CHAPTER

GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES

A
fter learning about how the earth was forces continuously elevate or build up parts
born, how it evolved its crust and other of the earth’s surface and hence the exogenic
inner layers, how its crustal plates processes fail to even out the relief variations
moved and are moving, and other information of the surface of the earth. So, variations remain
on earthquakes, the forms of volcanism and as long as the opposing actions of exogenic and
about the rocks and minerals the crust is endogenic forces continue. In general terms,
composed of, it is time to know in detail about the endogenic forces are mainly land building
the surface of the earth on which we live. Let forces and the exogenic processes are mainly
us start with this question. land wearing forces. The surface of the earth is
sensitive. Humans depend on it for their
Why is the surface of the earth uneven? sustenance and have been using it extensively
and intensively. So, it is essential to understand
First of all, the earth’s crust is dynamic. You its nature in order to use it effectively without
are well aware that it has moved and moves disturbing its balance and diminishing its
vertically and horizontally. Of course, it moved potential for the future. Almost all organisms
a bit faster in the past than the rate at which it contribute to sustain the earth’s environment.
is moving now. The differences in the internal However, humans have caused over use of
forces operating from within the earth which
resources. Use we must, but must also leave it
built up the crust have been responsible for
potential enough to sustain life through the
the variations in the outer surface of the crust.
future. Most of the surface of the earth had and
The earth’s surface is being continuously
has been shaped over very long periods of time
subjected to external forces induced basically
(hundreds and thousands of years) and
by energy (sunlight). Of course, the internal
because of its use and misuse by humans its
forces are still active though with different
potential is being diminished at a fast rate. If
intensities. That means, the earth’s surface is
the processes which shaped and are shaping
being continuously subjected to by external
the surface of the earth into varieties of forms
forces originating within the earth’s atmosphere
(shapes) and the nature of materials of which
and by internal forces from within the earth.
it is composed of, are understood, precautions
The external forces are known as exogenic
can be taken to minimise the detrimental effects
forces and the internal forces are known as
of human use and to preserve it for posterity.
endogenic forces. The actions of exogenic
forces result in wearing down (degradation) of
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
relief/elevations and filling up (aggradation) of
basins/depressions, on the earth’s surface. The You would like to know the meaning of
phenomenon of wearing down of relief geomorphic processes. The endogenic and
variations of the surface of the earth through exogenic forces causing physical stresses and
erosion is known as gradation. The endogenic chemical actions on earth materials and
46 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

bringing about changes in the configuration ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

of the surface of the earth are known as
The energy emanating from within the earth is
geomorphic processes. Diastrophism and
the main force behind endogenic geomorphic
volcanism are endogenic geomorphic processes. This energy is mostly generated by
processes. These have already been discussed radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and
in brief in the preceding unit. Weathering, mass primordial heat from the origin of the earth.
wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic This energy due to geothermal gradients and
geomorphic processes. These exogenic heat flow from within induces diastrophism
processes are dealt with in detail in this chapter. and volcanism in the lithosphere. Due to
Any exogenic element of nature (like water, variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow
ice, wind, etc.,) capable of acquiring and from within, crustal thickness and strength,
transporting earth materials can be called a the action of endogenic forces are not uniform
geomorphic agent. When these elements of and hence the tectonically controlled original
nature become mobile due to gradients, they crustal surface is uneven.
remove the materials and transport them over
slopes and deposit them at lower level. Diastrophism
Geomorphic processes and geomorphic agents
All processes that move, elevate or build up
especially exogenic, unless stated separately,
portions of the earth’s crust come under
are one and the same.
diastrophism. They include: (i) orogenic
A process is a force applied on earth
processes involving mountain building
materials affecting the same. An agent is a
through severe folding and affecting long and
mobile medium (like running water, moving ice narrow belts of the earth’s crust; (ii) epeirogenic
masses, wind, waves and currents etc.) which processes involving uplift or warping of large
removes, transports and deposits earth parts of the earth’s crust; (iii) earthquakes
materials. Running water, groundwater, involving local relatively minor movements;
glaciers, wind, waves and currents, etc., can (iv) plate tectonics involving horizontal
be called geomorphic agents. movements of crustal plates.
In the process of orogeny, the crust is
Do you think it is essential to distinguish severely deformed into folds. Due to epeirogeny,
geomorphic agents and geomorphic there may be simple deformation. Orogeny is
processes? a mountain building process whereas
epeirogeny is continental building process.
Gravity besides being a directional force
Through the processes of orogeny, epeirogeny,
activating all downslope movements of matter
earthquakes and plate tectonics, there can be
also causes stresses on the earth’s materials.
faulting and fracturing of the crust. All these
Indirect gravitational stresses activate wave and
processes cause pressure, volume and
tide induced currents and winds. Without temperature (PVT) changes which in turn
gravity and gradients there would be no induce metamorphism of rocks.
mobility and hence no erosion, transportation
and deposition are possible. So, gravitational Epeirogeny and orogeny, cite the
stresses are as important as the other differences.
geomorphic processes. Gravity is the force that
is keeping us in contact with the surface and it
is the force that switches on the movement of Volcanism
all surface material on earth. All the movements Volcanism includes the movement of molten
either within the earth or on the surface of the rock (magma) onto or toward the earth’s
earth occur due to gradients — from higher surface and also formation of many intrusive
levels to lower levels, from high pressure to low and extrusive volcanic forms. Many aspects of
pressure areas etc. volcanism have already been dealt in detail
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 47

under volcanoes in the Unit II and under processes and their respective driving forces.
igneous rocks in the preceding chapter in this It should become clear from this chart that for
unit. each process there exists a distinct driving force
or energy.
What do the words volcanism and As there are different climatic regions on
volcanoes indicate? the earth’s surface owing to thermal gradients
created by latitudinal, seasonal and land and
water spread variations, the exogenic
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
geomorphic processes vary from region to
The exogenic processes derive their energy region. The density, type and distribution of
from atmosphere determined by the ultimate vegetation which largely depend upon
energy from the sun and also the gradients
created by tectonic factors.

Why do you think that the slopes or

gradients are created by tectonic factors?

Gravitational force acts upon all earth

materials having a sloping surface and tend to
produce movement of matter in down slope
direction. Force applied per unit area is called
stress. Stress is produced in a solid by pushing Figure 6.1 : Denudational processes and their
or pulling. This induces deformation. Forces driving forces
acting along the faces of earth materials are precipitation and temperature exert influence
shear stresses (separating forces). It is this indirectly on exogenic geomorphic processes.
stress that breaks rocks and other earth Within different climatic regions there may be
materials. The shear stresses result in angular local variations of the effects of different climatic
displacement or slippage. Besides the elements due to altitudinal differences, aspect
gravitational stress earth materials become variations and the variation in the amount of
subjected to molecular stresses that may be insolation received by north and south facing
caused by a number of factors amongst which slopes as compared to east and west facing
temperature changes, crystallisation and slopes. Further, due to differences in wind
melting are the most common. Chemical velocities and directions, amount and kind of
processes normally lead to loosening of bonds precipitation, its intensity, the relation between
between grains, dissolving of soluble minerals precipitation and evaporation, daily range of
or cementing materials. Thus, the basic reason temperature, freezing and thawing frequency,
that leads to weathering, mass movements, depth of frost penetration, the geomorphic
erosion and deposition is development of processes vary within any climatic region.
stresses in the body of the earth materials.
As there are different climatic regions on What is the sole driving force behind all
the earth’s surface the exogenic geomorphic the exogenic processes?
processes vary from region to region.
Temperature and precipitation are the two Climatic factors being equal, the intensity
important climatic elements that control of action of exogenic geomorphic processes
various processes. depends upon type and structure of rocks. The
All the exogenic geomorphic processes are term structure includes such aspects of rocks
covered under a general term, denudation. The as folds, faults, orientation and inclination of
word ‘denude’ means to strip off or to uncover. beds, presence or absence of joints, bedding
Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion planes, hardness or softness of constituent
and transportation are included in denudation. minerals, chemical susceptibility of mineral
The flow chart (Figure 6.1) gives the denudation constituents; the permeability or impermeability
48 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

etc. Different types of rocks with differences in

their structure offer varying resistances to
various geomorphic processes. A particular
rock may be resistant to one process and non-
resistant to another. And, under varying
climatic conditions, particular rocks may
exhibit different degrees of resistance to
geomorphic processes and hence they operate
at differential rates and give rise to differences
in topography. The effects of most of the
exogenic geomorphic processes are small and
slow and may be imperceptible in a short time
span, but will in the long run affect the rocks
severely due to continued fatigue.
Finally, it boils down to one fact that the
Figure 6.2 : Climatic regimes and depth of weathering
differences on the surface of the earth though
mantles (adapted and modified from Strakhov, 1967)
originally related to the crustal evolution
continue to exist in some form or the other due
to differences in the type and structure of earth Activity
materials, differences in geomorphic processes
and in their rates of operation. Mark the latitude values of different
Some of the exogenic geomorphic processes climatic regimes in Figure 6.2 and
have been dealt in detail here. compare the details.

