Module-IV: Vector Calculus

Lesson 41

Introduction

41.1 Introduction to Vector Calculus

We first introduce scalar and vector functions and some basic notation and terminology related to
these.

41.1.1 Scalar Function

A scalar function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) is a function defined at each point in a certain domain 𝐷𝐷 in space. It
takes real values. It depends on the specific point 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) in space, but not on any particular
coordinate system which may be used. For every point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) ∈ 𝐷𝐷, 𝑓𝑓 takes a real value. We
say the a scalar field 𝑓𝑓 is defined in 𝐷𝐷. For example, The distance function in the three
dimensional space taken as the Euclidean distance between the points 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) and
𝑃𝑃0 (𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0, 𝑧𝑧0 )

𝑓𝑓(𝑃𝑃) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = �(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦0 )2 + (𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧0 )2

defines a scalar field.

41.1.2 Vector function

A vector function is defined at each point 𝑃𝑃 ∈ 𝐷𝐷 in three dimensional space by

V =V ( P ) =v1i + v2 j + v3 k

and we say that a vector field is defined in 𝐷𝐷. In Cartesian system of coordinates, it can be
written as

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑣𝑣1 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣2 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣3 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑘𝑘.

An example of a vector field is the velocity field 𝑉𝑉(𝑃𝑃) defined at any point 𝑃𝑃 on a rotating body.

41.1.3 Level surface

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) be a single valued continuous scalar function defined at every point 𝑃𝑃 ∈ 𝐷𝐷. Then
an equation of a surface is defined by 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑐𝑐, a constant. It is called a level surface of the
function.

41.1.4 Example : We determine the level surface of the scalar field in space, defined by the
following function f ( x, y, z ) = x + y + z.

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We find that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑐𝑐 gives x + y + z =c which is equation of a plane. For different c they
define parallel planes. Therefore, the level surfaces are parallel planes.

41.1.5 Example: Determine the level surface of the scalar field in space, defined by the
function f ( x, y, z ) =x 2 + 9 y 2 + 16 z 2 .

Note that f ( x, y, z ) = c gives x 2 + 9 y 2 + 16 z 2 =

c which defines ellipsoids. So the level surfaces
are ellipsoids.

41.2 Parametric Representation of Vector Functions

In this section we introduce the parametric representation of vector functions.

41.2.1 Parametric representation of curves

The parametric representation of a curve 𝐶𝐶 in the two dimensional Cartesian plane is given by
=x x ( t=
) , y y (t ) , a ≤ t ≤ b . Using this the position vector of a point 𝑃𝑃 on the curve 𝐶𝐶 can be
r ( t ) x ( t ) i + y (t ) j .
written as =

Therefore, the position vector of a point on a curve defines a vector function. Similarly a three
dimensional curve or a space curve or a space curve 𝐶𝐶 can be parameterized as

𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)𝑘𝑘, 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝑏𝑏

41.2.2 Parametric Form of a Straight Line

The parametric form of a line passing through a point with position vector a and with the
direction of vector b is given by

𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑡𝑡𝑏𝑏1 )𝑖𝑖 + (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑡𝑡𝑏𝑏2 )𝑗𝑗 + (𝑎𝑎3 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡3 )𝑘𝑘

41.2.3 Parametric Form of a Circle

The parametric form of the circle 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑎2 , is defined by

𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗

41.2.4 Parametric Form of an Ellipse

The parametric form of the ellipse

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x2 y 2
+ =
1
a 2 b2

is given by

𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑗𝑗

41.2.5 Parametric Form of a Parabola:

Let us consider the parabola 𝑦𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥. Now take 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 as one parameter and then we can write
the parametric form of the parabola as
𝑡𝑡 2
𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = �4𝑎𝑎 � 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

41.2.6 Parametric Representation of Surfaces

We can give parametric representation of surfaces can be done using two parameters. Let
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑐𝑐 or 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 0 be the equation of a surface. Let an explicit representation of the
surface be written as 𝑧𝑧 = ℎ(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦). Then, if we substitute 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣, the parametric form of
the surface can be reduced to

𝑟𝑟(𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣) = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 + ℎ(𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣)𝑘𝑘.

41.2.7 Example

The parametric representation of the cylinder 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑎2 is

𝑟𝑟(𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣) = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑢𝑢 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑢𝑢 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣 𝑘𝑘.

41.2.8 Example

The parametric representation of the sphere 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑎𝑎2 is given by

𝑟𝑟(𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣) = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑣𝑣 𝑘𝑘, 0 ≤ 𝑢𝑢 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋, −𝜋𝜋/2 ≤ 𝑣𝑣 ≤ 𝜋𝜋/2

41.2.9 Example

The parametric representation of the ellipsoid

𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑧𝑧 2
+ 𝑏𝑏 2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 = 1
𝑎𝑎 2

is given by

𝑟𝑟(𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣) = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑏𝑏 sin 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑣𝑣 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑐𝑐 sin 𝑣𝑣 𝑘𝑘

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41.3 Limit, Continuity and Differentiability of Vector Function

In this section the analytical concepts of the limit, continuity and differentiability of vector
function are introduced.

41.3.1 Limit of Vector Function

The vector function 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) is said to have the limit p as 𝑡𝑡 → 𝑙𝑙 if 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) is defined in some
neighbourhood of l , except possibly at 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑙𝑙, and

lim𝑡𝑡→𝑙𝑙 |𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) − 𝑝𝑝| = 0

We write 𝑝𝑝. In the Cartesian system, this implies that limits of the component functions
𝑣𝑣1 (𝑡𝑡), 𝑣𝑣2 (𝑡𝑡) and 𝑣𝑣3 (𝑡𝑡) exist as 𝑡𝑡 → 𝑙𝑙 and

lim𝑡𝑡→𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣1 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑝𝑝1 , lim𝑡𝑡→𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣2 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑝𝑝2 , lim𝑡𝑡→𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣3 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑝𝑝3

where 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝1 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑝𝑝 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑝𝑝3 𝑘𝑘.

41.3.2 Continuity

A vector function 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) is defined to be continuous at 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑙𝑙, if

(𝑖𝑖) 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) is defined in some neighbourhood of l , (ii)lim𝑡𝑡→𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) exists, and (iii)lim𝑡𝑡→𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) =
𝑣𝑣(𝑙𝑙).

In Cartesian system, this implies that 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)is continuous at 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑙𝑙, if and only if the component
functions 𝑣𝑣1 (𝑡𝑡), 𝑣𝑣2 (𝑡𝑡) and 𝑣𝑣3 (𝑡𝑡) are continuous at 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑙𝑙.

41.3.3 Differentiability

A vector function 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) is said to be differentiable at a point, if the limit

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡+∆𝑡𝑡)−𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)
lim ∆𝑡𝑡
∆𝑡𝑡→0

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
exists. If the limit exists, then we write it as 𝑣𝑣 ′ (𝑡𝑡) or as 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
.

In Cartesian system, this implies that the component functions 𝑣𝑣1 (𝑡𝑡), 𝑣𝑣2 (𝑡𝑡) and 𝑣𝑣3 (𝑡𝑡) are
differentiable at a point 𝑡𝑡, and the limits
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡+∆𝑡𝑡)−𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)
lim ∆𝑡𝑡
, 𝑖𝑖 = 1,2,3 exist.
∆𝑡𝑡→0

Therefore, 𝑣𝑣 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑣𝑣1 ′ (𝑡𝑡)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣2 ′ (𝑡𝑡)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣3 ′ (𝑡𝑡)𝑘𝑘

Let 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)𝑘𝑘 be the parametric representation of a curve 𝐶𝐶.

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𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡)

Then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖 + 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘𝑘.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

41.3.4 Example

Let us consider the represent of the parabola 𝑦𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 , −1 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1 in parametric form.

𝜋𝜋
Using this we will find 𝑟𝑟 ′ (0) and 𝑟𝑟 ′ ( 4 ).

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
Assume x = sin t . Then 𝑦𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2𝑡𝑡 , The range of t is − 2 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2 . So

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2𝑡𝑡 𝑗𝑗, − 2 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2

Therefore 𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖 − 2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝑡𝑡 𝑗𝑗 ,

𝜋𝜋 𝑖𝑖
Further, 𝑟𝑟 ′ (0) = 𝑖𝑖, 𝑟𝑟 ′ �4 � = � � − 2𝑗𝑗. The tangent at 𝑡𝑡 = 0 is parallel to 𝑥𝑥-axis.
√2

It may be noted that 𝑡𝑡 = 0 gives 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑦𝑦 = 1 which is the vertex of the parabola.

41.3.5 Example

We find the tangent vector to the curve with parametric representation given by
𝑡𝑡+1
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 3 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡
, 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑡𝑡 2 + 1, at the point 𝑡𝑡 = 2.

We will also find the parametric representation of the tangent vector.

First note that the position vector of a point on the given curve is
1
𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡 3 𝑖𝑖 + �1 + 𝑡𝑡 � 𝑗𝑗 + (𝑡𝑡 2 + 1)𝑘𝑘, 𝑡𝑡 ≠ 0.

Therefore the tangent vector is

1
𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 3𝑡𝑡 2 𝑖𝑖 − 𝑡𝑡 2 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘

1
and 𝑟𝑟 ′ (2) = 12𝑖𝑖 − 4 𝑗𝑗 + 4𝑘𝑘 .

3
The position vector of the point at which 𝑟𝑟 ′ (2) is the tangent is 𝑟𝑟(2) = 8𝑖𝑖 + 2 𝑗𝑗 + 5𝑘𝑘.

Therefore we require the position vector of a point on the line passing through the point whose
position vector is 𝑟𝑟(2) and has the direction of 𝑟𝑟 ′ (2). Hence, parametric form of the line is given
by
3 𝑡𝑡 3 1
𝑥𝑥 = 8 + 12𝑡𝑡, 𝑦𝑦 = 2 − 4 , 𝑧𝑧 = 5 + 4𝑡𝑡 or 𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = �8, 2 , 5� + 𝑡𝑡(12, − 4 , 4).

