Cognitive Psychology: Class Notes

Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes such as
perception, memory, problem-solving, decision-making, and language. The focus of cognitive
psychology is on understanding how people acquire, process, and store information. Unlike
behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behavior, cognitive psychology emphasizes
internal processes, acknowledging that the mind processes information much like a computer
processes data.

History and Development of Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology emerged as a reaction to behaviorism, which dominated psychology in the

early 20th century. Behaviorists, such as B.F. Skinner and John Watson, believed that
psychology should only focus on observable behavior. However, with the advent of new
technologies (like computers and brain imaging) and research, cognitive psychology began to
emerge in the 1950s and 1960s.

The development of the "cognitive revolution" was influenced by the work of influential figures
such as Noam Chomsky (linguistics), Ulric Neisser (who coined the term "cognitive
psychology"), and George Miller (who studied the limits of human memory). These scholars
challenged the behaviorist model by suggesting that mental processes could be scientifically
studied.

Key Concepts in Cognitive Psychology

1. Perception
o Perception is the process by which sensory information is organized and
interpreted to form an understanding of the environment.
o Gestalt psychology, an influential approach, emphasizes the importance of whole
patterns in perception, stating that "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts."
 o Visual perception involves processes like depth perception, motion perception,
and object recognition. These are crucial for navigating our environment.
2. Attention
o Attention refers to the process of focusing cognitive resources on a particular task
or stimulus. The study of attention seeks to understand how people select and
concentrate on information while ignoring irrelevant details.
o Broadbent’s Filter Model (1958) proposed that attention acts as a filter, selecting
which sensory information reaches conscious awareness.
o The capacity model of attention (e.g., Kahneman’s capacity theory) suggests that
we have limited mental resources, and when one task demands more cognitive
resources, it reduces our ability to perform other tasks simultaneously.
3. Memory
o Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. It is
divided into different systems:
 Sensory memory stores information for a very brief period (milliseconds
to seconds).
 Short-term memory (STM) holds information for a short period (up to
30 seconds) and has limited capacity (about 7 ± 2 items).
 Long-term memory (LTM) stores information for extended periods
(from hours to a lifetime) and has a vast, seemingly unlimited capacity.
o The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968) is one of the most well-known models of
memory, proposing the interaction between sensory memory, short-term memory,
and long-term memory.
o Working memory, proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974), extends the concept
of STM by introducing a multi-component system. This model includes:
 Phonological loop: Deals with verbal and auditory information.
 Visuospatial sketchpad: Handles visual and spatial information.
 Central executive: Oversees and coordinates the activities of the
phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
 Episodic buffer: Integrates information from different systems and long-
term memory.
 o Encoding involves transforming sensory input into a format that can be stored in
memory. Techniques like rehearsal, imagery, and chunking can aid in encoding.
o Retrieval is the process of accessing stored information. The retrieval cues
theory suggests that certain cues or contexts can trigger the retrieval of memories.
4. Language
o Language is a central topic in cognitive psychology because it involves complex
mental processes such as encoding, decoding, and understanding.
o Noam Chomsky challenged behaviorism by proposing that language acquisition
is innate and that humans are biologically programmed to learn language (the
theory of universal grammar).
o The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that language shapes the way we think
and perceive the world.
o Language comprehension involves parsing sentences and extracting meaning,
which is influenced by semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic factors.
o Language production involves forming coherent speech or writing and relies on
cognitive systems that manage ideas, grammar, and syntax.
5. Problem Solving and Decision Making
o Problem-solving refers to the cognitive processes used to find solutions to
challenges and obstacles.
o There are two main strategies for problem-solving:
 Algorithmic: A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution,
such as solving a math problem using a specific formula.
 Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a
correct solution but do not guarantee it.
o Common heuristics include the representativeness heuristic (judging based on
similarity to typical examples) and the availability heuristic (relying on
immediate examples that come to mind).
o Cognitive biases (e.g., confirmation bias, anchoring bias) influence decision-
making by distorting information processing and judgment.
6. Cognitive Neuroscience
 o Cognitive neuroscience is the interdisciplinary field that seeks to understand the
neural basis of cognitive functions.
o Brain imaging techniques, such as fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
and EEG (electroencephalography), have allowed researchers to observe brain
activity while performing cognitive tasks.
o Different areas of the brain are associated with specific cognitive functions:
 The prefrontal cortex is involved in higher-level cognitive processes
such as decision-making, planning, and problem-solving.
 The hippocampus is crucial for the formation and retrieval of memories.
 The occipital lobe processes visual information, while the temporal lobe
is involved in auditory processing and language comprehension.
7. Cognitive Development
o Cognitive development refers to how thinking and intellectual abilities evolve
over time, particularly in childhood.
o Jean Piaget proposed that children go through four stages of cognitive
development:
 Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): Infants learn about the world through
sensory experiences and motor actions.
 Preoperational stage (2-7 years): Children begin using language and
symbols but struggle with logical thinking.
 Concrete operational stage (7-11 years): Children develop logical
thinking but struggle with abstract concepts.
 Formal operational stage (12 years and up): Adolescents can think
abstractly, logically, and hypothetically.
o Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive
development. He proposed that learning occurs through guided interaction with
more knowledgeable individuals.
8. Cognitive Aging
o Cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention, and processing speed, tend to
decline with age. However, older adults may compensate for these declines using
different cognitive strategies.
 o Crystalized intelligence (knowledge accumulated over time) tends to remain
stable or even improve with age, while fluid intelligence (the ability to solve
novel problems) tends to decline.
o Cognitive training programs can help older adults maintain or improve certain
cognitive functions, such as memory and attention.

Conclusion

Cognitive psychology provides critical insights into the mental processes that shape our behavior
and experience. It focuses on understanding how we perceive, learn, remember, solve problems,
and use language. Over the years, it has integrated findings from neuroscience, developmental
psychology, and artificial intelligence, enriching our understanding of the mind. As a dynamic
and interdisciplinary field, cognitive psychology continues to contribute to advancements in
education, therapy, and artificial intelligence, among other domains.

This summary gives you a detailed overview of cognitive psychology. It covers the most
important topics, from perception to cognitive aging, with an emphasis on foundational theories
and models.