WEATHERING There are three major groups of weathering

Weathering is action of elements of weather and processes : (i) chemical; (ii) physical or
climate over earth materials. There are a mechanical; (iii) biological weathering processes.
number of processes within weathering which Very rarely does any one of these processes ever
act either individually or together to affect the operate completely by itself, but quite often a
earth materials in order to reduce them to dominance of one process can be seen.
fragmental state.
Chemical Weathering Processes
Weathering is defined as mechanical A group of weathering processes viz; solution,
disintegration and chemical decom- carbonation, hydration, oxidation and
position of rocks through the actions of reduction act on the rocks to decompose,
various elements of weather and climate. dissolve or reduce them to a fine clastic state
through chemical reactions by oxygen, surface
As very little or no motion of materials and/or soil water and other acids. Water and
takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ or air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along with
on-site process. heat must be present to speed up all chemical
reactions. Over and above the carbon dioxide
Is this little motion which can occur
present in the air, decomposition of plants and
sometimes due to weathering synonymous
animals increases the quantity of carbon
with transportation? If not, why?
dioxide underground. These chemical
Weathering processes are conditioned by reactions on various minerals are very much
many complex geological, climatic, topographic similar to the chemical reactions in a laboratory.
and vegetative factors. Climate is of particular
importance. Not only weathering processes Solution
differ from climate to climate, but also the depth When something is dissolved in water or acids,
of the weathering mantle (Figure 6.2). the water or acid with dissolved contents is
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 49

called solution. This process involves removal Many clay minerals swell and contract during
of solids in solution and depends upon wetting and drying and a repetition of this
solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids. process results in cracking of overlying
On coming in contact with water many solids materials. Salts in pore spaces undergo rapid
disintegrate and mix up as suspension in and repeated hydration and help in rock
water. Soluble rock forming minerals like fracturing. The volume changes in minerals
nitrates, sulphates, and potassium etc. are due to hydration will also help in physical
affected by this process. So, these minerals are weathering through exfoliation and granular
easily leached out without leaving any residue disintegration.
in rainy climates and accumulate in dry
regions. Minerals like calcium carbonate and Oxidation and Reduction
calcium magnesium bicarbonate present in In weathering, oxidation means a combination
limestones are soluble in water containing of a mineral with oxygen to form oxides or
carbonic acid (formed with the addition of hydroxides. Oxidation occurs where there is
carbon dioxide in water), and are carried away ready access to the atmosphere and
in water as solution. Carbon dioxide produced oxygenated waters. The minerals most
by decaying organic matter along with soil commonly involved in this process are iron,
water greatly aids in this reaction. Common manganese, sulphur etc. In the process of
salt (sodium chloride) is also a rock forming oxidation rock breakdown occurs due to the
mineral and is susceptible to this process of disturbance caused by addition of oxygen. Red
solution. colour of iron upon oxidation turns to brown
or yellow. When oxidised minerals are placed
Carbonation in an environment where oxygen is absent,
reduction takes place. Such conditions exist
Carbonation is the reaction of carbonate and
usually below the water table, in areas of
bicarbonate with minerals and is a common
stagnant water and waterlogged ground. Red
process helping the breaking down of
colour of iron upon reduction turns to greenish
feldspars and carbonate minerals. Carbon or bluish grey.
dioxide from the atmosphere and soil air is These weathering processes are inter-
absorbed by water, to form carbonic acid that related. Hydration, carbonation and oxidation
acts as a weak acid. Calcium carbonates and go hand in hand and hasten the weathering
magnesium carbonates are dissolved in process.
carbonic acid and are removed in a solution
without leaving any residue resulting in cave
formation. Can we give iron rusting as an example
of oxidation? How essential is water in
Why are clay minerals easily erodible? chemical weathering processes? Can
chemical weathering processes dominate
in water scarce hot deserts?
Hydration
Hydration is the chemical addition of water.
Physical Weathering Processes
Minerals take up water and expand; this
expansion causes an increase in the volume of Physical or mechanical weathering processes
the material itself or rock. Calcium sulphate depend on some applied forces. The applied
takes in water and turns to gypsum, which is forces could be: (i) gravitational forces such as
more unstable than calcium sulphate. This overburden pressure, load and shearing stress;
process is reversible and long, continued (ii) expansion forces due to temperature
repetition of this process causes fatigue in the changes, crystal growth or animal activity;
rocks and may lead to their disintegration. (iii) water pressures controlled by wetting and
50 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

drying cycles. Many of these forces are applied temperatures, this internal movement among
both at the surface and within different earth the mineral grains of the superficial layers of
materials leading to rock fracture. Most of the rocks takes place regularly. This process is
physical weathering processes are caused by most effective in dry climates and high
thermal expansion and pressure release. These elevations where diurnal temperature changes
processes are small and slow but can cause are drastic. As has been mentioned earlier
great damage to the rocks because of though these movements are very small they
continued fatigue the rocks suffer due to make the rocks weak due to continued fatigue.
repetition of contraction and expansion. The surface layers of the rocks tend to expand
more than the rock at depth and this leads to
Unloading and Expansion the formation of stress within the rock resulting
in heaving and fracturing parallel to the
Removal of overlying rock load because of
surface. Due to differential heating and
continued erosion causes vertical pressure
resulting expansion and contraction of surface
release with the result that the upper layers of
layers and their subsequent exfoliation from
the rock expand producing disintegration of
the surface results in smooth rounded surfaces
rock masses. Fractures will develop roughly
in rocks. In rocks like granites, smooth
parallel to the ground surface. In areas of
surfaced and rounded small to big boulders
curved ground surface, arched fractures tend
called tors form due to such exfoliation.
to produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs
of rock. Exfoliation sheets resulting from
What is the difference between exfoliation
expansion due to unloading and pressure domes and exfoliated tors?
release may measure hundreds or even
thousands of metres in horizontal extent. Large,
smooth rounded domes called exfoliation Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging
domes (Figure 6.3) result due to this process. Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice
within pores and cracks of rocks during
repeated cycles of freezing and melting. This
process is most effective at high elevations in
mid-latitudes where freezing and melting is
often repeated. Glacial areas are subject to frost
wedging daily. In this process, the rate of
freezing is important. Rapid freezing of water
causes its sudden expansion and high pressure.
The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks
and small inter granular fractures to become
wider and wider till the rock breaks apart.

Figure 6.3 : A large exfoliation dome in granite rock Salt Weathering

near bhongir (Bhuvanagiri) town in Andhra Pradesh
Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action,
Temperature Changes and Expansion hydration and crystallisation. Many salts like
calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium and
Various minerals in rocks possess their own barium have a tendency to expand. Expansion
limits of expansion and contraction. With rise of these salts depends on temperature and
in temperature, every mineral expands and their thermal properties. High temperature
pushes against its neighbour and as ranges between 30 and 50 oC of surface
temperature falls, a corresponding contraction temperatures in deserts favour such salt
takes place. Because of diurnal changes in the expansion. Salt crystals in near-surface pores
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 51

cause splitting of individual grains within

rocks, which eventually fall off. This process of
falling off of individual grains may result in
granular disintegration or granular foliation.
Salt crystallisation is most effective of all
salt-weathering processes. In areas with
alternating wetting and drying conditions salt
crystal growth is favoured and the neighbouring
grains are pushed aside. Sodium chloride and
gypsum crystals in desert areas heave up
overlying layers of materials and with the result
polygonal cracks develop all over the heaved
surface. With salt crystal growth, chalk breaks Fig.6.4 : Exfoliation (Flacking) and granular
down most readily, followed by limestone, disintegration
sandstone, shale, gneiss and granite etc. temperature changes. Exfoliation domes and
tors result due to unloading and thermal
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND WEATHERING expansion respectively.
Biological weathering is contribution to or
removal of minerals and ions from the SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING
weathering environment and physical changes Weathering processes are responsible for
due to growth or movement of organisms. breaking down the rocks into smaller
Burrowing and wedging by organisms like fragments and preparing the way for formation
earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help in of not only regolith and soils, but also erosion
exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack and mass movements. Biomes and bio-
and assists in the penetration of moisture and diversity is basically a result of forests
air. Human beings by disturbing vegetation, (vegetation) and forests depend upon the depth
ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in of weathering mantles. Erosion cannot be
mixing and creating new contacts between air, significant if the rocks are not weathered. That
water and minerals in the earth materials. means, weathering aids mass wasting, erosion
Decaying plant and animal matter help in the and reduction of relief and changes in
production of humic, carbonic and other acids landforms are a consequence of erosion.
which enhance decay and solubility of some Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in the
elements. Algae utilise mineral nutrients for enrichment and concentrations of certain
growth and help in concentration of iron and valuable ores of iron, manganese, aluminium,
manganese oxides. Plant roots exert a copper etc., which are of great importance for
tremendous pressure on the earth materials the national economy. Weathering is an
mechanically breaking them apart. important process in the formation of soils.

