v, or wavelength A, have the same energy (E) and momentum (p), whatever the intensity of radiation may be By increasing the intensity of light of given wavelength, there is only an increase in the number of photons per second crossing a given area, with cach photon having the same energy. Thus, photon energy is independent of intensity of radiation. G) Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. (*) In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-electron collision), the total energy and total momentum are conserved. However, the number of photons, Ray Not be conserved in a collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created : Wave nature of matter: De ~ Broglie hypothesis A French physicist Louis. de-Broglie suggested: that the particles like electron, protons, neutrons ete have also dual nature i.€., the material particle can behave both wave as well as particle. = “According to de-BréBlie, a mo ing particles, carr bi is known as“ de-Broglie: waves. or matter waves Expression for de-Broglie Wavelength According to Quantum theory, the en: E=hy € associated with a wave and ergy of a photon is given by -.(2) Where m is the mass of a photon, cis a velocity of light From (1) and (2) we have me2,= = hy or mc? = a since, me=p=momentum of photon This is the expression for de-Broglie wavelength. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS @ scanned with OKEN ScannerSTUDY MATERIAL bu, SSeS TURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER tn Py If instead of photon, a materi: cle of m cl 7 ial particle of c : ass m moving with velocity y jg As For a charged particle accelerated by a potential differen energy gained is E =} mv? = Vq Note: 1. de-Broglie wavelength ‘2’ is smaller for a heavier particle. A hence A= 7; Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: According to this principle. It is not possible to measure both the position and momentum of a particles at the same time exactly. ‘The product of the uncertainty in the-med&tirement of the position and uncertainty in the measurement of the momentum as equal to h. rhe i.e. Ax Ap= h. (: He 2) Probability interpretation of matter waves: Max Born, proposéd the probability interpretation according to him the electron is not localized in any finite region of space. That is, its_ position uncertairfty is infinite (ax+=}, which is consistent with uncertainty principle. In general, the matter wave associated with the electron is not extended all over space. It is a wave packet extending over some finite region of space > that case Ax is not’ infinite but has some finite value depending on the extension of the wave packet. Also wave packet of finite wavelength spread around centrat wavelength as shown below. Note: The matter wave corresponding to ta definite momentum of an electron extends all over space as shown Fig. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS 10 | @ scanned with OKEN ScannersTUDY MAT RIAL DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION (ND MATTER wet Davisson and Germer experiment The wave natur@PPelectrons first. experimentally. verified by Cah Davisson and LH, Germer in 1927 and independently by GP. Thomson, in 1928, who ‘ : | observed diffraction effects with | beams of clectrons scattered by | crystals. Davisson and Thomson fates shared the Nobel Prize in 1937 sai le for their experimental discovery of diffraction of electrons by crystals. ‘The experimental arrangement used by Davison wn in Fig. It consists of an electron gun which comprises of a a low voltage and Germer is schematically sho tungsten filament F, coated with barium oxide and heated by power supply (LT. or battery). Electrons emitted by the filament are accelerated to a desired velocity by applying suitable potential/voltage from a | high voltage power supply (H.T. or battery). They are made to pass through a cylinder with fine holes along its axis, producing a fine collimated beam, The beam’ is made to fall on the surface of a nickel crystal. The clectrons are scattered in all directions by the atoms of the crystal. The intensity of the electron beam, scattered in a given diréoon, is measured by the electron | detector (collector). The detector can be moved on a circular scale ‘and is connected to a sensitive galvanometer, which records the current. The deflection of the galvanometer is proportional to the intensity of the electron beam entering the collector: The apparatus is enclosed inJan evacuated chamber. By moving the detector on the circular scale at di the intensity of the scattered electron beam is measured for different values of angle of scattering 0 which is the angle between the incident and the scattered electron bears. The variation of the intensity() of the scattered el + the angle of scattering, 0 is obtained for different aceele erent positions. rons with ting voltages from 44V to 68V. The de. Broglie wavelength \ associated with electrons, , for Vesav 1.227 1.227 Dahl p= am a am 0.167 PVs sa Thus, there is an excellent agreement between Ute theoretical val the experimentally obtained value of de Broglie wavelength, Davissen wikingly confirms the wave experiment thus Broglie relation ¥ OF PHYSICS DEPARTME! @ scanned with OKEN Scanner