American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2020; 84 (3) Article 847512.

COMMENTARY
Developing Self-Directed Learners
Jennifer D. Robinson, PharmDa, Adam M. Persky, PhDb,c
a
Washington State University College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Spokane, Washington
b
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
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c
Associate Editor, American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, Arlington, Virginia
Submitted January 24, 2019; accepted September 24, 2019; published March 2020.

Objective. To discuss the meaning of self-directed learning, challenges with implementation, and
strategies to overcome obstacles in educational settings. In this paper we define self-directed learning,
differentiate it from similar terminology, and discuss the empirical evidence for its development and
strategies for its use within higher education.
Summary. Self-directed learning as a defined teaching pedagogy has been around since the 1960s and
can be used in classroom and experiential settings. It is a term that is commonly used to describe a set of
skills that college graduates should possess. A self-directed learning environment is dramatically
different from a lecture-based classroom where the educator determines the goals, the assessments
administered, and pacing of the course content. During the self-directed learning process, the learner
sets goals, determines how progress will be assessed, defines the structure and sequence of activities
and a timeline, identifies resources, and seeks out feedback. When teaching individuals who are new to
this model, care must be taken to appropriately scaffold and structure learning to develop the under-
lying soft skills needed for students to be successful as self-directed learners. When implementing this
pedagogy in a classroom setting, challenges are faced both by the learner and the educator. Faculty
members should proactively plan for potential challenges during the course design process.
Keywords: self-directed learning, student led learning, instructional design, self-regulation, self-paced

INTRODUCTION Self-Directed Learning

The Institute of Medicine states that health-care pro- Self-directed learning can be defined as the outcome of
fessionals need to possess the skills associated with lifelong creating an experience that empowers learners to make
learning. This idea of lifelong learning is included in the decisions about the information they want to become pro-
Center for the Advancement of Pharmaceutical Education ficient in.2 Self-directed learning may be seen primarily in
(CAPE) outcomes and the Accreditation Council on Phar- the experiential setting, eg, when a patient presents with an
maceutical Education (ACPE) Standards 2016 standard 3 and unfamiliar disease state and students must find appropriate
4. Becoming a lifelong learner requires health-care providers resources and learn about this information. Second, SDL
to be self-directed. Despite the popularity of this term among may be seen in cocurricular activities as students learn about
faculty members and accrediting bodies, there may be a lack topics of interest to them. While SDL usually takes place in
of consensus among faculty members as to the exact defini- the experiential or co-curricular setting, the skills necessary
tion of self-directed learning (SDL), how to implement SDL, for SDL should be introduced and developed in the didactic
and/or how to develop self-directed learners.1 Part of this portion of the curriculum. This allows students to develop
discord may be because of the similarity in terminology with skills over time, otherwise known as scaffolding.
other educational terms (ie, self-paced learning or self- The primary underpinning of SDL is that students take
regulated learning). In this paper we will define SDL, differ- responsibility for learning well beyond what is presented
entiate it from similar terminology, and discuss the empirical by an external body (eg, faculty member, the curriculum).
evidence supporting its development within adult education. In a more traditional educational setting, an instructor will
provide learning objectives, assessments, and resources to
Corresponding Author: Jennifer D. Robinson, PO Box 1495, help students learn the material. However, in SDL, the
Department of Pharmacotherapy, College of Pharmacy and learner initiates the process by setting learning objectives,
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, identifying assessments that allow feedback, and identi-
Spokane, WA 99210-1495. Tel: 509-368-6676. Fax: 509-358- fying resources to help them reach their goals. By taking
7967. Email: [email protected]. the lead on their learning, the learner takes responsibility
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for many activities that are traditionally dictated by the important difference between self-regulated learning and
instructor, who is now free to facilitate the learning.2 self-directed learning are that self-regulated learning stems
The SDL approach is a fundamental shift for an educator from cognitive psychology while SDL stems from adult
because it moves them from being a purveyor of information education; self-regulation is mainly discussed within the
to assume the role of facilitator of learning, motivator, de- academic environment while SDL usually takes place out-
signer of the learning situation, and often joining the students side of the traditional classroom; with self-regulation, the
in earnest as a co-learner as they learn instructional skills (eg, task is imposed by the instructor, while in SDL, the student
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facilitation) and knowledge (eg, context beyond their ex- designs the learning environment; finally, self-regulation is a
pertise).3 As such, SDL instills a sense of autonomy and narrower construct than SDL.10 For example, a student can
mastery in the learner, and a sense of purpose into the edu- demonstrate self-regulation by spending extra time studying
cational process. In a well-designed SDL environment, stu- less familiar material and selecting appropriate study strat-
dents’ motivation increases, as well as their feelings of egies to do so. However, this does not necessarily require the
control, confidence, and belief in themselves.4 Most impor- learner to identify their own goals of what they want to learn
tantly, it supports the unlimited learning potential and crea- because the goals are set by the instructor.
tivity of our students.
It is important to differentiate self-directed learning Strategies to Develop Self-Directed Learners
from self-paced learning and self-regulation (Table 1). Before creating educational activities to develop
Self-paced learning is when students have a deadline but SDL, the instructor must first understand what SDL is and
complete learning activities at their own pace. Essen- what the key components of the SDL process are. Self-
tially, students are given the autonomy to choose when directed learning can be described as a six-step process:
and for how long they work on various tasks. Self-paced developing goals for study; outlining assessment with re-
learning does not involve the identification of learning spect to how the learner will know when they achieve those
goals or identifying resources to accomplish the goals, goals; identify the structure and sequence of activities; lay
which are requirements for SDL. For example, giving out a timeline to complete activities; identify resources to
students two weeks to read a chapter for class is self- achieve each goal; and locate a mentor/faculty member to
paced, but because they do not determine what they learn, provide feedback on the plan.
it is not self-directed. The learning goals and any needed In addition, developing self-directed learners requires
resources are supplied by the instructor. a scaffolded approach in which more self-paced or teacher-
Self-regulation refers to the process of an individual directed activities are introduced early on, during didactic
guiding goal-directed activities over time, that is, acting in instruction, to help students become more self-regulated in
their own best self-interest. Self-regulation maximizes the their “self-directedness.” Over time, as the student moves
long-term best interest of an individual, resulting in learners from the classroom to the experiential setting, control of the
controlling their impulses and looking out for their own well- learning environment can be shifted from the instructor to
being.5 This regulation involves modulation of affective, the student. This scaffolding may include starting with more
cognitive, and behavioral processes throughout a learning self-paced activities and providing guidance to the learner
experience to reach a desired level of achievement.6-9 Some on how to be more self-regulated. Health professions