SOME SPECIAL EFFECTS OF WEATHERING When rocks undergo weathering, some

materials are removed through chemical
This has already been explained under or physical leaching by groundwater and
physical weathering processes of unloading, thereby the concentration of remaining
thermal contraction and expansion and salt (valuable) materials increases. Without
weathering. Exfoliation is a result but not a such a weathering taking place, the
process. Flaking off of more or less curved concentration of the same valuable
sheets of shells from over rocks or bedrock material may not be sufficient and
results in smooth and rounded surfaces economically viable to exploit, process and
(Figure 6.4). Exfoliation can occur due to refine. This is what is called enrichment.
expansion and contraction induced by
52 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

MASS MOVEMENTS the three forms of movements. Figure 6.5 shows

the relationships among different types of mass
These movements transfer the mass of rock
movements, their relative rates of movement
debris down the slopes under the direct
and moisture limits.
influence of gravity. That means, air, water or
ice do not carry debris with them from place to
place but on the other hand the debris may
carry with it air, water or ice. The movements
of mass may range from slow to rapid,
affecting shallow to deep columns of materials
and include creep, flow, slide and fall. Gravity
exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock and
the products of weathering. So, weathering is
not a pre-requisite for mass movement though
it aids mass movements. Mass movements are
very active over weathered slopes rather than
over unweathered materials.
Mass movements are aided by gravity and
no geomorphic agent like running water,
glaciers, wind, waves and currents participate
in the process of mass movements. That means Figure 6.5 : Relationships among different types of
mass movements, their relative rates of movement
mass movements do not come under erosion and moisture limits (after Whitehead, 2001)
though there is a shift (aided by gravity) of
materials from one place to another. Materials Mass movements can be grouped under
over the slopes have their own resistance to three major classes: (i) slow movements;
disturbing forces and will yield only when force (ii) rapid movements; (iii) landslides.
is greater than the shearing resistance of the
materials. Weak unconsolidated materials, Slow Movements
thinly bedded rocks, faults, steeply dipping Creep is one type under this category which
beds, vertical cliffs or steep slopes, abundant can occur on moderately steep, soil covered
precipitation and torrential rains and scarcity slopes. Movement of materials is extremely
of vegetation etc., favour mass movements. slow and imperceptible except through
Several activating causes precede mass extended observation. Materials involved can
movements. They are : (i) removal of support be soil or rock debris. Have you ever seen fence
from below to materials above through natural posts, telephone poles lean downslope from
or artificial means; (ii) increase in gradient and their vertical position and in their linear
height of slopes; (iii) overloading through alignment? If you have, that is due to the creep
addition of materials naturally or by artificial effect. Depending upon the type of material
involved, several types of creep viz., soil creep,
filling; (iv) overloading due to heavy rainfall,
talus creep, rock creep, rock-glacier creep etc.,
saturation and lubrication of slope materials;
can be identified. Also included in this group
(v) removal of material or load from over the
is solifluction which involves slow downslope
original slope surfaces; (vi) occurrence of flowing soil mass or fine grained rock debris
earthquakes, explosions or machinery; saturated or lubricated with water. This process
(vii) excessive natural seepage; (viii) heavy is quite common in moist temperate areas
drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and where surface melting of deeply frozen ground
rivers leading to slow outflow of water from and long continued rain respectively, occur
under the slopes or river banks; (ix) indis- frequently. When the upper portions get
criminate removal of natural vegetation. saturated and when the lower parts are
Heave (heaving up of soils due to frost impervious to water percolation, flowing occurs
growth and other causes), flow and slide are in the upper parts.
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 53

Rapid Movements discontinuities in the rock, the degree of

weathering and the steepness of the slope.
These movements are mostly prevalent in
Depending upon the type of movement of
humid climatic regions and occur over gentle materials several types are identified in this
to steep slopes. Movement of water-saturated category.
clayey or silty earth materials down low-angle Slump is slipping of one or several units of
terraces or hillsides is known as earthflow. rock debris with a backward rotation with
Quite often, the materials slump making step- respect to the slope over which the movement
like terraces and leaving arcuate scarps at their takes place (Figure 6.6). Rapid rolling or sliding
heads and an accumulation bulge at the toe.
When slopes are steeper, even the bedrock
especially of soft sedimentary rocks like shale
or deeply weathered igneous rock may slide
downslope.
Another type in this category is mudflow.
In the absence of vegetation cover and with
heavy rainfall, thick layers of weathered
materials get saturated with water and either
slowly or rapidly flow down along definite
channels. It looks like a stream of mud within
a valley. When the mudflows emerge out of
Figure 6.6 : Slumping of debris with backward rotation
channels onto the piedmont or plains, they can
be very destructive engulfing roads, bridges
of earth debris without backward rotation of
and houses. Mudflows occur frequently on the
mass is known as debris slide. Debris fall is
slopes of erupting or recently erupted volcanoes.
nearly a free fall of earth debris from a vertical
Volcanic ash, dust and other fragments turn
or overhanging face. Sliding of individual rock
into mud due to heavy rains and flow down as
masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces
tongues or streams of mud causing great
is rockslide. Over steep slopes, rock sliding is
destruction to human habitations.
very fast and destructive. Figure 6.7 shows
A third type is the debris avalanche, which
landslide scars over steep slopes. Slides occur
is more characteristic of humid regions with
as planar failures along discontinuities like
or without vegetation cover and occurs in
bedding planes that dip steeply. Rock fall is
narrow tracks on steep slopes. This debris
free falling of rock blocks over any steep slope
avalanche can be much faster than the
keeping itself away from the slope. Rock falls
mudflow. Debris avalanche is similar to snow
occur from the superficial layers of the rock
avalanche.

In Andes mountains of South America

and the Rockies mountains of North
America, there are a few volcanoes which
erupted during the last decade and very
devastating mudflows occurred down
their slopes during eruption as well as
after eruption.

Landslides
These are known as relatively rapid and
perceptible movements. The materials involved
are relatively dry. The size and shape of the Figure 6.7 : Landslide scars in Shiwalik Himalayan ranges
detached mass depends on the nature of near river Sarada at India-Nepal border, Uttar Pradesh
54 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

face, an occurrence that distinguishes it from erosion it is not a pre-condition for erosion to
rockslide which affects materials up to a take place. Weathering, mass-wasting and
substantial depth. erosion are degradational processes. It is
erosion that is largely responsible for
Between mass wasting and mass continuous changes that the earth’s surface is
movements, which term do you feel is undergoing. As indicated in Figure 6.1,
most appropriate? Why? Can solifluction denudational processes like erosion and
be included under rapid flow movements? transportation are controlled by kinetic energy.
Why it can be and can’t be? The erosion and transportation of earth
materials is brought about by wind, running
water, glaciers, waves and ground water. Of
In our country, debris avalanche and
these the first three agents are controlled by
landslides occur very frequently in the
climatic conditions.
Himalayas. There are many reasons for
this. One, the Himalayas are tectonically
Can you compare the three climatically
active. They are mostly made up of
controlled agents?
sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated
and semi-consolidated deposits. The
slopes are very steep. Compared to the They represent three states of matter —
Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering gaseous (wind), liquid (running water) and
Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala and the solid (glacier) respectively. The erosion can be
Western Ghats along the west coast are defined as “application of the kinetic energy
relatively tectonically stable and are associated with the agent to the surface of the
mostly made up of very hard rocks; but, land along which it moves”. Kinetic energy is
still, debris avalanches and landslides computed as KE = 1/2 mv2 where ‘m’ is the mass
occur though not as frequently as in the and ‘v’ is the velocity. Hence the energy
Himalayas, in these hills. Why? Many available to perform work will depend on the
slopes are steeper with almost vertical mass of the material and the velocity with
cliffs and escarpments in the Western
which it is moving. Obviously then you will find
Ghats and Nilgiris. Mechanical weathering
that though the glaciers move at very low
due to temperature changes and ranges
is pronounced. They receive heavy velocities due to tremendous mass are more
amounts of rainfall over short periods. effective as the agents of erosion and wind,
So, there is almost direct rock fall quite being in gaseous state, are less effective.
frequently in these places along with The work of the other two agents of erosion-
landslides and debris avalanches. waves and ground water is not controlled by
climate. In case of waves it is the location along
the interface of litho and hydro sphere —
EROSION AND DEPOSITION coastal region — that will determine the work
of waves, whereas the work of ground water is
Erosion involves acquisition and transportation determined more by the lithological character
of rock debris. When massive rocks break into of the region. If the rocks are permeable and
smaller fragments through weathering and soluble and water is available only then karst
any other process, erosional geomorphic topography develops. In the next chapter we
agents like running water, groundwater, shall be dealing with the landforms produced
glaciers, wind and waves remove and by each of the agents of erosion.
transport it to other places depending upon Deposition is a consequence of erosion. The
the dynamics of each of these agents. Abrasion erosional agents loose their velocity and hence
by rock debris carried by these geomorphic energy on gentler slopes and the materials
agents also aids greatly in erosion. By erosion, carried by them start to settle themselves. In
relief degrades, i.e., the landscape is worn other words, deposition is not actually the work
down. That means, though weathering aids of any agent. The coarser materials get
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 55

deposited first and finer ones later. By of the weathered material) which is the basic
deposition depressions get filled up. The same input for soil to form. First, the weathered
erosional agents viz., running water, glaciers, material or transported deposits are colonised
wind, waves and groundwater act as by bacteria and other inferior plant bodies like
aggradational or depositional agents also. mosses and lichens. Also, several minor
What happens to the surface of the earth organisms may take shelter within the mantle
due to erosion and deposition is elaborated in and deposits. The dead remains of organisms
the next chapter on landforms and their and plants help in humus accumulation. Minor
evolution. grasses and ferns may grow; later, bushes and
trees will start growing through seeds brought
There is a shift of materials in mass in by birds and wind. Plant roots penetrate
movements as well as in erosion from one down, burrowing animals bring up particles,
place to the other. So, why can’t both be mass of material becomes porous and sponge-
treated as one and the same? Can there
like with a capacity to retain water and to permit
be appreciable erosion without rocks
the passage of air and finally a mature soil, a
undergoing weathering?
complex mixture of mineral and organic
products forms.
SOIL FORMATION
Is weathering solely responsible for soil
Soil and Soil Contents formation? If not, why?