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41.3.6 Higher Order Derivatives and Rules of Differentiation

Assuming that the existence of derivatives, we have the following results

𝑣𝑣 ′′ (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑣𝑣1 ′′ (𝑡𝑡)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣2 ′′ (𝑡𝑡)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣3 ′′ (𝑡𝑡)𝑘𝑘

(𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣)′ = 𝑢𝑢′ + 𝑣𝑣 ′

(𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡))′ = 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑡)𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) + 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑢𝑢′ (𝑡𝑡)

where 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) is any real valued scalar function.

(𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡). 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡))′ = 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡). 𝑣𝑣 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑢𝑢′ (𝑡𝑡). 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)

(𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) × 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡))′ = 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡) × 𝑣𝑣 ′ (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑢𝑢′ (𝑡𝑡) × 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡)

where . and × represent the dot and cross products, respectively. It must be mentioned that the
cross product of two vectors is not commutative.

41.3.7 Example

Find 𝑣𝑣 ′ (𝑡𝑡) in each of the following cases.

(𝑖𝑖) 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = (cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡 2 )(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝑘𝑘) (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = (3𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 5𝑡𝑡 2 𝑗𝑗 + 6𝑘𝑘). (𝑡𝑡 2 𝑖𝑖 − 2𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)

Solution

(𝒊𝒊) 𝑣𝑣 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = (cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡 2 )′ (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝑘𝑘) + (cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡 2 )(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝑘𝑘)′

= (− sin 𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑡𝑡)(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑗𝑗 + 2𝑘𝑘) + (cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡 2 )(𝑖𝑖)

= (3𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑡𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑡 + cos 𝑡𝑡 )𝑖𝑖 + (2𝑡𝑡 − sin 𝑡𝑡)(𝑗𝑗 + 2𝑘𝑘)

(𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊) 𝑣𝑣 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = (3𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 5𝑡𝑡 2 𝑗𝑗 + 6𝑘𝑘)′ . (𝑡𝑡 2 𝑖𝑖 − 2𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) + (3𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 5𝑡𝑡 2 𝑗𝑗 + 6𝑘𝑘). (𝑡𝑡 2 𝑖𝑖 −
2𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)′

= (3𝑖𝑖 + 10𝑡𝑡 𝑗𝑗)(𝑡𝑡 2 𝑖𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) + (3𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 5𝑡𝑡 2 𝑗𝑗 + 6𝑘𝑘). (2𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 2𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘𝑘)

= 6 − 21𝑡𝑡 2

41.3.8 Length of a Space Curve

Let the curve 𝐶𝐶 represented in parametric form as 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡), 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝑏𝑏. In Cartesian system, we
have 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)𝑘𝑘. Then, the length of the curve is given by

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 Introduction

𝑏𝑏 2 2 2 𝑏𝑏
′ (𝑡𝑡)� ′ (𝑡𝑡)� ′ (𝑡𝑡)�
𝑙𝑙 = � [�𝑥𝑥 + �𝑦𝑦 + �𝑧𝑧 1/2
] 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � [𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡). 𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡)]1/2
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

We observe that the integrand is the norm of 𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡), that is

2 2 2
||𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡)|| = [�𝑥𝑥 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� + �𝑦𝑦 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� + �𝑧𝑧 ′ (𝑡𝑡)� ]1/2

Then, we can write

𝑏𝑏
𝑙𝑙 = ∫𝑎𝑎 ||𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡)|| 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Sometimes the notation |𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡)| is also used instead of ||𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡)||.

Now, define the real valued function 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) as

𝑡𝑡 2 2 2 𝑡𝑡
𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) = ∫𝑎𝑎 [�𝑥𝑥 ′ (𝜉𝜉)� + �𝑦𝑦 ′ (𝜉𝜉)� + �𝑧𝑧 ′ (𝜉𝜉)� ]1/2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝑎𝑎 ||𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝜉𝜉)|| 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (41.3.1)

Then, 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) is the arc length of the curve from its initial point (𝑥𝑥(𝑎𝑎), 𝑦𝑦(𝑎𝑎), 𝑧𝑧(𝑎𝑎)) to an arbitrary
point (𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)) on the curve 𝐶𝐶. Therefore, 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡) is the length function. Using relation
(41.3.1), it is possible to solve for 𝑡𝑡 as a function of 𝑠𝑠 , that is 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑠𝑠(𝑡𝑡). Then the curve 𝐶𝐶 can be
parameterised in terms of the arc length 𝑠𝑠 as

𝑟𝑟(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡(𝑠𝑠)) = 𝑥𝑥�𝑡𝑡(𝑠𝑠)�𝑖𝑖 + 𝑦𝑦�𝑡𝑡(𝑠𝑠)�𝑗𝑗 + 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡(𝑠𝑠))𝑘𝑘

41.3.9 Example

We try to find the length of the Helix which is given by

𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑡𝑡 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘, 𝑎𝑎 > 0,0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋.

First note that we can write

=x (t ) a=
cos t , y ( t ) a=
sin t , z ( t ) ct .

Hence 𝑥𝑥 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = − asin 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = acos 𝑡𝑡, 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐.

Therefore , we have
2𝜋𝜋
𝑠𝑠 = arc length = ∫0 [𝑎𝑎2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑐𝑐 2 ]1/2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (2𝜋𝜋)(𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 )1/2

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 Introduction

Suggested Readings

Courant, R. and John, F. (1989), Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol. II, Springer-Verlag,
New York.

Jain, R.K. and Iyengar, S.R.K. (2002) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Narosa Publishing
House, New Delhi.

Jordan, D.W. and Smith, P. (2002) Mathematical Techniques, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Kreyszig, E. (1999) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley, New York.

Piskunov, N. (1974) Differentail and Integral Calculus, Vol. II, MIR Publishers, Moscow.

Wylie, C. R. and Barrett, L.C. (2003) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Tata McGraw-Hill,
New Delhi.

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 Module-IV: Vector Calculus

Lesson 42

Gradient and Directional Derivative

42.1 Gradient of a Scalar Field

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) be a real valued function defining a scalar field. To define the gradient of a scalar
field, we first introduce a vector operator called del operator denoted by ∇. We define the vector
differential operator in two and three dimensions as
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
∇= 𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 and ∇= 𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

The gradient of a scalar field 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧), denoted by ∇𝑓𝑓 or grad (𝑓𝑓) is defined as
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
∇f = 𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Note that the del operator ∇ operates on a scalar field and produces a vector field.

42.1. 1 Example

Find the gradient of the following scalar fields

(𝑖𝑖) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑦𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 at (1,2),

Solution
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
∇f(x, y) = �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � (𝑦𝑦 2 − 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = −4𝑦𝑦 𝑖𝑖 + (2𝑦𝑦 − 4𝑥𝑥)𝑗𝑗

42.1. 2 Example
1
𝒓𝒓 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧, |𝒓𝒓| = 𝑟𝑟 and 𝑟𝑟̂ = 𝒓𝒓/𝑟𝑟, then show that grad�𝑟𝑟 � = −𝑟𝑟̂ /𝑟𝑟 2 .

Solution
1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 1 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦
Grad�𝑟𝑟 � = �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � �𝑟𝑟 � = 𝑖𝑖 �− 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � + 𝑗𝑗 �− 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � + 𝑘𝑘 �− 𝑟𝑟 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � = − 𝑟𝑟 2 �𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑟𝑟 𝑗𝑗 +
𝑧𝑧
𝑟𝑟
𝑘𝑘�

1 𝒓𝒓 𝑟𝑟̂
= − 𝑟𝑟 2 �𝑟𝑟 � = − 𝑟𝑟 2

where 𝑟𝑟̂ = (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧)/𝑟𝑟

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 Gradient and Directional Derivative

42.1. 3 Geometrical Representation of the Gradient

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑃𝑃) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) be a differentiable scalar field. Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑘𝑘 be a level surface and
𝑃𝑃0 (𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0 , 𝑧𝑧0 ) be a point on it. There are infinite number of smooth curves on the surface passing
through the point 𝑃𝑃0 . Each of these curves has a tangent at 𝑃𝑃0 . The totality of these tangent lines
form a tangent plane to the surface at a point 𝑃𝑃0 . A vector normal to this plane at 𝑃𝑃0 is called the
normal vector to the surface at this point.

Consider now a smooth curve 𝐶𝐶 on the surface passing through a point 𝑃𝑃 on the surface. Let
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡) be the parametric representation of the curve 𝐶𝐶. Any point 𝑃𝑃 on 𝐶𝐶
has the position vector 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)𝑘𝑘. Since the curve lies on the surface, we
have

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)) = 𝑘𝑘

𝑑𝑑
Then, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)) = 0

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

By chain rule, we have 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=0

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

or �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � . �𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � = 0

or ∇𝑓𝑓. 𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 0

Let ∇𝑓𝑓(𝑃𝑃) ≠ 0 and 𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡) ≠ 0. Now 𝑟𝑟 ′ (𝑡𝑡) is a tangent to 𝐶𝐶 at the point 𝑃𝑃 and lies in the tangent
plane to the surface at . Hence ∇𝑓𝑓(𝑃𝑃) is orthogonal to every tangent vector at 𝑃𝑃. Therefore,
∇𝑓𝑓(𝑃𝑃) is the vector normal to the surface 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑘𝑘 at the point 𝑃𝑃.

42.1. 4 Example

We will find a unit normal vector to the surface 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 8 at the point (3, −2,1).

