NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• GLAND:- Definition and Types (exocrine gland and endocrine gland)

• EXOCRINE GLAND:- Definition, also known as ductile glands, examples.

• ENDOCRINE GLAND:- Definition, also known as ductless glands, examples.

HORMONES: definitions and examples

• It should be noted that hormonal influence upon behavior do not exist

independently of the central nervous system. There is a close association
between endocrine glands and the brain. So ,here comes the concept of
“NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM”.
 • NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM:-

• Definition and Function

• Concept of neuroendocrine cells.

• FUNCTIONS OF NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM:-

• The interconnectivity and interdependency of nervous system and endocrine
system in maintaining bodily functions and the state of internal equilibrium i.e.,
homeostasis.

• Other functions of neuroendocrine cells are following:

✔ Control the release of digestive enzyme to break down food.
✔ Control how fast food moves through the GI tract.
✔ Control the air and blood flow through lungs.
✔ Influences blood pressure and heart rate.
✔ Control the blood glucose level.
✔ Control Bone and muscle growth.
✔ Control sleep wake cycle.
 SUMMARY REFLECT SOME OF THE MAJOR
ENDOCRINE GLANDS IN THE BODY, THEIR
HORMONES AND GENERAL FUNCTION
GLAND HORMONES GENERAL
FUNCTION
Thyroid Thyroxin Increases metabolism
parathyroid parathormone Control of calcium and
phosphate
Adrenal cortex a. Glucocorticoids Increases carbohydrate
metabolism.

b. Mineral corticoids Control of body minerals.

Adrenal medulla a. epinephrine/ Stimulates ACTH

adrenaline. secretion.

b. Norepinephrine/ Increases sympathetic

noradrenalin. arousal.
GLAND HORMONES GENERAL FUNCTION

Anterior pituitary a. Growth hormone. a. Stimulation of growth.

b. Thyrotropin. b. Stimulation of thyroid.
c. Adrenocorticotropic c. Stimulation of adrenal
hormone(ACTH). cortex.
d. Follicle stimulating d. Development of germ
hormone(FSH). cells.
e. Luteinizing hormone(LH). e. Stimulation of sex
f. Prolactin. hormone.
f. Increases in milk
production.
Posterior pituitary a. vasopressin. a. Water control.
b. Oxytocin. b. Uterine contractions &
increases in milk
production.

Gonads a. Estrogen( female). a. Primary/ secondary sex

b. Androgen(male). characteristics.
b. Primary/ secondary sex
characteristics.
Each gland to be studied with respect to the following
points

The site or location

The physical structure
Hormones released and their general functions
Abnormalities of release i.e.
HYPER (over) and
HYPO (under) secretion of those hormones
 THE PITUITARY GLAND
• LOCATION Pituitary gland is located just below the pineal gland and hypothalamus.

• STRUCTURE OF PITUITARY GLAND:- shape, size, weight, structural division., concept of anterior
and posterior pituitary.

• PITUITARY AS MASTER GLAND: The pituitary gland is frequently referred to as master gland
because most of its hormones are tropic hormones, which influence the release of hormones from other
glands.

• REEASED HORMONES WITH THEIR ENERAL FUNCTIONS

ANTERIOR PITUITARY
• Growth hormone - Stimulation of growth.
• Thyrotropin - Stimulation of thyroid.
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH) - Stimulation of adrenal cortex.
• Follicle stimulating hormone(FSH)- Development of germ cells.
• Luteinizing hormone(LH) - Stimulation of sex hormone.
• Prolactin - Increases in milk production.

POSTERIOR PITUITARY
• Vasopressin - regulator of water balance in the body, also known as antidiuretic hormone(ADH).
• Oxytocin - a. It stimulates the contractions of uterus during labor.
b. it helps to increase milk production after child birth.
• ABNORMALITIES OF GROWTH HORMONE :
HYPERSECRETION: 1.Gigantism.
2.Acromegali.
HYPOSECRETION: Dwarfism.

• ABNORMALITIES OF THYROTROPIN:
HYPERSECRETION: Grave’s disease.
HYPOSECRETION: Cretinism.

• ABNORMALITIES OF ACTH:
HYPERSECRETION: Cushing’s syndrome.
HYPOSECRETION: Addison’s disease.

• ABNORMALITIES OF VASOPRESSIN:
HYPERSECRETION: Diabetes insipidus.
 THYROID GLAND
• LOCATIONS:- Thyroid gland lying on the sides of the throat about at the level of larynx.