Table 1. Comparison of Traditional Classroom to Self-Directed Learning, Self-Paced Learning, and Self-Regulated
Learning8,12,25,26
Self- Self-
Traditional Self-Directed Paced Regulated
Learning Learning Learning Learning
Learner chooses the timing of to-be- No Yes Yes Yes
learned material
Learner chooses order of to-be-learned No Yes No Yes
material
Learner must identify own resources No Yes No Yes
Requires student motivation Yes Yes Yes Yes
Fosters Metacognitive Awareness No Yes Some Yes
Typical Environment Classroom Outside of the Classroom Classroom
Classroom

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programs may employ several educational components to to use in navigating the most recent hypertension treat-
help develop SDL: flipped classrooms, learning contracts, ment guidelines. Prior to class, students should read the
and minimal-guidance instruction. questions and try to answer them through interacting with
A “flipped classroom” can be described as a learning the guidelines. This can help activate the student’s prior
model where students obtain some foundational material knowledge of the topic, introduce them to a reliable re-
on their own, prior to class, and then class time is used to source (eg, clinical guidelines), and help them learn the
help apply that learned information.11-13 An example of a basics of classifying hypertension and identifying first line
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highly structured flipped classroom is team-based learn- therapies. Class time can then be used to apply this
ing (TBL). Flipped classrooms have the potential to move knowledge in novel ways. Towards the end of class, stu-
students towards self-directed learning. First, students dents can be asked to develop questions they want to fur-
prepare prior to class through faculty-provided materials. ther explore outside of class and devise a learning plan to
This preparation allows students to develop confidence in let the instructor know they went beyond the classroom
self-regulation skills (eg, what to focus their time on, learning. For example, a student with an interest in pedi-
selecting appropriate study strategies, self-assessment) atric medicine could develop questions and a learning plan
and self-pace learning (eg, “I need to get this done before focused on the therapeutic guidelines for hypertension in
class, but I am free to study when I want and for how long I pediatric patients.
want”). With the help of the instructor, the targeted con- In crafting this plan, the student would have to pro-
tent acquired outside of class can be applied, expanded ceed through the six steps of self-directed learning (Table
upon, and worked with in such a way to reinforce and 2).2 The first step is developing goals for study (ie, “I want
deepen learning. This may serve to model and assist the to know how to treat hypertension in pediatric patients”).
student in the development of the skills needed for future The second step is outlining assessment in terms of how the
self-direction. learner will know they have achieved those goals (ie, “I
While in some flipped classrooms learning may cease will provide an executive summary and maybe a flow chart
when the class period ends or after completion of some to illustrate understanding of the hypertension guide-
post-lesson homework, learning in a flipped class can be lines”). Once the goals and measurable outcomes or de-
made more self-directed by having students develop a liverables are defined, the next step is to identify the
small, individual-learning plan on how they might further structure and sequence of activities (“I will read the current
explore the course topic. For example, prior to discussing guidelines for adults and see if there is mention of pediatric
hypertension, students could be given guided questions patients, and then conduct a literature search”). The fourth