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 8 then

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= 𝑦𝑦 2 , 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑧𝑧 and 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= 2𝑦𝑦

Therefore
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
∇f = 𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑖𝑖 + (2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑧𝑧)𝑗𝑗 + 2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦

At (3, −2,1), we obtain the normal vector as ∇f(3, −2,1) = 4i − 10j − 4k. The unit normal
vector at (3, −2,1) is given by
4𝑖𝑖−10𝑗𝑗 −4𝑘𝑘 2𝑖𝑖−5𝑗𝑗 −2𝑘𝑘
= .
√16+100+16 √33

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 Gradient and Directional Derivative

42.1. 5 Example

Here we will find the angle between the two surfaces 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑦𝑦 2 − 1 and 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 = 2 − 𝑧𝑧 at the
given point (1,1,1).

First note that the angle between two surfaces at a common point is the angle between their
normals at that point. Now we have

𝑓𝑓1 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧 − 𝑦𝑦 2 + 1 = 0, ∆𝑓𝑓1 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = (log 𝑧𝑧)𝑖𝑖 − 2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + (𝑥𝑥/𝑧𝑧)𝑘𝑘

∆𝑓𝑓1 (1,1,1) = −2𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑛𝑛1

𝑓𝑓2 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 − 2 + 𝑧𝑧 = 0, ∆𝑓𝑓2 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘𝑘

∆𝑓𝑓2 (1,1,1) = 2𝑖𝑖 + 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑛𝑛2

𝑛𝑛 .𝑛𝑛 1 1
Therefore cos 𝜃𝜃 = �|𝑛𝑛 1||𝑛𝑛2 |� = or 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 � �.
1 2 √30 √30

42.1.6 Properties of Gradient

Let 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 be any two differentiable scalar fields. The gradient satidfies the following algebraic
properties,

∆(𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔) = ∆𝑓𝑓 + ∆𝑔𝑔

∆(𝑐𝑐1 𝑓𝑓 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑔𝑔) = 𝑐𝑐1 ∆𝑓𝑓 + 𝑐𝑐2 ∆𝑔𝑔, where 𝑐𝑐1 , 𝑐𝑐2 are arbitrary constants

∆(𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓) = 𝑓𝑓∆𝑔𝑔 + 𝑔𝑔∆𝑓𝑓

𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔∆𝑓𝑓−𝑓𝑓∆𝑔𝑔
∆ �𝑔𝑔 � = 𝑔𝑔 2

42.2 Directional Derivative

Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑃𝑃) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) be a differentiable scalar field.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Then 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 , 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 , 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 denotes the rates of change of 𝑓𝑓 in the direction of 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑧𝑧 axis, respectively.

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑘𝑘 is the level surface and 𝑃𝑃0 is any point, then 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
, 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
, 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 at 𝑃𝑃0 (𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0 , 𝑧𝑧0 ) denote
the slopes of the tangent lines in the directions of 𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗, 𝑘𝑘 respectively. It is natural to give the
definition of derivative in any direction which we call as the directional derivative.

Let 𝑏𝑏� = 𝑏𝑏1 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑏𝑏2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑏𝑏3 𝑘𝑘 be any unit vector. Let 𝑃𝑃0 be any point 𝑃𝑃0 : 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑎𝑎3 𝑘𝑘.

Then, the position vector of any point 𝑄𝑄 on the line passing through 𝑃𝑃0 and in the direction of 𝑏𝑏�
is given by
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 Gradient and Directional Derivative

𝑟𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑡𝑡𝑏𝑏� = (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑡𝑡𝑏𝑏1 )𝑖𝑖 + (𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑡𝑡𝑏𝑏2 )𝑗𝑗 + (𝑎𝑎3 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡3 )𝑘𝑘 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)𝑘𝑘

This is, the point 𝑄𝑄(𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑡𝑡𝑏𝑏1 , 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑡𝑡𝑏𝑏2 , 𝑎𝑎3 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡3 ) is on this line. Now, the vector formthe point
𝑃𝑃0 to 𝑄𝑄 is given by 𝑡𝑡𝑏𝑏�. Since | 𝑏𝑏�|=1, the distance from 𝑃𝑃0 to 𝑄𝑄 is 𝑡𝑡. Then
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑓𝑓(𝑄𝑄)−𝑓𝑓(𝑃𝑃)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= lim𝑡𝑡→0 𝑡𝑡

if it exists, is called the directional derivative of 𝑓𝑓 at the point 𝑃𝑃0 in the direction to 𝑏𝑏� .
𝜕𝜕
Therefore 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)) is rate of change of 𝑓𝑓 with respect to the distance 𝑡𝑡.

We have
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
, are evaluated at 𝑡𝑡 = 0 .

We write
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � . �𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑘𝑘 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � = ∇𝑓𝑓. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
But 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑏𝑏�(a unit vector). Therefore, the directional derivative of 𝑓𝑓 in the direction of 𝑏𝑏� in given
by

Directional derivative =∇𝑓𝑓. 𝑏𝑏� = grad(𝑓𝑓). 𝑏𝑏�,

which is denoted by 𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏 (𝑓𝑓). Note that 𝑏𝑏� is a unit vector. If the direction is specified by a vector
𝑢𝑢, then 𝑏𝑏� = 𝑢𝑢/|𝑢𝑢|.

42.2.1 Example

We will determine the directional derivative of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑧𝑧 2 at the point
(1,2,3) in the direction of 3𝑖𝑖 + 4𝑗𝑗 − 5𝑘𝑘.

Consider

∇𝑓𝑓 = (𝑦𝑦 2 + 4𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦)𝑖𝑖 + (2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)𝑗𝑗 + (4𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑧𝑧)𝑘𝑘.

At the point (1,2,3), we have ∇𝑓𝑓 = 28𝑖𝑖 + 16𝑗𝑗 + 14𝑘𝑘. The unit vector in the given direction is
𝑏𝑏� = (3𝑖𝑖 + 4𝑗𝑗 − 5𝑘𝑘)/5√2.

Therefore

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 Gradient and Directional Derivative

1 78
𝐷𝐷𝑏𝑏 (1,2,3) = 5√2 (28𝑖𝑖 + 16𝑗𝑗 + 14𝑘𝑘). (3𝑖𝑖 + 4𝑗𝑗 − 5𝑘𝑘) = 5√2

Suggested Readings

Courant, R. and John, F. (1989) Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol. II, Springer-Verlag,
New York.

Jain, R.K. and Iyengar, S.R.K. (2002) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Narosa Publishing
House, New Delhi.

Jordan, D.W. and Smith, P. (2002) Mathematical Techniques, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Kreyszig, E. (1999) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley, New York.

Piskunov, N. (1974) Differentail and Integral Calculus, Vol. II, MIR Publishers, Moscow.

Wylie, C. R. and Barrett, L.C. (2003) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Tata McGraw-Hill,
New Delhi.

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 Module-IV: Vector Calculus

Lesson 43

Divergence and Curl

43.1 Divergence of a Vector Field

Let 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣1 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣2 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣3 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑘𝑘 define a vector field.

We define the divergence of vector field as below:

Divergence of 𝑣𝑣, denoted bi div 𝑣𝑣 , is defined as the scalar

𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣1 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣3
div 𝑣𝑣 = + +
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣1 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣3

Also div 𝑣𝑣 = ∇. 𝑣𝑣 = �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � . (𝑣𝑣1 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣3 𝑘𝑘) = + +
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

43.1.1 Example

Here we will find the divergence of the vector field 𝑣𝑣 = (𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑧𝑧 3 )𝑖𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑘𝑘.

Note that we have

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
div 𝑣𝑣 = 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑧𝑧 3 ) + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 )

= 2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

43.2 Curl of a Vector Field 𝒗𝒗

Curl of a vector field 𝑣𝑣, denoted by curl 𝑣𝑣, is defined as the vector field
𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣3 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣1
Curl 𝑣𝑣 = � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕3 − � 𝑖𝑖 + � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕1 − � 𝑗𝑗 + � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 − � 𝑘𝑘
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Curl 𝑣𝑣 can also be written in terms of the gradient operator as

𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 𝑘𝑘
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
Curl 𝑣𝑣 = ∇ × 𝑣𝑣 = � �.
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑣𝑣1 𝑣𝑣2 𝑣𝑣3

43.2.1 Example

Find the curl of the vector field 𝑣𝑣 = (𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑧𝑧 3 )𝑖𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑘𝑘

Solution

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 Divergence and Curl

𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 𝑘𝑘
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
Curl 𝑣𝑣 = � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
�
𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑧𝑧 3
2 2
2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

= 𝑖𝑖(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) − 𝑗𝑗(𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑧𝑧 2 ) + 𝑘𝑘(2𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦)

43.2.2 Curl of Gradient

Let 𝑓𝑓 be a differentiable vector field. Then

Curl(grad𝑓𝑓)=0 or ∇ × ∇𝑓𝑓 = 0

Proof : From the definition, we have

𝑖𝑖 𝑗𝑗 𝑘𝑘
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
∇ × ∇𝑓𝑓 = ��𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ��
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓
= 𝑖𝑖 � − � + 𝑗𝑗 � − � + 𝑘𝑘 � − �=0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

43.2.3 Divergence of Curl

Let 𝑣𝑣 be a differentiable vector field. Then

div(curl 𝑣𝑣)=0 or ∇. (∇ × 𝑣𝑣) = 0

proof. Form the definition, we have for 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣1 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣3 𝑘𝑘

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣3 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣1
∇. (∇ × 𝑓𝑓) = �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � . �� 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕3 − � 𝑖𝑖 + � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕1 − � 𝑗𝑗 + � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 − � 𝑘𝑘�
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣3 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣1 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣3 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣1

� − �+ � − �+ � − �=0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

43.2.4 Example

Prove that div(𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓)= 𝑓𝑓 (div 𝑣𝑣)+grad(𝑓𝑓). 𝑣𝑣, where 𝑓𝑓 is scalar function