You see plants growing in soils. You play in

the ground and come into contact with soil. Pedology is soil science. A pedologist is a
You touch and feel soil and soil your clothes soil-scientist.
while playing. Can you describe it?
A pedologist who studies soils defines soil
as a collection of natural bodies on the earth’s Soil-forming Factors
surface containing living matter and
supporting or capable of supporting plants. Five basic factors control the formation of soils:
Soil is a dynamic medium in which many (i) parent material; (ii) topography; (iii) climate;
chemical, physical and biological activities go (iv) biological activity; (v) time. In fact soil
on constantly. Soil is a result of decay, it is also forming factors act in union and affect the
the medium for growth. It is a changing and action of one another.
developing body. It has many characteristics
that fluctuate with the seasons. It may be Parent Material
alternatively cold and warm or dry and moist.
Parent material is a passive control factor in
Biological activity is slowed or stopped if the
soil becomes too cold or too dry. Organic matter soil formation. Parent materials can be any in-
increases when leaves fall or grasses die. The situ or on-site weathered rock debris (residual
soil chemistry, the amount of organic matter, soils) or transported deposits (transported
the soil flora and fauna, the temperature and soils). Soil formation depends upon the texture
the moisture, all change with the seasons as (sizes of debris) and structure (disposition of
well as with more extended periods of time. individual grains/particles of debris) as well
That means, soil becomes adjusted to as the mineral and chemical composition of the
conditions of climate, landform and vegetation rock debris/deposits.
and will change internally when these Nature and rate of weathering and depth of
controlling conditions change. weathering mantle are important consideration
under parent materials. There may be
Process of Soil Formation differences in soil over similar bedrock and
dissimilar bedrocks may have similar soils
Soil formation or pedogenesis depends first on above them. But when soils are very young
weathering. It is this weathering mantle (depth and have not matured these show strong links
56 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

with the type of parent rock. Also, in case of climates and in areas with intermediate
some limestone areas, where the weathering precipitation conditions, calcium carbonate
processes are specific and peculiar, soils will nodules (kanker) are formed.
show clear relation with the parent rock. Temperature acts in two ways — increasing
or reducing chemical and biological activity.
Topography Chemical activity is increased in higher
Topography like parent materials is another temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures
passive control factor. The influence of (with an exception of carbonation) and stops
topography is felt through the amount of in freezing conditions. That is why, tropical soils
exposure of a surface covered by parent with higher temperatures show deeper profiles
materials to sunlight and the amount of and in the frozen tundra regions soils contain
surface and sub-surface drainage over and largely mechanically broken materials.
through the parent materials. Soils will be thin Biological Activity
on steep slopes and thick over flat upland
areas. Over gentle slopes where erosion is slow The vegetative cover and organisms that occupy
and percolation of water is good, soil formation the parent materials from the beginning and also
is very favourable. Soils over flat areas may at later stages help in adding organic matter,
develop a thick layer of clay with good moisture retention, nitrogen etc. Dead plants
accumulation of organic matter giving the soil provide humus, the finely divided organic matter
dark colour. In middle latitudes, the south of the soil. Some organic acids which form
facing slopes exposed to sunlight have different during humification aid in decomposing the
conditions of vegetation and soils and the north minerals of the soil parent materials.
facing slopes with cool, moist conditions have Intensity of bacterial activity shows up
some other soils and vegetation. differences between soils of cold and warm
climates. Humus accumulates in cold climates
Climate as bacterial growth is slow. With undecomposed
Climate is an important active factor in soil organic matter because of low bacterial activity,
formation. The climatic elements involved in soil layers of peat develop in sub-arctic and tundra
development are : (i) moisture in terms of its climates. In humid tropical and equatorial
intensity, frequency and duration of climates, bacterial growth and action is intense
precipitation - evaporation and humidity; and dead vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving
(ii) temperature in terms of seasonal and very low humus content in the soil. Further,
diurnal variations. bacteria and other soil organisms take gaseous
Precipitation gives soil its moisture content nitrogen from the air and convert it into a
which makes the chemical and biological chemical form that can be used by plants. This
activities possible. Excess of water helps in the process is known as nitrogen fixation.
downward transportation of soil components Rhizobium, a type of bacteria, lives in the root
through the soil (eluviation) and deposits the nodules of leguminous plants and fixes nitrogen
same down below (illuviation). In climates like beneficial to the host plant. The influence of large
wet equatorial rainy areas with high rainfall, animals like ants, termites, earthworms, rodents
not only calcium, sodium, magnesium, etc., is mechanical, but, it is nevertheless
potassium etc. but also a major part of silica is important in soil formation as they rework the
removed from the soil. Removal of silica from soil up and down. In case of earthworms, as
the soil is known as desilication. In dry climates, they feed on soil, the texture and chemistry of
because of high temperature, evaporation the soil that comes out of their body changes.
exceeds precipitation and hence ground water
is brought up to the surface by capillary action Time
and in the process the water evaporates leaving Time is the third important controlling factor
behind salts in the soil. Such salts form into a in soil formation. The length of time the soil
crust in the soil known as hardpans. In tropical forming processes operate, determines
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 57

maturation of soils and profile development. A

Is it necessary to separate the process of
soil becomes mature when all soil-forming
soil formation and the soil forming control processes act for a sufficiently long time
factors? developing a profile. Soils developing from
recently deposited alluvium or glacial till are
Why are time, topography and parent
considered young and they exhibit no horizons
material considered as passive control or only poorly developed horizons. No specific
factors in soil formation? length of time in absolute terms can be fixed
for soils to develop and mature.

EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following processes is a gradational process?
(a) Deposition (c) Volcanism
(b) Diastrophism (d) Erosion
(ii) Which one of the following materials is affected by hydration process?
(a) Granite (c) Quartz
(b) Clay (d) Salts
(iii) Debris avalanche can be included in the category of:
(a) Landslides (c) Rapid flow mass movements
(b) Slow flow mass movements (d) Subsidence

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) It is weathering that is responsible for bio-diversity on the earth. How?
(ii) What are mass movements that are real rapid and perceptible? List.
(iii) What are the various mobile and mighty exogenic geomorphic agents and
what is the prime job they perform?
(iv) Is weathering essential as a pre-requisite in the formation of soils? Why?

3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.

(i) “Our earth is a playfield for two opposing groups of geomorphic processes.”
Discuss.
(ii) Exogenic geomorphic processes derive their ultimate energy from the sun’s
heat. Explain.
(iii) Are physical and chemical weathering processes independent of each
other? If not, why? Explain with examples.
(iv) How do you distinguish between the process of soil formation and soil-
forming factors? What is the role of climate and biological activity as two
important control factors in the formation of soils?

Project Work
Depending upon the topography and materials around you, observe and record
climate, possible weathering process and soil contents and characteristics.
CHAPTER

LANDFORMS AND THEIR

EVOLUTION

A
fter weathering processes have had means, each and every landform has a history
their actions on the earth materials of development and changes through time. A
making up the surface of the earth, the landmass passes through stages of
geomorphic agents like running water, ground development somewhat comparable to the
water, wind, glaciers, waves perform erosion. stages of life — youth, mature and old age.
It is already known to you that erosion causes
changes on the surface of the earth. Deposition What are the two important aspects of
follows erosion and because of deposition too, the evolution of landforms?
changes occur on the surface of the earth.
As this chapter deals with landforms and The evolutionary history of the continually
their evolution first start with the question, changing surface of the earth is essential to be
what is a landform? In simple words, small to understood in order to use it effectively without
medium tracts or parcels of the earth’s surface disturbing its balance and diminishing its
are called landforms. potential for the future. Geomorphology deals
If landform is a small to medium sized part with the reconstruction of the history of the
of the surface of the earth, what is a landscape? surface of the earth through a study of its
Several related landforms together make forms, the materials of which it is made up of
up landscapes, (large tracts of earth’s surface). and the processes that shape it.
Each landform has its own physical shape, size, Changes on the surface of the earth owe
materials and is a result of the action of certain mostly to erosion by various geomorphic
geomorphic processes and agent(s). Actions agents. Of course, the process of deposition too,
of most of the geomorphic processes and by covering the land surfaces and filling the
agents are slow, and hence the results take a basins, valleys or depressions, brings changes
long time to take shape. Every landform has a in the surface of the land. Deposition follows
beginning. Landforms once formed may erosion and the depositional surfaces too are
change in their shape, size and nature slowly ultimately subjected to erosion. Running water,
or fast due to continued action of geomorphic ground-water, glaciers, wind and waves are
processes and agents. powerful erosional and depositional agents
Due to changes in climatic conditions and shaping and changing the surface of the earth
vertical or horizontal movements of land- aided by weathering and mass wasting
masses, either the intensity of processes or the processes. These geomorphic agents acting
processes themselves might change leading to over long periods of time produce systematic
new modifications in the landforms. Evolution changes leading to sequential development of
here implies stages of transformation of either landforms. Each geomorphic agent produces
a part of the earth’s surface from one landform its own assemblage of landforms. Not only this,
into another or transformation of individual each geomorphic process and agent leave their
landforms after they are once formed. That distinct imprints on the landforms they
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 59