• STRUCTURE:- It generally consists of two lobes which is connected by a strip of thyroid tissue, known as
isthmus.

• HORMONES OF THYROID GLAND:- With the help of iodine, thyroid gland makes 3 hormones.
Thyroxine( T4).
Triiodothyronine(T3).
Thyrocalcitonin.
• FUNCTIONS OF THYROID HORMONES:-
A. Effect on BMR.
B. Effect on metabolism.
C. Effect on heart rate.
D. Effect on body growth.
E. Effect on heat regulations.
F. Effect on blood corpuscles
G. Effect on mammary gland.

• ABNORMALITIES OF THYROID HORMONE:

1. HYPOSECRETION: Cretinism.
2. HYPERSECRETION :Grave’s disease.
 THE PARATHYROID GLAND
• LOCATION:- The parathyroid, lying immediately above the thyroid gland.

• STRUCTURE: Parathyroid glands are four lobe structure.

• HORMONES OF PARATHYROID GLAND WITH FUNCTION:-

Parathormone (PTH):
A. maintain optimal level of calcium for the proper functioning of neural, skeletal, and
muscle tissue.
B. Reduces reabsorption of phosphate but increases reabsorption of calcium from
kidney.

• ABNORMALITIES OF THIS HORMONE:

HYPOSECRETION: Tetany.
HYPERSECRETION: General sluggishness.
 ADRENAL GLAND
• LOCATION:- It is located on the top of the kidney, within the renal fascia, thus it is referred to
as suprarenal gland.

• STRUCTURE:- Adrenal glands are paired structures. The two parts of adrenal gland are:
a. Adrenal cortex b. Adrenal medulla
( external part ) (inner part)

• HORMONES OF ADRENAL CORTEX WITH THEIR FUNCTIONS:-

A. GLUCOCORTICOIDS: Promote the conversion of stored protein and fat into glucose.
B. MINERALCORTICOIDS: Regulate levels of minerals in the body.
C. ANDROGENS: Helps in the development of gonads.
Influence primary and secondary sex characteristics.

• ABNORMALITIES OF THESE HORMONES:

HYPOSECRETION: Addison’s disease.
HYPERSECRETION: Cushing’s syndrome.

• HORMONES OF ADRENAL MEDULLA WITH THEIR FUNCTIONS:

A. Epinephrine/adrenalin: Stimulate anterior pituitary to secret ACTH.
B. Nor epinephrine/ noradrenalin: increases sympathetic arousal.
 GONADS
• CLASSIFICATION OF GONADS:

MALE GONADA :testis.

FEMALE GONAD ovaries.

• LOCATION OF GONADS:
located behind the penis in a pouch of skin called the scrotum(MALE GONAD).
they are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus( FEMALE GONAD).

• STRUCTURE OF GONADS:
Ovaries are oval shaped, pinkish-gray in color, Connected to the uterus by the fallopian tubes.
Testes are oval organs about the size of large olives.

• HORMONES RELEASED FROM GONADS WITH THEIR FUNCTIONS:

1. ANDROGEN:-
Testosterone plays most important role in the development of primary and secondary male sexual
characteristics
 It influences the production of sperm cells.
• ESTROGENS:-
It helps in the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics.
It also initiates the development of ovum from ovary.
It regulates menstrual cycle.

• PROGESTERONE:-
It prepares the uterus for the possible reception of a fertilized ovum.
It also helps in the production of placenta.
It stimulates uterine contractions during labor.
 THE HYPOTHALAMUS GLAND
• LOCATION: Hypothalamus is HYPOTHALAMIC INFLUENCES ON
located just below the anterior HORMONES ANTERIOR
thalamus. PITUITARY
• STRUCTURE : It is a small cone Corticotropin- releasing Increases ACTH level
shaped structure that projects hormone(CRH)
downward from the brain, ending
in the pituitary stalk. Thyrotropin- releasing Increases thyrotrpin level.
hormone(TRH)
• HYPOTHALAMUS AS
MASTER GLAND:
Growth hormone releasing Increases growth hormone
Hypothalamus synthesizes and hormone(GRH) level.
secrets certain neurohormones,
which regulate the secretion of
tropic hormones from anterior Somatostatin( growth hormone Reduce growth hormone
pituitary. Thus this is referred to release inhibiting hormone level
GIH)
as “master gland”.

TABLE SHOWING FSH releasing hormone Increases FSH level

HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES
AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:- LH releasing hormone Increases LH level
Prolacting releasing hormone Increase prolactin levels