Solution
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
∇. (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓) = �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � . (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣3 𝑘𝑘) = 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 ) + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣2 ) + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣3 )

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 Divergence and Curl

𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣3 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

= 𝑓𝑓 � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕1 + + � + (𝑣𝑣1 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣3 𝑘𝑘). �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

= 𝑓𝑓(∇. 𝑣𝑣) + 𝑣𝑣. (∇𝑓𝑓) = 𝑓𝑓(∇. 𝑣𝑣) + ∇𝑓𝑓. 𝑣𝑣

43.2.5 Example

If 𝒓𝒓 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧, |𝒓𝒓| = 𝑟𝑟, show that div (𝒓𝒓/𝑟𝑟 3 )=0

Solution
𝜕𝜕 𝑥𝑥
𝒓𝒓 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 𝑧𝑧 � �
∆. �𝑟𝑟 3 � = �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � . �𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟 3 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑟𝑟 3 + 𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟 3 � = ∑ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑟𝑟 3

3 3 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

= − �𝒙𝒙 + 𝒚𝒚 + 𝒛𝒛 �
𝑟𝑟 3 𝑟𝑟 4 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Since 𝑟𝑟 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑧𝑧 2
𝒓𝒓 3 3
Therefore, ∆. �𝑟𝑟 3 � = 𝑟𝑟 3 − 𝑟𝑟 3 = 𝟎𝟎

43.2.6 Example

Prove the following identities

(i) curl (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓) =(grad𝑓𝑓)× 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑓𝑓curl 𝑣𝑣

𝜕𝜕 2 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜕𝜕 2
(ii) div(grad 𝑓𝑓)=∇2 𝑓𝑓 where ∇2 = 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2 is the Laplacian operator

(iii) curl(curl𝑣𝑣)= ∇(∇. 𝑣𝑣) − ∇2 𝑣𝑣 or grad(div 𝑣𝑣) = ∇ × (∇ × 𝑣𝑣) + ∇2 𝑣𝑣.

where 𝑓𝑓 is a scalar function.

Solution
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
(i) curl (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓) = ∇ × (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓) = ∇ × (𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓1 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣3 𝑘𝑘) = ∑[𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣3 ) − 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (𝑓𝑓𝑣𝑣2 )]

𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣3 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

= 𝑓𝑓 �� 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕3 − � 𝑖𝑖 + � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕1 − � 𝑗𝑗 + � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕2 − � 𝑘𝑘� + [�𝑣𝑣3 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 − 𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑖𝑖 +
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
�𝑣𝑣1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 − 𝑣𝑣3 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑗𝑗 + �𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 − 𝑣𝑣1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝑘𝑘]

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
= 𝑓𝑓(curl 𝑣𝑣) + �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � × (𝑣𝑣1 𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣3 𝑘𝑘)

= 𝑓𝑓(curl 𝑣𝑣) + (grad 𝑓𝑓)× 𝑣𝑣

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 Divergence and Curl

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑓𝑓

(ii) div(grad 𝑓𝑓)= �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � . �𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 + 𝑘𝑘 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � = �𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2 � = ∇2 𝑓𝑓

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2
(iii) grad(div 𝑣𝑣)= ∇ × (∇ × 𝑣𝑣) = �∑ 𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � × �∑ 𝑖𝑖 � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕3 − ��
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣1 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣1 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣3

= � 𝑖𝑖 � � − �− � − ��
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣2 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣3 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣1 𝜕𝜕 2 𝑣𝑣1

= ∑ 𝑖𝑖 �𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕1 + + � − � 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 21 + + ��
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2

𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜕𝜕 2 𝜕𝜕 2
= �∑ 𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 � (∇. 𝑣𝑣) − �𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 2 � (∑ 𝑖𝑖𝑣𝑣1 )

= ∇(∇. 𝑣𝑣) − ∇2 𝑣𝑣

Suggested Readings

Courant, R. and John, F. (1989), Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol. II, Springer-Verlag,
New York.

Jain, R.K. and Iyengar, S.R.K. (2002) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Narosa Publishing
House, New Delhi.

Jordan, D.W. and Smith, P. (2002) Mathematical Techniques, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Kreyszig, E. (1999) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley, New York.

Piskunov, N. (1974) Differentail and Integral Calculus, Vol. II, MIR Publishers, Moscow.

Wylie, C. R. and Barrett, L.C. (2003) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Tata McGraw-Hill,
New Delhi.

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 Module-IV: Vector Calculus

Lesson 44

Line Integral

44.1 Introduction
Let 𝐶𝐶 be a simple curve. Let the parametric representation of 𝐶𝐶 be written as

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡), 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝑏𝑏 (44.1.1)

Therefore, the position vector of appoint on the curve 𝐶𝐶 can be written as

𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)𝑘𝑘, 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝑏𝑏 (44.1.2)

44.2 Line Integral with Respect to Arc Length

Let 𝐶𝐶 be a simple smooth curve whose parametric representation is given as Eqs.(1) and (2).
Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) be continuous on 𝐶𝐶. Then, we define the line integral 𝑓𝑓 of over 𝐶𝐶 with respect
to the arc length 𝑠𝑠 by
𝑏𝑏
∫𝐶𝐶 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡))�𝑥𝑥 ′ (𝑡𝑡)2 + 𝑦𝑦 ′ (𝑡𝑡)2 + 𝑧𝑧 ′ (𝑡𝑡)2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

since

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � + � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � + �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

44.2.1 Example
1
Evaluate ∫𝐶𝐶 (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, where 𝐶𝐶 is the curve defined by 𝑥𝑥 = 4𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 = 3 form (2, 2 , 3) to
(4,1,3).

Solution

Let 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡. Then, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡/4 and 𝑧𝑧 = 3. Therefore, the curve 𝐶𝐶 represented by

𝑡𝑡
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡, 𝑦𝑦 = 4 , 𝑧𝑧 = 3, 2 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 3.

We have 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = √17/4.

√17 4 3 139√17
Hence ∫𝐶𝐶 (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫ �𝑡𝑡 2 + 4 𝑡𝑡� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = .
4 2 24

44.2.2 Line Integral of Vector Fields

Let 𝐶𝐶 be a smooth curve whose parametric representation is given in Eqs. (44.1.1) and
(44.1.2). Let

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 Line Integral

𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑣𝑣1 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣2 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣3 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑘𝑘

be a vector field that is continuous on 𝐶𝐶. Then, the line integral of 𝑣𝑣 over 𝐶𝐶 is defined by

∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑣𝑣2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑣𝑣3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= ∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣�𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)� . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (44.2.1)

If 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣1 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑖𝑖, then Eq.( 44.2.1) reduces to

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣1 (𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Similarly, if 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣2 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑗𝑗 or 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣3 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑘𝑘, we respectively obtained
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣2 (𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and ∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣3 (𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

44.2.2 Example

Evaluate the line integral of 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 𝑘𝑘 over the curve 𝐶𝐶 whose parametric
representation is given by 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 2 , 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑡𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 1.

Solution:

The position vector of any point on 𝐶𝐶 is given by 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑡𝑡 2 𝑖𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡. We have

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 (2𝑡𝑡 3 𝑖𝑖 + 4𝑡𝑡 2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘). (2𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘𝑘)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

1 37
= ∫0 (4𝑡𝑡 4 + 8𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 15 + 𝑒𝑒

44.2.3 Example

Evaluate the integral ∫𝑐𝑐 (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, where 𝐶𝐶 is given by 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 2 , 𝑧𝑧 = 3𝑡𝑡, 1 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2.

Solution:
2 163
We have ∫𝑐𝑐 (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2 ∫1 (𝑡𝑡 2 + 3𝑡𝑡 3 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 4

44.3 Line Integral of Scalar Fields

Let 𝐶𝐶 be a smooth curve whose parametric representation is as given in Eqs. (44.1.1) and
(44.1.2). Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧), 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) and ℎ(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)be scalar fields which are continuous at
point over 𝐶𝐶. Then, we define a line integral as

∫𝐶𝐶 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

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 Line Integral

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= ∫𝐶𝐶 �𝑓𝑓�𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑔𝑔�𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ℎ�𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡), 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡), 𝑧𝑧(𝑡𝑡)� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

If 𝐶𝐶 is closed curve, then we usually write

∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∮𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

44.3.1 Example

Evaluate ∫𝐶𝐶 (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , where 𝐶𝐶 is 𝑥𝑥 2 = 4𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2.

Solution
𝑡𝑡 2
First we consider parametric form of 𝐶𝐶 as 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡, 𝑦𝑦 = , 𝑧𝑧 = 2, 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2.
4

Therefore,
2 𝑡𝑡 2 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 2 10
∫𝐶𝐶 (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + (𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 ��𝑡𝑡 + 4
� − 𝑡𝑡 2 �2� + � 4 + 𝑡𝑡�� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3

44.4 Application of Line Integrals

In this section, we consider some physical applications of the concept of line integral.

44.4.1 Work Done By A Force

Let 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑣𝑣1 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣2 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑣3 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑘𝑘 be a vector function defined and
continuous at every point on 𝐶𝐶. Then the line integral of tangential component of 𝑣𝑣 along the
curve 𝐶𝐶 from a point 𝑃𝑃 to the point 𝑄𝑄 is given by
𝑄𝑄
∫𝑃𝑃 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑣𝑣2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑣𝑣3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Let now 𝑣𝑣 = 𝐹𝐹, a variable force acting on a particle which moves along a curve 𝐶𝐶. Then, the
work 𝑊𝑊 done by the force 𝐹𝐹 in displacing the particle from the point 𝑃𝑃 to the point 𝑃𝑃 along
the curve 𝐶𝐶 is given by
𝑄𝑄
𝑊𝑊 = ∫𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝐹𝐹. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where 𝐶𝐶 ∗ is the part of𝐶𝐶 , whose initial and terminal point are 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄.