produce. You know that most of the streams and rivers in valleys. Most of the
geomorphic processes are imperceptible erosional landforms made by running water
functions and can only be seen and measured are associated with vigorous and youthful
through their results. What are the results? rivers flowing along gradients. With time,
These results are nothing but landforms and stream channels over steep gradients turn
their characteristics. Hence, a study of gentler due to continued erosion, and as a
landforms, will reveal to us the process and consequence, lose their velocity, facilitating
agent which has made or has been making active deposition. There may be depositional
those landforms. forms associated with streams flowing over
steep slopes. But these phenomena will be on
Most of the geomorphic processes are a small scale compared to those associated
imperceptible. Cite a few processes which with rivers flowing over medium to gentle
can be seen and a few which can’t be slopes. The gentler the river channels in
seen. gradient or slope, the greater is the deposition.
When the stream beds turn gentler due to
As the geomorphic agents are capable of continued erosion, downward cutting becomes
erosion and deposition, two sets — erosional less dominant and lateral erosion of banks
or destructional and depositional or increases and as a consequence the hills and
constructional — of landforms are produced valleys are reduced to plains.
by them. Many varieties of landforms develop
by the action of each of the geomorphic agents Is complete reduction of relief of a high
depending upon especially the type and land mass possible?
structure i.e. folds, faults, joints, fractures,
hardness and softness, permeability and Overland flow causes sheet erosion.
impermeability, etc. come under structure of Depending upon irregularities of the land
rocks. There are some other independent surface, the overland flow may concentrate into
controls like (i) stability of sea level; (ii) tectonic narrow to wide paths. Because of the sheer
stability of landmasses; (iii) climate, which friction of the column of flowing water, minor
influence the evolution of landforms. Any or major quantities of materials from the
disturbance in any of these three controlling surface of the land are removed in the direction
of flow and gradually small and narrow rills
factors can upset the systematic and
will form. These rills will gradually develop into
sequential stages in the development and
long and wide gullies; the gullies will further
evolution of landforms.
deepen, widen, lengthen and unite to give rise
In the following pages, under each of the
to a network of valleys. In the early stages,
geomorphic regimes i.e. running water;
down-cutting dominates during which
groundwater, glaciers, waves, and winds, first
irregularities such as waterfalls and cascades
a brief discussion is presented as to how
will be removed. In the middle stages, streams
landmasses are reduced in their relief through
cut their beds slower, and lateral erosion of
erosion and then, development of some of the
valley sides becomes severe. Gradually, the
erosional and depositional landforms is dealt
valley sides are reduced to lower and lower
with.
slopes. The divides between drainage basins
are likewise lowered until they are almost
RUNNING WATER
completely flattened leaving finally, a lowland
In humid regions, which receive heavy rainfall of faint relief with some low resistant remnants
running water is considered the most called monadnocks standing out here and
important of the geomorphic agents in there. This type of plain forming as a result of
bringing about the degradation of the land stream erosion is called a peneplain (an almost
surface. There are two components of running plain). The characteristics of each of the stages
water. One is overland flow on general land of landscapes developing in running water
surface as a sheet. Another is linear flow as regimes may be summarised as follows:
60 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Youth
Streams are few during this stage with poor
integration and flow over original slopes
showing shallow V-shaped valleys with no
floodplains or with very narrow floodplains
along trunk streams. Streams divides are broad
and flat with marshes, swamp and lakes.
Meanders if present develop over these broad
upland surfaces. These meanders may
eventually entrench themselves into the
uplands. Waterfalls and rapids may exist where
local hard rock bodies are exposed.

Mature
During this stage streams are plenty with good
integration. The valleys are still V-shaped but
deep; trunk streams are broad enough to have
wider floodplains within which streams may
flow in meanders confined within the valley.
The flat and broad inter stream areas and
swamps and marshes of youth disappear and
the stream divides turn sharp. Waterfalls and
rapids disappear.

Old
Smaller tributaries during old age are few with Figure 7.1 : The Valley of Kaveri river near Hogenekal,
gentle gradients. Streams meander freely over Dharmapuri district, Tamilnadu in the form of gorge
vast floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow
lakes, etc. Divides are broad and flat with lakes,
swamps and marshes. Most of the landscape
is at or slightly above sea level.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Valleys
Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the rills
will gradually develop into long and wide
gullies; the gullies will further deepen, widen
and lengthen to give rise to valleys. Depending Figure 7.2 : An entrenched meander loop of river Colorado
in USA showing step-like side slopes of its valley
upon dimensions and shape, many types of typical of a canyon
valleys like V-shaped valley, gorge, canyon,
etc. can be recognised. A gorge is a deep valley is wider at its top than at its bottom. In fact, a
with very steep to straight sides (Figure 7.1) and canyon is a variant of gorge. Valley types depend
a canyon is characterised by steep step-like upon the type and structure of rocks in which
side slopes (Figure 7.2) and may be as deep as they form. For example, canyons commonly
a gorge. A gorge is almost equal in width at its form in horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks
top as well as its bottom. In contrast, a canyon and gorges form in hard rocks.
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 61

Potholes and Plunge Pools River Terraces

Over the rocky beds of hill-streams more or less River terraces are surfaces marking old valley
circular depressions called potholes form floor or floodplain levels. They may be bedrock
because of stream erosion aided by the abrasion surfaces without any alluvial cover or alluvial
of rock fragments. Once a small and shallow terraces consisting of stream deposits. River
depression forms, pebbles and boulders get terraces are basically products of erosion as
collected in those depressions and get rotated they result due to vertical erosion by the stream
by flowing water and consequently the into its own depositional floodplain. There can
depressions grow in dimensions. A series of such be a number of such terraces at different
depressions eventually join and the stream heights indicating former river bed levels. The
valley gets deepened. At the foot of waterfalls river terraces may occur at the same elevation
also, large potholes, quite deep and wide, form on either side of the rivers in which case they
because of the sheer impact of water and are called paired terraces (Figure 7.3).
rotation of boulders. Such large and deep holes
at the base of waterfalls are called plunge pools.
These pools also help in the deepening of valleys.
Waterfalls are also transitory like any other
landform and will recede gradually and bring
the floor of the valley above waterfalls to the
level below.

INCISED OR ENTRENCHED MEANDERS

In streams that flow rapidly over steep
gradients, normally erosion is concentrated on
the bottom of the stream channel. Also, in the Figure 7.3 : Paired and unpaired river terraces
case of steep gradient streams, lateral erosion
on the sides of the valleys is not much when
compared to the streams flowing on low and When a terrace is present only on one side
gentle slopes. Because of active lateral erosion, of the stream and with none on the other side
streams flowing over gentle slopes, develop or one at quite a different elevation on the other
sinuous or meandering courses. It is common side, the terraces are called non-paired
to find meandering courses over floodplains terraces. Unpaired terraces are typical in areas
and delta plains where stream gradients are of slow uplift of land or where the water column
very gentle. But very deep and wide meanders changes are not uniform along both the banks.
can also be found cut in hard rocks. Such The terraces may result due to (i) receding water
meanders are called incised or entrenched after a peak flow; (ii) change in hydrological
meanders (Figure 7.2). Meander loops develop regime due to climatic changes; (iii) tectonic
over original gentle surfaces in the initial stages uplift of land; (iv) sea level changes in case of
of development of streams and the same loops rivers closer to the sea.
get entrenched into the rocks normally due to
erosion or slow, continued uplift of the land DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
over which they start. They widen and deepen
over time and can be found as deep gorges and
canyons in hard rock areas. They give an Alluvial Fans
indication on the status of original land Alluvial fans (Figure 7.4) are formed when
surfaces over which streams have developed. streams flowing from higher levels break into
foot slope plains of low gradient. Normally very
What are the differences between incised coarse load is carried by streams flowing over
meanders and meanders over flood and
mountain slopes. This load becomes too heavy
delta plains?
for the streams to be carried over gentler
62 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

gradients and gets dumped and spread as a as a low cone. Unlike in alluvial fans, the
broad low to high cone shaped deposit called deposits making up deltas are very well sorted
alluvial fan. Usually, the streams which flow with clear stratification. The coarsest materials
over fans are not confined to their original settle out first and the finer fractions like silts
channels for long and shift their position across and clays are carried out into the sea. As the
the fan forming many channels called delta grows, the river distributaries continue
distributaries. Alluvial fans in humid areas to increase in length (Figure 7.5) and delta
show normally low cones with gentle slope from continues to build up into the sea.

Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars

Deposition develops a floodplain just as
erosion makes valleys. Floodplain is a major
landform of river deposition. Large sized
materials are deposited first when stream
channel breaks into a gentle slope. Thus,
normally, fine sized materials like sand, silt and
clay are carried by relatively slow moving
waters in gentler channels usually found in the
plains and deposited over the bed and when
the waters spill over the banks during flooding
Figure 7.4 : An alluvial fan deposited by a hill stream above the bed. A river bed made of river
on the way to Amarnath, Jammu and Kashmir
deposits is the active floodplain. The floodplain
above the bank is inactive floodplain. Inactive
head to toe and they appear as high cones with
floodplain above the banks basically contain
steep slope in arid and semi-arid climates.
two types of deposits — flood deposits and
channel deposits. In plains, channels shift
Deltas
laterally and change their courses occasionally
Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop at a leaving cut-off courses which get filled up
different location. The load carried by the rivers gradually. Such areas over flood plains built
is dumped and spread into the sea. If this load up by abandoned or cut-off channels contain
is not carried away far into the sea or distributed coarse deposits. The flood deposits of spilled
along the coast, it spreads and accumulates waters carry relatively finer materials like silt
and clay. The flood plains in a delta are called
delta plains.
Natural levees and point bars (Figure 7.6)
are some of the important landforms found
associated with floodplains. Natural levees are
found along the banks of large rivers. They are
low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits
along the banks of rivers, quite often cut into
individual mounds. During flooding as the
water spills over the bank, the velocity of the
water comes down and large sized and high
specific gravity materials get dumped in the
immediate vicinity of the bank as ridges. They
are high nearer the banks and slope gently
away from the river. The levee deposits are
coarser than the deposits spread by flood
Figure 7.5 : A satellite view of part of Krishna river waters away from the river. When rivers shift
delta, Andhra Pradesh laterally, a series of natural levees can form.
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 63

Meander is not a landform but is only a

type of channel pattern. This is because of
(i) propensity of water flowing over very gentle
gradients to work laterally on the banks;
(ii) unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits
making up the banks with many irregularities
which can be used by water exerting pressure
laterally; (iii) coriolis force acting on the fluid
water deflecting it like it deflects the wind. When
the gradient of the channel becomes extremely
low, water flows leisurely and starts working
Figure 7.6 : Natural levee and point bars
laterally. Slight irregularities along the banks
slowly get transformed into a small curvature
Point bars are also known as meander bars. in the banks; the curvature deepens due to
They are found on the convex side of meanders deposition on the inside of the curve and
of large rivers and are sediments deposited in
erosion along the bank on the outside. If there
a linear fashion by flowing waters along the
is no deposition and no erosion or undercutting,
bank. They are almost uniform in profile and in
width and contain mixed sizes of sediments. If the tendency to meander is reduced. Normally,
there more than one ridge, narrow and elongated in meanders of large rivers, there is active
depressions are found in between the point bars. deposition along the convex bank and
Rivers build a series of them depending upon undercutting along the concave bank.
the water flow and supply of sediment. As the
rivers build the point bars on the convex side,
the bank on the concave side will erode actively.

In what way do natural levees differ from

point bars?

Meanders
In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow
in straight courses. Loop-like channel patterns
called meanders develop over flood and delta
plains (Figure 7.7).

Figure 7.7 : A satellite scene showing meandering

Burhi Gandak river near Muzaffarpur, Bihar, showing Figure 7.8 : Meander growth and cut-off loops and
a number of oxbow lakes and cut-offs slip-off and undercut banks
64 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

The concave bank is known as cut-off bank is more in the valley, channel bars and islands
which shows up as a steep scarp and the of sand, gravel and pebbles develop on the floor
convex bank presents a long, gentle profile and of the channel and the water flow is divided
is known as slip-off bank (Figure 7.8). As into multiple threads. These thread-like streams
meanders grow into deep loops, the same may of water rejoin and subdivide repeatedly to give
get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection points a typical braided pattern (Figure 7.9).
and are left as ox-bow lakes.

Braided Channels
When rivers carry coarse material, there can be
selective deposition of coarser materials causing
formation of a central bar which diverts the flow
towards the banks; and this flow increases
lateral erosion on the banks. As the valley
widens, the water column is reduced and more
and more materials get deposited as islands
and lateral bars developing a number of
separate channels of water flow. Deposition
and lateral erosion of banks are essential for Figure 7.9 : Satellite scenes showing braided channel
the for mation of braided patter n. Or, segments of Gandak (left) and Son (right) rivers
alternatively, when discharge is less and load Arrows show the direction of flow

Figure 7.10 : Various karst features

LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 65

GROUNDWATER as solution forms first and if the bottom of a

sinkhole forms the roof of a void or cave
Here the interest is not on groundwater as a underground, it might collapse leaving a large
resource. Our focus is on the work of hole opening into a cave or a void below
groundwater in the erosion of landmasses and (collapse sinks). Quite often, sinkholes are
evolution of landforms. The surface water covered up with soil mantle and appear as
percolates well when the rocks are permeable, shallow water pools. Anybody stepping over
thinly bedded and highly jointed and cracked. such pools would go down like it happens in
After vertically going down to some depth, the quicksands in deserts. The term doline is
water under the ground flows horizontally sometimes used to refer the collapse sinks.
through the bedding planes, joints or through Solution sinks are more common than collapse
the materials themselves. It is this downward sinks. Quite often the surface run-off simply
and horizontal movement of water which goes down swallow and sink holes and flow as
causes the rocks to erode. Physical or underground streams and re-emerge at a
mechanical removal of materials by moving distance downstream through a cave opening.
groundwater is insignificant in developing When sink holes and dolines join together
landforms. That is why, the results of the work because of slumping of materials along their
of groundwater cannot be seen in all types of margins or due to roof collapse of caves, long,
rocks. But in rocks like limestones or dolomites narrow to wide trenches called valley sinks or
rich in calcium carbonate, the surface water Uvalas form. Gradually, most of the surface of
as well as groundwater through the chemical the limestone is eaten away by these pits and
process of solution and precipitation trenches, leaving it extremely irregular with a
deposition develop varieties of landforms. These maze of points, grooves and ridges or lapies.
two processes of solution and precipitation are Especially, these ridges or lapies form due to
active in limestones or dolomites occurring differential solution activity along parallel to
either exclusively or interbedded with other sub-parallel joints. The lapie field may
rocks. Any limestone or dolomitic region eventually turn into somewhat smooth
showing typical landforms produced by the limestone pavements.
action of groundwater through the processes
of solution and deposition is called Karst Caves
topography after the typical topography
developed in limestone rocks of Karst region In areas where there are alternating beds of
in the Balkans adjacent to Adriatic sea. rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites) with
The karst topography is also characterised limestones or dolomites in between or in areas
by erosional and depositional landforms. where limestones are dense, massive and
occurring as thick beds, cave formation is
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS prominent. Water percolates down either
through the materials or through cracks and
joints and moves horizontally along bedding
Pools, Sinkholes, Lapies and planes. It is along these bedding planes that
Limestone Pavements the limestone dissolves and long and narrow
to wide gaps called caves result. There can be
Small to medium sized round to sub-rounded
a maze of caves at different elevations
shallow depressions called swallow holes form
depending upon the limestone beds and
on the surface of limestones through solution.
intervening rocks. Caves normally have an
Sinkholes are very common in limestone/karst
opening through which cave streams are
areas. A sinkhole is an opening more or less
discharged. Caves having openings at both the
circular at the top and funnel-shapped towards
ends are called tunnels.
the bottom with sizes varying in area from a
few sq. m to a hectare and with depth from a
Depositional Landforms
less than half a metre to thirty metres or more.
Some of these form solely through solution Many depositional forms develop within the
action (solution sinks) and others might start limestone caves. The chief chemical in limestone
66 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

is calcium carbonate which is easily soluble in GLACIERS

carbonated water (carbon dioxide absorbed
rainwater). This calcium carbonate is deposited Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land
when the water carrying it in solution (continental glacier or pidmont glacier if a vast
evaporates or loses its carbon dioxide as it sheet of ice is spread over the plains at the foot
trickles over rough rock surfaces. of mountains) or as linear flows down the
slopes of mountains in broad trough-like
Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillars valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are called
glaciers (Figure 7.12). The movement of glaciers
Stalactites hang as icicles of different
diameters. Normally they are broad at their
bases and taper towards the free ends showing
up in a variety of forms. Stalagmites rise up
from the floor of the caves. In fact, stalagmites
form due to dripping water from the surface or
through the thin pipe, of the stalactite,
immediately below it (Figure 7.11).

Figure 7.12 : A glacier in its valley

is slow unlike water flow. The movement could

be a few centimetres to a few metres a day or
even less or more. Glaciers move basically
because of the force of gravity.