Table 2. Steps Involved in Self-Directed Learning

Step Definition Example
Goal Setting Development of learning objectives By the end of the section of material, I will be
able to describe the guidelines to treat
pediatric hypertension
Assessment Measurement that the student is progressing Summative assessment: A mini-review and
(formative assessment) and accomplished the recommendations about pediatric
goal (summative assessment) hypertension
Formative assessment: Meeting with the
instructor to review each section of the paper
as its generated
Activities Defining the structure and sequence of activities First define the relevant MESH terms. Next
search PubMed. Fill in the gaps in knowledge
with additional reading (articles or books)
Timeline Benchmarking when activities will be The final paper will be done by the last day of
accomplished class. A draft will be provided to the
instructor two weeks before the prior due date
Resources Identifying the resources needed to accomplish PubMed, clinical pharmacist with pediatric
the goal specialty, textbooks, pediatric and cardiology
organizations
Feedback Identifying individual(s) who may provide Course instructor, pediatric pharmacist
feedback on the learning

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step is to draft a timeline to complete activities (“I will do administrative, faculty, and student behaviors requiring
this before the next class period”), and the fifth step is to focused intervention to revitalize the PBL process.17 It
identify resources to achieve each goal (“I will need to may be problematic for curriculums using PBL to foster
access current guidelines, UptoDate, PubMed, pediatric self-directed learning and indicate that care needs to be
cardiology organizations”). Finally, the learner locates a taken to assure that the quality of the instructional envi-
mentor/faculty member to provide him or her with feed- ronment is continually maintained. In addition, minimal
back on the plan (“I will ask the cardiology instructor and guidance instruction probably only benefits learners when
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my former preceptor who specializes in pediatrics for they have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide
help”). their own guidance.18
Another method that can be used to help promote
SDL is through learning contracts. A learning contract is Assessing Self-Directed Learning
an agreement between the instructor and student that How do faculty members know they are helping stu-
specifies the work the learner will complete in a given dents become more self-directed? Assessing a learner’s
time period.2 Learning contracts can be used to keep in- progress in becoming self-directed is challenging. While
dividuals organized, normalize expectations, and in- faculty members can assess the results of self-direction
crease communication between the learner and instructor. (acquisition of skills and content), assessing their devel-
These contracts consist of five components, similar to that opment of skills to engage in the SDL process is not that
of the SDL process: learning objectives, learning re- straightforward. Unfortunately, there is a lack of literature
sources and strategies, target date for completion, evi- on how to objectively assess self-directed learning skills
dence of accomplishment, and criteria for evaluating.14 because the domains commonly assessed are affective in
These can be used within courses, as independent studies, nature (problem solving, collaboration, communication,
or even to help guide extra- or co-curricular activities. self-awareness, innovation and professionalism).
As an example of effectiveness, one study in bachelor Self-reported measures are the dominant method to
level nurses examined the use of learning contracts in assess individual self-direction. In some cases, a standardized
mental health training.15 In the qualitative analysis, students tool is used, such as the Self-Directed Learning Readiness
reported an increased sense of control over their learning, Scale19-22 or the Oddi Continuing Learning inventory.23
which was conducive to the autonomy and responsibility of These instruments may be more appropriate for assessing
nurses. These contracts also empowered and motivated readiness for self-direction than an outcome-based measure.
students. One of the major barriers was time. For instructors, Outcomes-based assessment of SDL generally includes more
it was more time spent supervising students. For students, it qualitative methods as the focus is about constructing
was limited time in a clinical setting to implement and meaning and the personal development of affective domain-
benefit from the learning contract. Other barriers included related skills from the experience. Thus, methods may in-
unattainable goals and instructor anxiety because they were clude subjective approaches including reflection, interviews,
unfamiliar with how to facilitate the self-directed nature. and observation of behavior.16,24-26
The last category we will discuss is minimally guided
instructional approaches. This approach suggests that peo- Challenges Encountered When Using a Self-Directed
ple learn best in an unguided or minimally guided envi- Learning Approach
ronment. Popular formats for minimally guided instructions Educators may encounter challenges when using
include problem-based learning (PBL) or inquiry-based self-directed learning and these challenges can be clas-
learning (IBL). Because of the minimal guidance provided, sified into a categories: time (eg, SDL may be less “effi-
this type of instruction may foster self-directed learning. cient” than direct instruction), acceptance of change,
As an example, Lyons and colleagues reviewed some assessment of student learning, motivation, and lack of
of the literature on the influence of a type of IBL, prob- expertise by the learner. Students who are novice learners
lem-based learning (PBL), on self-directed learning.16 in a specific domain may not be equipped to design their
The results of the review were mixed, making conclusions own learning goals or know where to find quality infor-
about the effectiveness of this approach difficult to as- mation in solving a problem. In some ways, traditional
certain, though most studies showed that PBL fosters self- instruction occurs because the instructor has insight to the
directed learning. Effectiveness may be impacted by skills and knowledge a novice may need to develop and
group size and how well instructors or students under- knows how to guide learning in a specific domain. To
stand self-directed learning. Maastricht University’s prepare students with the confidence and skills needed to
school of medicine was founded on a PBL framework and develop into well-rounded health care providers, a foun-
has reported the process eroding over time because of dation of SDL experiences should be strategically
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