Suppose that 𝐹𝐹is a conservative vector field . Then 𝐹𝐹 can be written as 𝐹𝐹 = grad(𝑓𝑓), where 𝑓𝑓
is a scalar potential(field). Then, the work done

𝑊𝑊 = ∫𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝐹𝐹. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝑓𝑓). 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

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 Line Integral

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄

= ∫𝐶𝐶 ∗ ( 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = ∫𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)]𝑃𝑃

44.4.1 Example

Find the work done by the force 𝐹𝐹 = −𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑗𝑗 + 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 in moving a particle over the circular
path𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 4, 𝑧𝑧 = 0 form (2,0,0) to (0,2,0).

Solution

The parametric representation of the given curve is 𝑥𝑥 = 2 cot 𝑡𝑡, 𝑦𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑡𝑡, 𝑧𝑧 = 0, 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤
𝜋𝜋2 . Therefore, work done 𝑊𝑊 is given by

𝑊𝑊 = ∫𝐶𝐶 𝐹𝐹. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐶𝐶 −𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧

𝜋𝜋/2
16
� [−4 sin 𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡 (−2 sin 𝑡𝑡 ) + 4 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝑡𝑡(2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) ] 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
0 13

44.4.2 Circulation

A line integral of a vector field 𝑣𝑣 around a simple closed curve 𝐶𝐶 is defined as the
circulation of 𝑣𝑣 around 𝐶𝐶.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Circulation = ∮𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∮𝐶𝐶 𝑣𝑣. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∮𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣. 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇,

where 𝑇𝑇 is the tangent vector to 𝐶𝐶. For example, in fluid mechanics, let 𝑣𝑣 represents the
velocity field of a fluid and 𝐶𝐶 be a closed curve in its domain. Then, circulation gives the
amount by which the fluid tends to turn the curve rotating or circulating around 𝐶𝐶. If
∮𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣. 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 > 0 then the fluid tends to rotate 𝐶𝐶in the anti-clockwise direction, while if
∮𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣. 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 < 0 , then the fluid tends to rotate 𝐶𝐶 in the clockwise direction perpendicular to𝑇𝑇
at every point on 𝐶𝐶, then ∮𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣. 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 0, that is the curve does not move at all.

44.5 Line Integral Independent of the Path

Let 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) be a differentiable scalar function. The differential of 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) is defined as
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =grad 𝜙𝜙. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Therefore, a differential expression expre 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is
an exact differential, if there exists a scalar function 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) such that

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + ℎ(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

We now present the result on the independence of the path of a line integral

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 Line Integral

44.5.1 Theorem

Let 𝐶𝐶 be a curve in simply connected domain 𝐷𝐷 in space. Let 𝑓𝑓, 𝑔𝑔 and ℎ be continuous
function having continuous first partial derivatives in 𝐷𝐷. Then ∫𝐶𝐶 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + ℎ𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is
independent of path 𝐶𝐶 if and only if the integrand is exact differential in 𝐷𝐷.

44.5.2 Example
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 +𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
Show that ∫𝐶𝐶 is independent of path of integration which does not pass through the
�𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2
origin. Find the value of the integral from the point 𝑃𝑃(−1,2) to the point 𝑄𝑄(2,3).

Solution
𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦
We have 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) =
�𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 �𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Now 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = −𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥/(𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )3/2 and 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= −𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥/(𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )3/2

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Since 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 , the integral is independent of any path of integration which does not pass
through the origin. Also, the integrand is an exact differential. Therefore, there exists a
function 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) such that
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = and = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2

Integrating the first equation with respect to 𝑥𝑥, we get 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = �𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + ℎ(𝑦𝑦).
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑑ℎ
Substituting in 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = = + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 or 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 or ℎ(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑘𝑘, constant.
�𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 �𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2

Hence 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = �𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑘𝑘

𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 +𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 (2,3) (2,3)

Therefore, ∫𝐶𝐶 = ∫(−1,2) 𝑑𝑑(�𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 ) = [�𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 ](−1,2) = √13 − √5
�𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2

Suggested Readings

Courant, R. and John, F. (1989), Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol. II, Springer-
Verlag, New York.

Jain, R.K. and Iyengar, S.R.K. (2002) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Narosa
Publishing House, New Delhi.

Jordan, D.W. and Smith, P. (2002) Mathematical Techniques, Oxford University Press,
Oxford.

5
346 www.AgriMoon.Com
 Line Integral

Kreyszig, E. (1999) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley, New York.

Piskunov, N. (1974) Differentail and Integral Calculus, Vol. II, MIR Publishers, Moscow.

Wylie, C. R. and Barrett, L.C. (2003) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Tata McGraw-
Hill, New Delhi.

6
347 www.AgriMoon.Com
 Module-IV: Vector Calculus

Lesson 45

Green’s Theorem in the Plane

45.1 Introduction
The theorem provides a relationship between a double integral over a region and the line
integral over the closed curve C bounding R. Green’s theorem is also called the first
fundamental theorem of integral vector calculus.

45.2 The Main Result

45.2.1 Theorem: (Green’s theorem)

Let C be a piecewise smooth simple closed curve bounding a region R. If f, g, ∂f / ∂y, ∂g / ∂x

are continuous on R, then

 ∂g ∂f 
∫ f ( x, y)dx + g ( x, y)dy =
C
∫∫  ∂x − ∂y dxdy
R

The integration being carried in the positive direction (counter clockwise direction) of C.

Proof: We shall prove Green’s theorem for a particular case of the region R.

Let the region R be simultaneously expressed in the following forms.

R : u1 ( x ) ≤ y ≤ u2 ( x ) ,  a ≤ x ≤ b

R : v1 ( x ) ≤ x ≤ v2 ( x ) ,  c ≤ y ≤ d

We obtain

∂g
d  v2 ( y ) ∂g  d

∫∫R ∂x dxdy
= ∫c  v=
∫( x ) ∂x dx dy ∫ [ g (v ( y), y) − g (v ( y), y)]dy
2 1
1  c

d c
= ∫ g (v2 ( y), y)dy + ∫ g (v1 ( y), y)dy =
c d
∫ g ( x, y)dy
C

the integration being carried in the counter clockwise direction.

We obtain

∂f
b  u2 ( y ) ∂f  b

∫∫R ∂x dxdy
= ∫a  u=
∫( x ) ∂y dy dy ∫ [ f ( x, u ( x)) − f ( x, u ( x))]dx
2 1
1  a

b a

∫ f ( x, u2 ( x))dx + ∫ g ( x, u1 ( x))dx =
=
a b
− ∫ f ( x, y )dx
C

348 www.AgriMoon.Com
 Green’s Theorem in the Plane

the integration being carried in the counter clockwise direction. Therefore

 ∂g ∂f 
∫ f ( x, y)dx + g ( x, y)dy =
C
∫∫  ∂x − ∂y dxdy .
R

45.2.2 Example : Evaluate

∫ (x + y 2 )dx + ( y + 2 x)dy, where C is the boundary of the region in the first quadrant that is
2

bounded by the curves y 2 = x and x 2 = y .

Solution: The curves intersect at (0,0) and (1,1). The bounding curve is C. We have
f ( x, y=
) x 2 + y 2 and g ( x, y )= y + 2 x .

Using the Green’s theorem, we obtain

∫ (x + y 2 )dx + ( y + 2 x)dy= ∫∫ (2 − 2 y)dxdy

2

C R
1 x 1
x
∫ ∫ (2 − 2 y)dydx =
= ∫ (2 y − y ) |
2
2
dx
0 x2 0 x
1
= ∫ (2
0
x − x − 2 x 2 + x 4=
)dx 11/ 30

45.2.3 Example: Find the work done by the force F = ( x 2 − y 3 )i + ( x + y ) j in moving a

particle along the closed path C containing the curves x + y= 0, x 2 + y =
2
16 and y = x in the
first and fourth quadrants.

Solution: The work done by the force is given by

W= W= ∫ F .dr= ∫ ( x − y 3 )dx + ( x + y )dy.

2

C C

The closed path C bounds the region R. Using the Green’s theorem, we obtain

∫ (x − y 3 )dx + ( x + y )dy= ∫∫ (1 + 3 y
2 2
)dxdy.
C R

It is convenient to use polar coordinates to evaluate the integral. The region R is given by

= θ , y r sin θ , 0 ≤ r ≤ 4, −π / 4 ≤ θ ≤ π / 4.
R : x r cos=

Therefore,

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 Green’s Theorem in the Plane

π /4 4 π /4
 r2 3 4 2  4
∫∫ (1 + 3 y )dxdy =∫ ∫ + θ θ =∫  2 + 4 r sin θ  0 dθ
2 2 2
(1 3r sin ) rdrd
R −π /4 0 −π /4  
π /4 π /4
= ∫ (8 + 192sin θ )dθ = ∫ [8 + 96(1 − cos 2θ )]dθ
2

−π /4 −π /4

π /4
2[104θ − 48sin 2θ ]
= 52π − 96.
=
0

−x
=
45.2.4 Example: Verify the Green’s theorem for f ( x, y ) e= sin y, g ( x, y ) e − x cos y and C
is the square with vertices at (0,0), (π/2,0), (π/2,π/2), (0,π/2).