We have many glaciers in our country

moving down the slopes and valleys in
Himalayas. Higher reaches of Uttaranchal,
Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and
Kashmir, are places to see some of them.
Do you know where one can see river
Bhagirathi is basically fed by meltwaters
from under the snout (Gaumukh) of the
Gangotri glacier. In fact, Alkapuri glacier
feeds waters to Alakananda river. Rivers
Alkananda and Bhagirathi join to make
river Ganga near Deoprayag.

Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because

of friction caused by sheer weight of the ice.
Figure 7.11 : Stalactites and stalagmites in a limestone cave The material plucked from the land by glaciers
(usually large-sized angular blocks and
Stalagmites may take the shape of a fragments) get dragged along the floors or sides
column, a disc, with either a smooth, rounded of the valleys and cause great damage through
bulging end or a miniature crater like abrasion and plucking. Glaciers can cause
depression. The stalagmite and stalactites significant damage to even un-weathered rocks
eventually fuse to give rise to columns and and can reduce high mountains into low hills
pillars of different diameters. and plains.
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 67

As glaciers continue to move, debris gets the glacier disappears. Such lakes are called
removed, divides get lowered and eventually cirque or tarn lakes. There can be two or more
the slope is reduced to such an extent that cirques one leading into another down below
glaciers will stop moving leaving only a mass in a stepped sequence.
of low hills and vast outwash plains along with
other depositional features. Figures 7.13 and Horns and Serrated Ridges
7.14 show various glacial erosional and Horns form through head ward erosion of the
depositional forms described in the text. cirque walls. If three or more radiating glaciers
cut headward until their cirques meet, high,
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called
horns form. The divides between cirque side
Cirque walls or head walls get narrow because of
Cirques are the most common of landforms in progressive erosion and turn into serrated or
glaciated mountains. The cirques quite often saw-toothed ridges sometimes referred to as
are found at the heads of glacial valleys. The arêtes with very sharp crest and a zig-zag
accumulated ice cuts these cirques while outline.
moving down the mountain tops. They are
deep, long and wide troughs or basins with The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn
and the highest peak in the Himalayas,
very steep concave to vertically dropping high
Everest are in fact horns formed through
walls at its head as well as sides. A lake of water
headward erosion of radiating cirques.
can be seen quite often within the cirques after

Figure 7.13 : Some glacial erosional and depositional forms (adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
68 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Glacial Valleys/Troughs Some amount of rock debris small enough to

be carried by such melt-water streams is
Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-shaped
washed down and deposited. Such glacio-
with broad floors and relatively smooth, and
fluvial deposits are called outwash deposits.
steep sides. The valleys may contain littered
Unlike till deposits, the outwash deposits are
debris or debris shaped as moraines with
roughly stratified and assorted. The rock
swampy appearance. There may be lakes
fragments in outwash deposits are somewhat
gouged out of rocky floor or formed by debris
rounded at their edges. Figure 7.14 shows a
within the valleys. There can be hanging valleys
few depositional landforms commonly found
at an elevation on one or both sides of the main
in glaciated areas.
glacial valley. The faces of divides or spurs of
such hanging valleys opening into main glacial
Moraines
valleys are quite often truncated to give them
an appearance like triangular facets. Very deep They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till.
glacial troughs filled with sea water and Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris
making up shorelines (in high latitudes) are deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral
called fjords/fiords. moraines form along the sides parallel to the
glacial valleys. The lateral moraines may join a
What are the basic differences between terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped
glacial valleys and river valleys? ridge. There can be many lateral moraines on
either side in a glacial valley. These moraines
partly or fully owe their origin to glacio-fluvial
Depositional Landforms
waters pushing up materials to the sides of
The unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped glaciers. Many valley glaciers retreating rapidly
by the melting glaciers is called glacial till. Most leave an irregular sheet of till over their valley
of the rock fragments in till are angular to sub- floors. Such deposits varying greatly in thickness
angular in form. Streams form by melting ice and in surface topography are called ground
at the bottom, sides or lower ends of glaciers. moraines. The moraine in the centre of the

Figure 7.14 : A panoramic diagram of glacial landscape with various depositional landforms
(adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 69

glacial valley flanked by lateral moraines is

What is the difference between till and
called medial moraine. They are imperfectly
alluvium?
formed as compared to lateral moraines.
Sometimes medial moraines are indistinguishable
from ground moraines. WAVES AND CURRENTS
Eskers Coastal processes are the most dynamic and
hence most destructive. So, don’t you think it
When glaciers melt in summer, the water flows is important to know about the coastal
on the surface of the ice or seeps down along processes and forms?
the margins or even moves through holes in Some of the changes along the coasts take
the ice. These waters accumulate beneath the place very fast. At one place, there can be
glacier and flow like streams in a channel erosion in one season and deposition in
beneath the ice. Such streams flow over the another. Most of the changes along the coasts
ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with are accomplished by waves. When waves break,
ice forming its banks. Very coarse materials like the water is thrown with great force onto the
boulders and blocks along with some minor shore, and simultaneously, there is a great
fractions of rock debris carried into this stream churning of sediments on the sea bottom.
settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier Constant impact of breaking waves drastically
and after the ice melts can be found as a affects the coasts. Storm waves and tsunami
sinuous ridge called esker. waves can cause far-reaching changes in a
short period of time than normal breaking
Outwash Plains waves. As wave environment changes, the
intensity of the force of breaking waves changes.
The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains
or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets
Do you know about the generating forces
are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the behind waves and currents? If not, refer
form of broad flat alluvial fans which may join to the chapter on movements in ocean
to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and waters.
clay.
Other than the action of waves, the coastal
Distinguish between river alluvial plains landforms depend upon (i) the configuration
and glacial outwash plains. of land and sea floor; (ii) whether the coast is
advancing (emerging) seaward or retreating
(submerging) landward. Assuming sea level to
Drumlins be constant, two types of coasts are considered
Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like to explain the concept of evolution of coastal
features composed mainly of glacial till with landforms: (i) high, rocky coasts (submerged
some masses of gravel and sand. The long axes coasts); (ii) low, smooth and gently sloping
of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice sedimentary coasts (emerged coasts).
movement. They may measure up to 1 km in
length and 30 m or so in height. One end of HIGH ROCKY COASTS
the drumlins facing the glacier called the stoss Along the high rocky coasts, the rivers appear
end is blunter and steeper than the other end to have been drowned with highly irregular
called tail. The drumlins form due to dumping coastline. The coastline appears highly
of rock debris beneath heavily loaded ice indented with extension of water into the land
through fissures in the glacier. The stoss end where glacial valleys (fjords) are present. The
gets blunted due to pushing by moving ice. hill sides drop off sharply into the water. Shores
Drumlins give an indication of direction of do not show any depositional landforms
glacier movement. initially. Erosion features dominate.
70 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Along high rocky coasts, waves break with Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic
great force against the land shaping the hill changes irrespective of supply of sediments.
sides into cliffs. With constant pounding by Large rivers which bring lots of sediments build
waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-cut deltas along low sedimentary coasts.
platform in front of the sea cliff. Waves
gradually minimise the irregularities along the The west coast of our country is a high
shore. rocky retreating coast. Erosional forms
The materials which fall off, and removed dominate in the west coast. The east
from the sea cliffs, gradually break into smaller coast of India is a low sedimentary coast.
fragments and roll to roundness, will get Depositional forms dominate in the east
deposited in the offshore. After a considerable coast.
period of cliff development and retreat when
coastline turns somewhat smooth, with the
addition of some more material to this deposit What are the various differences between
in the offshore, a wave-built terrace would a high rocky coast and a low sedimentary
develop in front of wave-cut terrace. As the coast in terms of processes and
erosion along the coast takes place a good landforms?
supply material becomes available to longshore
currents and waves to deposit them as beaches EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
along the shore and as bars (long ridges of sand
and/or shingle parallel to the coast) in the Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks
nearshore zone. Bars are submerged features
and when bars show up above water, they are Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms
called barrier bars. Barrier bar which get keyed usually found where erosion is the dominant
up to the headland of a bay is called a spit. shore process. Almost all sea cliffs are steep
When barrier bars and spits form at the mouth and may range from a few m to 30 m or even
of a bay and block it, a lagoon forms. The more. At the foot of such cliffs there may be a
lagoons would gradually get filled up by flat or gently sloping platform covered by rock
sediments from the land giving rise to a coastal debris derived from the sea cliff behind. Such
plain. platforms occurring at elevations above the
average height of waves is called a wave-cut
LOW SEDIMENTARY COASTS terrace. The lashing of waves against the base
of the cliff and the rock debris that gets
Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers appear smashed against the cliff along with lashing
to extend their length by building coastal waves create hollows and these hollows get
plains and deltas. The coastline appears widened and deepened to form sea caves. The
smooth with occasional incursions of water in roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs recede
the form of lagoons and tidal creeks. The land further inland. Retreat of the cliff may leave
slopes gently into the water. Marshes and some remnants of rock standing isolated as
swamps may abound along the coasts. small islands just off the shore. Such resistant
Depositional features dominate. masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill
When waves break over a gently sloping are called sea stacks. Like all other features,
sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get sea stacks are also temporary and eventually
churned and move readily building bars, coastal hills and cliffs will disappear because
barrier bars, spits and lagoons. Lagoons of wave erosion giving rise to narrow coastal
would eventually turn into a swamp which plains, and with onrush of deposits from over
would subsequently turn into a coastal plain. the land behind may get covered up by
The maintenance of these depositional features alluvium or may get covered up by shingle or
depends upon the steady supply of materials. sand to form a wide beach.
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 71

DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS develop attached to headlands/hills. The

barriers, bars and spits at the mouth of the
Beaches and Dunes bay gradually extend leaving only a small
opening of the bay into the sea and the bay
Beaches are characteristic of shorelines that are
will eventually develop into a lagoon. The
dominated by deposition, but may occur as
lagoons get filled up gradually by sediment
patches along even the rugged shores. Most of
coming from the land or from the beach itself
the sediment making up the beaches comes
(aided by wind) and a broad and wide coastal
from land carried by the streams and rivers or plain may develop replacing a lagoon.
from wave erosion. Beaches are temporary
features. The sandy beach which appears so Do you know, the coastal off-shore bars
permanent may be reduced to a very narrow offer the first buffer or defence against
strip of coarse pebbles in some other season. storm or tsunami by absorbing most of
Most of the beaches are made up of sand sized their destructive force. Then come the
materials. Beaches called shingle beaches barriers, beaches, beach dunes and
contain excessively small pebbles and even mangroves, if any, to absorb the
cobbles. destructive force of storm and tsunami
Just behind the beach, the sands lifted and waves. So, if we do anything which
winnowed from over the beach surfaces will be disturbs the ‘sediment budget’ and the
deposited as sand dunes. Sand dunes forming mangroves along the coast, these coastal
long ridges parallel to the coastline are very forms will get eroded away leaving human
common along low sedimentary coasts. habitations to bear first strike of storm
and tsunami waves.
Bars, Barriers and Spits
A ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea WINDS
in the off-shore zone (from the position of low
Wind is one of the two dominant agents in hot
tide waterline to seaward) lying approximately
deserts. The desert floors get heated up too
parallel to the coast is called an off-shore bar.
much and too quickly because of being dry
An off-shore bar which is exposed due to
and barren. The heated floors heat up the air
further addition of sand is termed a barrier
directly above them and result in upward
bar. The off-shore bars and barriers commonly
movements in the hot lighter air with
form across the mouth of a river or at the
turbulence, and any obstructions in its path
entrance of a bay. Sometimes such barrier bars
sets up eddies, whirlwinds, updrafts and
get keyed up to one end of the bay when they
downdrafts. Winds also move along the desert
are called spits (Figure 7.15). Spits may also
floors with great speed and the obstructions
in their path create turbulence. Of course, there
are storm winds which are very destructive.
Winds cause deflation, abrasion and impact.
Deflation includes lifting and removal of dust
and smaller particles from the surface of rocks.
In the transportation process sand and silt act
as effective tools to abrade the land surface.
The impact is simply sheer force of momentum
which occurs when sand is blown into or
against a rock surface. It is similar to sand-
blasting operation. The wind action creates a
number of interesting erosional and
Figure 7.15 : A satellite picture of a part of Godavari depositional features in the deserts.
river delta showing a spit In fact, many features of deserts owe their
72 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

formation to mass wasting and running water deposition of sediment from basin margins, a
as sheet floods. Though rain is scarce in deserts, nearly level plain forms at the centre of the
it comes down torrentially in a short period of basin. In times of sufficient water, this plain is
time. The desert rocks devoid of vegetation, covered up by a shallow water body. Such
exposed to mechanical and chemical types of shallow lakes are called as playas
weathering processes due to drastic diurnal where water is retained only for short duration
temperature changes, decay faster and the due to evaporation and quite often the playas
torrential rains help in removing the weathered contain good deposition of salts. The playa
materials easily. That means, the weathered plain covered up by salts is called alkali flats.
debris in deserts is moved by not only wind
but also by rain/sheet wash. The wind moves Deflation Hollows and Caves
fine materials and general mass erosion is
Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare
accomplished mainly through sheet floods or
soil, gets blown out by persistent movement
sheet wash. Stream channels in desert areas
of wind currents in one direction. This process
are broad, smooth and indefinite and flow for
may create shallow depressions called
a brief time after rains.
deflation hollows. Deflation also creates
numerous small pits or cavities over rock
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS surfaces. The rock faces suffer impact and
abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow
Pediments and Pediplains
depressions called blow outs are created, and
Landscape evolution in deserts is primarily some of the blow outs become deeper and
concerned with the formation and extension of wider fit to be called caves.
pediments. Gently inclined rocky floors close
to the mountains at their foot with or without Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks
a thin cover of debris, are called pediments. Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily
Such rocky floors form through the erosion of susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion are
mountain front through a combination of worn out quickly leaving some remnants of
lateral erosion by streams and sheet flooding. resistant rocks polished beautifully in the
Erosion starts along the steep margins of shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and a
the landmass or the steep sides of the broad and rounded pear shaped cap above.
tectonically controlled steep incision features Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a table
over the landmass. Once, pediments are formed top and quite often, the remnants stand out
with a steep wash slope followed by cliff or free like pedestals.
face above it, the steep wash slope and free face
retreat backwards. This method of erosion is List the erosional features carved out by
termed as parallel retreat of slopes through wind action and action of sheet floods.
backwasting. So, through parallel retreat of
slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the
Depositional Landforms
expense of mountain front, and gradually, the
mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg Wind is a good sorting agent. Depending upon
which is a remnant of the mountain. That’s how the velocity of wind, different sizes of grains are
the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low moved along the floors by rolling or saltation
featureless plains called pediplains. and carried in suspension and in this process
of transportation itself, the materials get sorted.
Playas When the wind slows or begins to die down,
Plains are by far the most prominent landforms depending upon sizes of grains and their
in the deserts. In basins with mountains and critical velocities, the grains will begin to settle.
hills around and along, the drainage is towards So, in depositional landforms made by wind,
the centre of the basin and due to gradual good sorting of grains can be found. Since
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 73

wind is there everywhere and wherever there are equally important. There can be a great
is good source of sand and with constant wind variety of dune forms (Figure 7.16).
directions, depositional features in arid regions
can develop anywhere. Barchans
Crescent shaped dunes called barchans with
Sand Dunes
the points or wings directed away from wind
Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune direction i.e., downwind, form where the wind
formation. Obstacles to initiate dune formation direction is constant and moderate and where
the original surface over which sand is moving
is almost uniform. Parabolic dunes form when
sandy surfaces are partially covered with
vegetation. That means parabolic dunes are
reversed barchans with wind direction being
the same. Seif is similar to barchan with a small
difference. Seif has only one wing or point. This
happens when there is shift in wind conditions.
The lone wings of seifs can grow very long and
high. Longitudinal dunes form when supply
of sand is poor and wind direction is constant.
They appear as long ridges of considerable
length but low in height. Transverse dunes
are aligned perpendicular to wind direction.
These dunes form when the wind direction is
constant and the source of sand is an
elongated feature at right angles to the wind
direction. They may be very long and low in
height. When sand is plenty, quite often, the
regular shaped dunes coalesce and lose their
individual characteristics. Most of the dunes
Figure 7.16 : Various types of sand dunes in the deserts shift and a few of them will get
Arrows indicate wind direction stabilised especially near human habitations.

EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) In which of the following stages of landform development, downward cutting
is dominated?
(a) Youth stage (c) Early mature stage
(b) Late mature stage (d) Old stage
(ii) A deep valley characterised by steep step-like side slopes is known as
(a) U-shaped valley (c) Blind valley
(b) Gorge (d) Canyon
(iii) In which one of the following regions the chemical weathering process is
more dominant than the mechanical process?
(a) Humid region (c) Arid region
(b) Limestone region (d) Glacier region
74 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

(iv) Which one of the following sentences best defines the term ‘Lapies’ ?
(a) A small to medium sized shallow depression
(b) A landform whose opening is more or less circular at the top and
funnel shaped towards bottom
(c) A landform forms due to dripping water from surface
(d) An irregular surface with sharp pinnacles, grooves and ridges
(v) A deep, long and wide trough or basin with very steep concave high walls
at its head as well as in sides is known as:
(a) Cirque (c) Lateral Moraine
(b) Glacial valley (d) Esker
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What do incised meanders in rocks and meanders in plains of alluvium
indicate?
(ii) Explain the evolution of valley sinks or uvalas.
(iii) Underground flow of water is more common than surface run-off in
limestone areas. Why?
(iv) Glacial valleys show up many linear depositional forms. Give their
locations and names.
(v) How does wind perform its task in desert areas? Is it the only agent
responsible for the erosional features in the deserts?
3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
(i) Running water is by far the most dominating geomorphic agent in shaping
the earth’s surface in humid as well as in arid climates. Explain.
(ii) Limestones behave differently in humid and arid climates. Why? What is
the dominant and almost exclusive geomorphic process in limestone areas
and what are its results?
(iii) How do glaciers accomplish the work of reducing high mountains into low
hills and plains?

Project Work
Identify the landforms, materials and processes around your area.