Solution: We can write the line integral as

 
∫
C
fdx + gdy =  ∫ + ∫ + ∫ + ∫
 C1 C2 C3 C4
 ( fdx + gdy )


where C1 , C2 , C3 and C4 are the boundary lines. We have along C1 : y= 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ π / 2 and

∫e
−x
(sin ydx + cos ydy ) =
0,
C1

: x π / 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ π / 2 and
along C2=

π /2

∫e ∫e
−π /2
−x
(sin ydx + cos =
ydy ) ydy e −π /2 ,
cos=
C2 0

C3 : y π / 2, π / 2 ≤ x ≤ 0 and
along=

∫e ∫ e dx =
e −π /2 − 1,
−x −x
(sin ydx + cos ydy ) =
C3 π /2

: x 0, π / 2 ≤ y ≤ 0 and
along C4=

∫e ∫ cos ydy =
−x
(sin ydx + cos ydy ) = −1.
C4 π /2

Therefore,
π /2 π /2

∫ fdx + gdy =∫∫ (−2e cos y )dxdy =∫ ∫ (−2e cos ydxdy ) =2(e −π /2 − 1).
−x −x

C R 0 0

45.2.5 Example: Now we use the Green’s theorem to show that

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 Green’s Theorem in the Plane

∂u
∫ ∂n ds= ∫∫ ∇ udxdy,
2

C R

where ∇ 2 is the Laplace operator ∂ 2 / ∂x 2 + ∂ 2 / ∂y 2 and n is the unit outward normal to C.

Solution:

Let the position vector of a point on C, in terms of the arc length r=

( s ) x( s )i + y ( s ) j.

Then, the tangent vector to C is given by

dr dx dy
=
T = i+ j
ds ds ds

and the normal vector n is given by (since n.T = 0 )

dy dx
=
n i− j.
ds ds

Note that n is the unit normal vector. Now

∂u
∫ ∂n ds= ∫ ∇u.nds
C C

since ∂u / ∂n is the directional derivative of u in the direction of n. Therefore, using Green’s

theorem, we obtain

∂u  ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂x   ∂u ∂u 
∫ ∂n ds =
C
∫  ∂x ∂s − ∂y ∂s  ds =
C
∫  − ∂y dx + ∂x dy 
C

∂ u ∂ u
2 2

∫∫R  ∂x 2 + ∂y 2 dxdy =
= ∫∫R ∇ udxdy.
2

Suggested Readings

Courant, R. and John, F. (1989), Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol. II, Springer-
Verlag, New York.

Jain, R.K. and Iyengar, S.R.K. (2002) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Narosa
Publishing House, New Delhi.

Jordan, D.W. and Smith, P. (2002) Mathematical Techniques, Oxford University Press,
Oxford.

Kreyszig, E. (1999) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley, New York.

4
351 www.AgriMoon.Com
 Green’s Theorem in the Plane

Piskunov, N. (1974) Differentail and Integral Calculus, Vol. II, MIR Publishers, Moscow.

Wylie, C. R. and Barrett, L.C. (2003) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Tata McGraw-
Hill, New Delhi.

5
352 www.AgriMoon.Com
 Module-IV: Vector Calculus

Lesson 46

Surface Integral

46.1 Introduction
b
The double and triple integrals are the generalizations of the definite integral ∫ f ( x)dx to two
a

and three dimensions respectively. The surface area integral is a generalization of the arc
length integral
b

∫
a
1 + ( y ') 2 dx.

We shall now present a generalization of the line integral ∫ f ( x, y)ds to three dimensions.
C

This generalization is called the surface integral.

Let g ( x, y, z ) be a given function defined in the three dimensional space and let S be surface
which is the graph of a function z = f ( x, y ), or y = h1 ( x, z ), or x = h( y, z ). We assume that
(i) g ( x, y, z ) is continuous at all points on S, (ii) S is smooth and bounded and (iii) the
projection R of the surface S on x-y plane, x-z plane, or y-z plane respectively expressed in
the forms as assumed in the proof of the Green’s theorem. For example, the projection R on
the x-y plane can be expressed in the forms

R : u1 ( x ) ≤ y ≤ u2 ( x ) ,  a ≤ x ≤ b

or R : v1 ( x ) ≤ x ≤ v2 ( x ) ,  c ≤ y ≤ d .

The surface integral can be defined in a similar way as the double integral is defined.
Subdivide S into n parts S1 , S 2 ,..., S n of areas ∆A1 , ∆A2 ,..., ∆An . The projection R of S is
therefore partitioned into n rectangles R1 , R2 ,..., Rn . We choose an arbitrary point
Pk ( xk , yk , zk ) on each element of the surface area S k and form the sum
n
=In ∑ g ( x , y , z )∆A .
k =1
k k k k

Let n → ∞ , such that the largest element of the surface area shrinks to a point. This implies
that as n → ∞ ,the length of the longest diagonal of the projected rectangles tends to zero. In
the limit as n → ∞ , the sequence {I n } has a limiting value which is independent of the way S
is subdivided and the choice of Pk on S k . This limiting value is called the surface integral of
g ( x, y, z ) over S.

That is, we define the surface integral as

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 Surface Integral

∫∫ g ( x, y, z )dA lim ∑ g ( xk , yk , zk )∆Ak .

=
S
|d | → 0
k =1

where | d | is the length of the longest diagonal of the projected rectangles.

The surface integral can be evaluated in any of the following ways.

(i) Let S be represented in parametric form as r = r (u , v). Then we can write

∫∫ g ( x, y, z )dA
= ∫∫ g[ x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)] | r × r | dudv u v
S R*

∫∫ g[ x(u, v), y(u, v), z (u, v)][r rv 2 − (ru .rv ) 2 ]1/2 dudv
2
u
R*

where R* is the region corresponding to S in the u-v plane.

(ii) Let S be represented in the form z = f ( x, y ). Then we can write

∫∫=
g ( x, y, z )dA ∫∫ g[ x, h ( x, z ), z ][1 + f + f y 2 ]1/2 dxdy
2
1 x
S R

where R is the orthogonal projection of S on the x-y plane.

(iii) Let S be represented in the form x = h1 ( y, z ). Then we can write

∫∫ g=
( x, y, z )dA ∫∫ g[h( y, z ), y, z ][1 + (h ) + (h1 ) 2 y ]1/2 dxdz
2
1 x
S R

where R is the orthogonal projection of S on the x-z plane.

(iv) Let S be represented in the form x = h( y, z ). Then we can write

∫∫=
g ( x, y, z )dA ∫∫ g[h( y, z ), y, z ][1 + h + hz 2 ]1/2 dydz
2
y
S R

where R is the orthogonal projection of S on the y-z plane.

If S is piecewise smooth and consists of the surfaces S1 , S 2 ,..., S k , then

∫∫ g=
S
( x, y, z )dA ∫∫ g ( x, y, z )dA + ∫∫ g ( x, y, z ) dA +... + ∫∫ g ( x, y, z ) dA .
S1 S2 Sk

We now present some of the important applications of the surface integrals.

46.2 Mass of a Surface

Let ρ ( x, y, z ) denote the density of a surface S at any point or mass per unit surface area.
Then, the mass m of the surface is given by

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 Surface Integral

m = ∫∫ ρ ( x, y, z )dA.
S

46.3 Moment of Inertia

Let ρ ( x, y, z ) denote the density of a surface S at any point. Then, the moment of inertia I of
the mass m with respect to a given axis l is defined by the surface integral

I = ∫∫ ρ ( x, y, z )d 2 dA.
S

where d is the distance of the point (x,y,z) from the reference axis l. If the surface is
homogeneous, then ρ ( x, y, z ) = constant and ρ ( x, y, z ) =m/A, where A is the surface area of
S. Then,

m
I= ∫∫
A S
d 2 dA

46.3.1 Example: Find the mass of the surface of the cone z = 2 + x 2 + y 2 , 2 ≤ z ≤ 7, in the
first octant, if the density ρ ( x, y, z ) at any point of the surface is proportional to its distance
from the x-y plane.

Solution: The density is given by ρ ( x, y, z ) = cz , c is constant. We have

x y
z=f ( x, y ) =+
2 x2 + y 2 , f x = , fy =
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2

x2 y2
dA = 1 + f x + f y dxdy = 1 + 2 + dxdy = 2dxdy.
2
2

x + y 2 x2 + y 2

The projection of S on the x-y plane is given by R : x 2 + y 2 =

25, in the first quadrant.

Therefore, mass of the surface is given by

m= ∫∫ czdA = ∫∫ c[2 +
S R
x 2 + y 2 ] 2dxdy

= c 2 ∫∫ [2 + x 2 + y 2 ]dxdy
R

=
Substituting θ , y r sin θ , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π / 2, we obtain
x r cos=

5 π /2 π /2 5
 2 r3 
m= c 2 ∫ ∫ (2 + r )rdrdθ= c 2 ∫  r +  dθ
0 0 0  3 0
 125  π 100 2
= c 2  25 +  = π c.
 3 2 3

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 Surface Integral

46.3.2 Example: Evaluate the integral ∫∫ ydA where

S
S is the portion of the cylinder

x= 6 − y in the first octant bounded by the planes=

2
x 0,=
y 0,=
z 0 and z = 8.

Solution: The equation of the surface is in the form x = h( y, z ). Here h( y, z )= 6 − y 2 and

g ( x, y, z ) = y. We have

hy =
−2 y, hz =
0, (1 + hy 2 + hz 2 )1/2 =
(1 + 4 y 2 )1/2 .

The projection of S on the y-z plane is the rectangle OABC with sides=
y 0,=
y =
6, z 0
and z = 8. Therefore,

6 8

∫∫ ydA =
∫∫ y(1 + 4 y ) dydz =
∫ ∫ y(1 + 4 y ) dydz
2 1/2 2 1/2

S R 0 0
6
 (1 + 4 y 2 )3/2  2 248
= 8 =  =
[(25)3/2 − 1] .
 8(3 / 2)  0 3 3

46.3.3 Example: Evaluate the surface integral ∫∫ F .ndA

S
where F = 6 zi + 6 j + 3 yk and S is

the portion of the plane 2 x + 3 y + 4 z =

12, which is in the first octant.

Solution: Let f ( x, y, z ) = 2 x + 3 y + 4 z − 12 = 0 be the surface. Then

gradf 1
grad f = 2i + 3 j + 4k , n = = (2i + 3 j + 4k ).
| gradf | 29

Consider the projection of S on the x-y plane. The projection of the portion of the plane ABC
in the first octant is the rectangle bounded by=
x 0,=y 0 and 2 x + 3 y = 12. We have

dxdy dxdy
=
dA = .
n.k 4 / 29

1
Therefore, ∫∫=
S
F .ndA ∫∫
S 29
(12 z + 18 + 12 y )dA.

From the equation of the surface, we get 4 z = 12 − 2 x − 3 y. Hence,

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 Surface Integral

1 1
∫∫ F .ndA
S
= ∫∫
S 29
(54 − 6 x + 3 y )=
dA
4 ∫∫
R
(54 − 6 x + 3 y )dxdy

1  
6 (12 − 2 x )/3 6
1
= ∫  ∫ (54 − 6 x + 3 y )dy = dx ∫ (360 − 102 x + 7 x 2 )dx
 y 0
4 x 0=
=  60
1 7 36
= 360 x − 51x 2
+ x = 138.
6  3  0

Suggested Readings

Courant, R. and John, F. (1989), Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol. II, Springer-
Verlag, New York.

Jain, R.K. and Iyengar, S.R.K. (2002) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Narosa
Publishing House, New Delhi.

Jordan, D.W. and Smith, P. (2002) Mathematical Techniques, Oxford University Press,
Oxford.

Kreyszig, E. (1999) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley, New York.

Piskunov, N. (1974) Differentail and Integral Calculus, Vol. II, MIR Publishers, Moscow.

Wylie, C. R. and Barrett, L.C. (2003) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Tata McGraw-
Hill, New Delhi.

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 Module-IV: Vector Calculus

Lesson 47

Stokes’s Theorem

47.1 Introduction
Let C be a curve in two dimensions which is written in the parametric form r = r ( s ) . Then,
the unit tangent vector to C is given by

dx dy
=
T i+ j
ds ds

Let v be written in the form =

v gi − fj.

 dx dy  dx dy
Then v.T =
( gi − fj ).  i + j =g −f .
 ds ds  ds ds

By Green’s theorem , we have

 ∂f ∂g 
∫ v.dr= ∫ v.Tds= ∫ gdx − fdy= ∫∫ −  ∂x + ∂y dxdy= ∫∫ (∇ × v).kdxdy. \
C C C R R

This result can be considered as a particular case of the Stokes’s theorem. Extension of the
Green’s theorem to three dimensions can be done under the following generalizations.

(i) The closed curve C enclosing R in the plane → the closed curve C bounding an
open smooth orientable surface S (open two sided surface).
(ii) The unit normal n to C → the unit outward or inward normal n to S.
(iii) Counter clockwise direction of C → the direction of C is governed by the direction
of the normal n to S. If n is taken as outward normal, then C is oriented as right
handed screw and if n is taken as inward normal, then C is oriented as left handed
screw.

47.2 The Main Result

We now state the Stokes’s theorem.

47.2.1 Theorem (Stokes’s Theorem): Let S be a piecewise smooth orient able surface
bounded by a piecewise smooth simple closed curve C. Let
v( x, y, z ) =v1 ( x, y, z )i + v2 ( x, y, z ) j + v3 ( x, y, z ) k be a vector function which is continuous and
has continuous first order partial derivatives in a domain which contains S. If C is traversed
in the positive direction, then

∫ v.dr= ∫ (v.T )ds= ∫∫ (∇ × v).ndA

C C S

where n is the unit normal to S in the direction o orientation of C.

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 Stokes’s Theorem

In terms of components of v we have

∫ [v ( x, y, z )dx + v ( x, y, z )dy + v ( x, y, z)dz=] ∫∫ (∇ × v).ndA.

C
1 2 3
S

47.2.2 Remark: As in divergence theorem, the theorem holds if the given surface S can be
subdivided into finitely many special surfaces such that each of these surfaces can be
described in the required manner.

47.2.3 Remark: To prove the Stokes’s theorem, it is not necessary that the equation of the
surface should be simultaneously written in the =
forms z f=
( x, y ), y g ( x, z ) and x = h( y, z )
. For example, if we take the question of the surface as z = f ( x, y ) and assume that f ( x, y )
has continuous second order partial derivatives then the theorem can be easily proved.

47.2.4 Remark: (Physical interpretation of curl)

We know that in rigid body rotation, if v denotes the tangential (linear) velocity of a point on
it, then curl v represents the angular velocity of the uniformly rotating body. We also know
that a line integral of a vector field v around a simple closed curve C defines the circulation
of v around C. For example, if v denotes the velocity of a fluid, then circulation gives the
amount by which the fluid tends to turn the curve by rotating or circulating around C.
Therefore, circulation (line integral) is closely related to curl of the vector field. To see this,
let Cr be a small circle with centre at P* ( x* , y* , z * ) . Then, by Stokes’s theorem, we have

∫ v.dr = ∫∫ curlv.ndA
Cr Sr

where S r is a small surface whose bounding curve is Cr . Let P ( x, y, z ) be any arbitrary point
on Cr . We approximate curlv( P ) ≈ curlv( P* ). Then, we have

∫ v.dr ∫∫= [curlv( P* ).n( P* )]∫∫ dA

* *
[curlv( P )].n( P )dA
Cr Sr Sr

= [curlv( P* ).n( P )] Ar
*

where Ar is the surface area of S r . Let the radius r of Cr tend to zero. Then, the
approximation curlv( P ) ≈ curlv( P* ) becomes more accurate and in the limit as r → 0, we get

1
curlv( P* ).n( P ) = lim ∫ v.dr.
*

r →0 Ar Cr

The left hand side of the above equation is the normal component of curl v. The right hand
side of equation is circulation of v per unit area. The left hand side is maximum when the
circle Cr is positioned such that the normal to surface, n( P* ) points in the same direction as
curlv( P* ).

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 Stokes’s Theorem

47.2.5 Remark: Stokes’s theorem states that the value of the surface integral is same for any
surface as long as the boundary curve, bounding the projection R on any coordinate plane, is
the same curve C. Hence, in the degenerate case, when S coincides with R, we can take n=k
or j or i depending on whether the projection is taken on the x-y plane or x-z plane or y-z
plane.

47.2.6 Example: Verify Stokes’s theorem for the vector field v = (3 x − y )i − 2 yz 2 j − 2 y 2 zk ,

where S is the surface of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2= 16, z > 0.

Solution: Consider projection of S on the x-y plane. The projection is the circular region
x 2 + y 2 ≤ 16, z =
0 and the bounding curve C is the circle z = 0, x 2 + y 2 = 16.

We have

∫ v.dr = ∫ (3x − y)dx − 2 yz dy − 2 y zdz = ∫ (3x − y)dx

2 2

C C C

=
since z=0. Setting cos θ , y 4sin θ , we obtain
x 4=

2π 2π
3 1 
C∫ (3x − y)dx =
∫0 4(3cos θ − sin θ )(−4sin θ )dθ =
−16 ∫  sin 2θ − (1 − cos 2θ )  dθ
0 
2 2 
1
= 16
=   2π 16π .
2

i j k
∇ × v = ∂ / ∂x ∂ / ∂y ∂ / ∂z = i (−4 yz + 4 yz ) − j (0) + k (1) = k
3 x − y −2 yz 2 −2 y 2 z
Now,
2( xi + yj + zk ) 1 z
=n = ( xi + yj + zk ), (∇ × v=
).n .
2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 4 4

Therefore,

z z dxdy z dxdy
∫∫ (∇ × v=
S
).ndA ∫∫=
4
dA ∫∫ = ∫∫ = ∫∫=
4 n.k
S
4 ( z / 4)
R
dxdy
R R
16π

which is the area of the circular region in the x-y plane. Hence, Stokes’s theorem is proved.

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 Stokes’s Theorem

∫ (2 y dx + x dy + zdz
3 3
47.2.7 Example: Evaluate where C is the trace of the cone
C

=z (x + y )
2 2

intersected by the plane x=4 and S is the surface of the cone below z=4.

Solution: We have v = 2 y 3i + x3 j + zk and

i j k
curlv =∂ / ∂x ∂ / ∂y ∂ / ∂z =i (0) − j (0) + k (3 x 2 − 6 y 2 ).
2 y3 x3 z
If the outward normal to S is taken, then it points downwards. Then, the orientation of C is
taken in the clockwise direction. Alternatively, if the inward normal to S is taken, then C is
oriented in the counter clockwise direction.

Let f ( x, y, z=
) x 2 + y 2 − z= 0 be taken as the equation of the surface. Then, the normal and
unit normal are given by

xi + yj xi + yj − zk ( xi + yj − zk ) / z xi + yj − zk
=N = −k = and n = except at the
x2 + y 2 z ( x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) / z 2 2z
origin.

(3 x 2 − 6 y 2 ) (3 x 2 − 6 y 2 ) dxdy
We have ∫∫ (∇ × v).ndA =
S
∫∫ −
S 2
dA = − ∫∫ −
S 2 (−1/ 2)

=
since dxdy = (n.k )dA. Therefore, substituting cos θ , y r sin θ , we obtain
x r=

4 0

∫∫ (∇ × v= ∫∫ (3x − 6 y )= ∫ ∫π (3cos θ − 6sin 2 θ )r 3 drdθ

2 2 2
).ndA dxdy
S R r =0 2

4 0 4 0
3 3
= ∫ ∫
2 0 2π
[(1 + cos 2θ ) − 2(1 − cos 2θ )]r 3 drd
=θ ∫ ∫
2 0 2π
(3cos 2θ − 1)r 3 drdθ

3  r 4  4  3sin 2θ  0
=    −θ  192π .
=
2  4 0 2  2π

=
The bounding curve C is given by x 2 + y 2 = 16, z = 4. Now setting cos θ , y 4sin θ ,
x 4=

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 Stokes’s Theorem

∫ 2 y dx + x dy + zdz
= ∫ 2 y dx + x dy
3 3 3 3

C C
0
= ∫π 64[2sin θ (−4sin θ ) + cos3 θ (4 cos θ )]
3

2
We obtain 2π π /2
−256 ∫ [cos θ − 2sin θ ]dθ =
= 4
−1024 ∫ (cos 4 θ − 2sin 4 θ
4

0 0

3 1 π  3 1 π 
=
−1024  . . − 2  . .   =192π .
4 4 2  4 2 2 

Hence, the theorem is verified.

Suggested Readings

Courant, R. and John, F. (1989), Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol. II, Springer-
Verlag, New York.

Jain, R.K. and Iyengar, S.R.K. (2002) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Narosa
Publishing House, New Delhi.

Jordan, D.W. and Smith, P. (2002) Mathematical Techniques, Oxford University Press,
Oxford.

Kreyszig, E. (1999) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley, New York.

Piskunov, N. (1974) Differentail and Integral Calculus, Vol. II, MIR Publishers, Moscow.

Wylie, C. R. and Barrett, L.C. (2003) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Tata McGraw-
Hill, New Delhi.

5
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 Module-IV: Vector Calculus

Lesson 48

Divergence Theorem of Gauss

48.1 Introduction
Let C be a curve in two dimensions which is written in the parametric form r = r ( s ) . Then, the
unit tangent and unit normal vectors to C are given by

dx dy dy dx
T = i+ j, n = i − j.
ds ds ds ds

Then,

 dx dy   dy dx 
fdx + gdy = f + g  ds =( gi − fj ).  i − j  ds =(v.n)ds
 ds ds   ds ds 

where =
v gi − fj. Also

∂g ∂f  ∂ ∂ 
− = i + j  .( gi − fj ) =
∇.v
∂x ∂y  ∂x ∂y 

Hence, Green’s theorem can be written in a vector form as

∫ (v.n)ds= ∫∫ (∇.v)dxdy
C R

The result is a particular case of the Gauss’s divergence theorem. Extension of the Greens’
theorem to three dimensions can be done under the following generalisations.

(i) A region R in the plane → a three dimensional solid D

(ii) The closed curve C enclosing R in the plane → the closed surface S enclosing the
solid D
(iii) The unit outer normal n to C → the unit outer normal n to S.
(iv) A vector field v in the plane → a vector field v in the three dimensional space
(v) The line integral ∫ (v.n)ds
C
→ a surface integral ∫∫ (v.n)dA
S

(vi) The double integral ∫∫ ∇.vdxdy

R
→ a triple (volume) integral ∫∫∫ ∇.vdV .
D

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 Divergence Theorem of Gauss

48.2 The Main Result

The above generalizations give the following divergence theorem.

Theorem: (Divergence theorem of Gauss) Let D be a closed and bounded region in the three
dimensional space whose boundary is a piecewise smooth surface S that is oriented outward. Let
v( x, y, z ) =v1 ( x, y, z )i + v2 ( x, y, z ) j + v3 ( x, y, z ) k be a vector field for which v1 , v2 and v3 are
continuous first order partial derivatives in some domain containing D. Then,

∫∫ (v.n)dA =∫∫∫ ∇.vdV =∫∫∫ div(v)dV

S D D

where n is the outer unit normal vector to S.

Remark: The given domain D can be subdivided into finitely many special regions such that each
region can be described in the required manner. In the proof of the divergence theorem, the
special region D has a vertical surface. This type of region is not required in the proof. The
region may have a vertical surface. For example, the region bounded by a sphere or an ellipsoid
has no vertical surface. The divergence theorem holds in all these cases. The divergence theorem
also holds for the region D bounded by two closed surfaces.

Remark: In terms of the components of v, divergence theorem can be written as

 ∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3 

∫∫ v dydz + v dzdx + v dxdy
S
1 2 = ∫∫∫ 
3 +
 ∂x ∂y D
+
∂z 
 dxdydz

or as

 ∂v1 ∂v2 ∂v3 

∫∫ (v cos α + v
S
1 2 cos β + v3 cos γ )dA
= ∫∫∫  ∂x + ∂y
D
+
∂z 
 dxdydz .

Example: Let D be the region bounded by the closed cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 16, z = 0 and z = 4.

Verify the divergence theorem if v =3 x 2i + 6 y 2 j + zk .

Solution: We have ∇.v = 6 x + 12 y + 1. Therefore,

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 Divergence Theorem of Gauss

4
4 =y 16 − x 2
∫∫∫ (∇.v)dV
=
D
∫∫ ∫
z =0
x=
−4 y =
− 16 − x 2
(6 x + 12 y + 1)dydxdz.
4
4 =y 16 − x 2
∫∫∫ (∇.v)dV
=
D
∫∫ ∫
z =0
x=
−4 y =
− 16 − x 2
(6 x + 12 y + 1)dydxdz.

Since x, y are odd functions, we obtain

4 4
=y 16 − x 2
∫∫∫ (∇.v)dV= (4)(2)(2) ∫
D z =0
∫ y =0
dydx= 16 ∫ 16 − x 2 dx
0

1 16  x  4
= 16  x 16 − x 2 + sin −1 =  64π .
2 2  4  0

The surface consists of three parts, S1 (top), S 2 (bottom) and S3 (vertical),

On S1 =
: z 4,=
n k

∫∫ (v.=
S1
n)dA ∫∫=
zdA 4 ∫∫
S1
= dA
S1
4 (area of circular region with radius 4)=64π.

On S 2 : z = 0, n = −k .

∫∫ (v.n)dA =
S2
=∫∫ − zdA =
0.
S2

2 xi + 2 yj 1
On S3 : x 2 + y 2 = 16, n= = ( xi + yj )
2 x2 + y 2 4

1
∫∫ (v.n)dA =
S3
= ∫∫
4 S3
(3 x3 + 6 y 3 )dA.

Using the cylindrical coordinates, we= cos θ , y 4sin

write x 4= = θ , dA 4dθ dz.

Therefore,
4 2π
1
∫∫S (v.n)dA 4=z∫0=θ∫0 [192 cos θ + 348sin θ ]4dθ dz
= 3 3

2π
= 192 ∫ [(cos 3θ + 3cos θ ) + 2(3sin θ − sin 3θ )]
0

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 Divergence Theorem of Gauss

Hence, ∫∫ (v.n)=
S
dA ∫∫∫ (∇.v)dV .
D

Green’s Identities (formulas)

Divergence theorem can be used to prove some important identities, called Green’s identities
which are of use in solving partial differential equations. Let f and g be scalar functions which
are continuous and have continuous partial derivatives in some region of the three dimensional
space. Let S be a piecewise smooth surface bounding a domain D in this region. Let the
functions f and g be such that v=f grad g Then, we have

∇.( f ∇g ) = f ∇ 2 g + ∇f .∇g

By divergence theorem, we obtain

∫∫ (v.n)dA = ∫∫ f (∇g.n)dA = ∫∫∫ ∇.( f ∇g )dV

S S D

∫∫∫ ( f ∇ g + ∇f .∇g )dV .

2

Now, ∇g .n is the directional derivative of g in the direction of the unit normal vector n.
Therefore, it can be denoted by ∂g / ∂n. We have the Green’s first identity as

∂g
∫∫ f (∇g.n)=
dA ∫∫ f = ∫∫∫ ( g∇ f + ∇g .∇f )dV .
2
dA
S S
∂n D

Interchanging f and g, we obtain

∂f
∫∫ g (∇f .n)=
dA ∫∫ f = dA ∫∫∫ ( g ∇ f + ∇g .∇f )dV .
2

S
∂n
S D

Subtracting the two results, we obtain the Green’s second identity as

 ∂g ∂f 
∫∫ ( f ∇g − g∇f ).ndA
= ∫∫  f − g  dA= ∫∫∫ ( f ∇ g − g∇
2 2
f )dV .
S 
S
∂n ∂n  D

Let f=1. Then, we obtain

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 Divergence Theorem of Gauss

∂y 2
∫∫ ∇g.ndA =
S
∫∫ S
∂n
dA =∫∫∫
D
∇ gdV .

If g is a harmonic function, then ∇ 2 g =

0 and we have

∂y
∫∫ ∇g.ndA= ∫∫ ∂n dA=
S S
0.

This equation gives a very important property of the solutions of Laplace equation, that is of
harmonic functions. It states that if g ( x, y, z ) is a harmonic function, that is, it is a solution of the
equation

∂2 g ∂2 g ∂2 g
+ + =
0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

Then, the integral of the normal derivative of g over any piecewise smooth closed orient able
surface is zero.

Suggested Readings

Courant, R. and John, F. (1989), Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol. II, Springer-Verlag,
New York.

Jain, R.K. and Iyengar, S.R.K. (2002) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Narosa Publishing
House, New Delhi.

Jordan, D.W. and Smith, P. (2002) Mathematical Techniques, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Kreyszig, E. (1999) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley, New York.

Piskunov, N. (1974) Differentail and Integral Calculus, Vol. II, MIR Publishers, Moscow.

Wylie, C. R. and Barrett, L.C. (2003) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Tata McGraw-Hill,
New Delhi.

5
367 www.AgriMoon.Com
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