REFRIGERATION

&
AIR
CONDITIONING

MODULE 6

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 1

 SYLLABUS

Air conditioning systems- room air conditioner-

split system-packaged system-all air system-chilled
water system.

Winter air conditioning – factors affecting heating

system, humidifiers.

Year round air conditioning

AC system controls-thermostat and humidistat.

Air distribution systems- duct system and design-

Air conditioning of restaurants, hospitals, retail

outlets, computer center, cinema theatre, and other
place of amusement.

Industrial applications of air conditioning.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 2

 AIR-CONDITIONING
Air-conditioning is a process of maintaining range of
temperature, humidity and cleanliness of air for human comfort
and for proper working of some industrial processes. It is very old
technology and has achieved fast growth due to urbanization of
culture and industrialization of economy after second world war.
The proper maintenance of temperature, cleanliness, and
humidity is required due to global warming, industrial pollutions,
and changes in season round the year.

In order to maintain required conditions inside the conditioned

space, energy has to be either supplied or extracted from the
conditioned space. The energy in the form of sensible as well as
latent heat has to be supplied to the space in winter and extracted
from the conditioned space in case of summer.

Selection of a suitable air conditioning system depends on:

1. Capacity, performance and spatial requirements
2. Initial and running costs
3. Required system reliability and flexibility
4. Maintainability
5. Architectural constraints

The air-conditioning systems are normally categorized according

to

 Purpose of systems: Comfort air-conditioning and industrial

air-conditioning.
 Season of the use of system: Summer, winter and year-around
air-conditioning systems.
 Working substance used in the system: All-air systems, All-
water systems and air water systems.
 Volumes of air handled by the system: Constant volume
systems and variable air volume systems.
 Arrangement of equipment in the system: Central air-
conditioning system and unitary air-conditioning system.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 3

 Comfort and Industrial Air-Conditioning
Systems

Comfort air-conditioning systems deal with the creation of an

optimum environmental conditions conducive to human health,
comfort and efficiency. Air-conditioning systems in homes,
offices, stores, restaurants, theatres, schools and hospitals etc. are
of this type.
There are some manufacturing processes which need to be done
under controlled environmental conditions. Even some of the
sophisticated and precision instruments peed controlled
conditions for -their effective working and upkeep. The
conditioning done for this purpose is called industrial air-
conditioning and is concerned with production of environment
suitable for

Metrology laboratories, precision machine shops, computer

centers: Here constantancy of temperature is the main
consideration and a variation of ± 10 to 20 per cent in relative
humidity does not have much effect on performance.

Paper and textile mills: The temperature requirements for such

spaces are not severe but the relative humidity has to be
maintained at a high valve (70 to 75%)

Chemical and biological process industry: These systems need a

strict control on both temperature and relative humidity.

Photographic processing: The quality of film relies on

uniformity of the layers of sensitized photographic films and this
depends on careful control of temperature. For processing film, a
temperature of 21°C to 30°C is recommended with humidity 50
to 55 percent.

Libraries and museums: The recommended conditions are 5 to

25°C temperature .and 40 to 50 percent relative humidity. The
air-conditioning of these places is essential to prevent the

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 4

spoilage of antiques of museum, and to have long life of books
and journals which is likely to be affected by dust and corrosive
vapours with excessive moisture.

Summer Air-Conditioning
These systems, when properly designed and installed, maintain
the temperature and humidity of indoor air to a level at which
persons feel comfortable during summer. Essentially, it involves
reducing the air temperature and humidity (in humid tropics) by
the processing of cooling and dehumidification.

Summer Air Conditioning for Hot and Wet Weather

In most of the places the summer season is hot and humid. Hence,
in order to provide comfortable conditions to the occupants
during summer, it is required to supply cold and dry air to the
occupied space. This requires systems wherein the hot and humid
air can be cooled to temperatures lower than the dew point
temperature, so that the water vapour in air can be removed by
condensation, and the resulting cold and dehumidified air
supplied to the conditioned space in required quantity for
providing thermal comfort. Thus it can be seen that a typical

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 5

summer air conditioning system requires a refrigeration system
that reduces the temperature of the air to temperatures much
lower than the surroundings.
Air is cooled and generally dehumidified. Outside air flows
through the damper, and mixes up with recirculated air (obtained
from the conditioned space). The mixed air passes through a filter
to remove dust, dirt and other impurities. Air now passes through
a cooling coil. The coil has a temperature much below the
required dry bulb temperature of the air in the conditioned space.
The cooled air passes through a perforated membrane and loses
its moisture in the condensed form which is collected in a sump.
Then air is heated by using a heating coil to bring the air to the
designed room temperature. Conditioned air is supplied to the
conditioned space by fan. From the conditioned space, a part of
the used air is exhausted to the atmosphere by the exhaust fans.
The remaining part of the used air (recirculated air) is again
conditioned. The outside air is sucked and made to mix with the
recirculated air in order to make up for the loss of conditioned air
through exhaust fans from the conditioned space

Summer Air Conditioning for Hot and Dry Weather

In some areas such as deserts, the summer is hot and dry. Air
conditioning systems for these hot and dry climates also require
cooling of air below the ambient temperatures, however, in stead
of removing water vapour it may be required to add water to the
air supplied to the conditioned space.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 6

Air is cooled and humidified. Outside air flows through the
damper, and mixes up with recirculated air (obtained from the
conditioned space). The mixed air passes through a filter to
remove dust, dirt and other impurities. Air now passes through a
cooling coil for sensible cooling. The air is then passed through a
spray type humidifier in which fresh water in the form of spray is
injected into the air stream. A part of water gets evaporated and
mixes with the air. Thus the air humidity is increased. The air is
then passed through an eliminator where water droplets are
removed before supplying to the conditioned space

Winter Air Conditioning

Air is heated and generally humidified. Outside air flows through

the damper, and mixes up with recirculated air(obtained from the
conditioned space). The mixed air passes through a filter to
remove dust, dirt and other impurities. Air now passes through a
preheat coil in order to prevent the possible freezing of water and
to control the evaporation of water in the humidifier. The
preheated air passes through a reheat coil to bring the air to the
designed room temperature. The humidification of air can be
achieved in several ways, e.g. by bringing the air in contact with
a wetted surface, or with droplets of water as in an air washer, by

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 7

adding aerosol sized water droplets directly to air or by direct
addition of dry saturated or superheated steam. The most common
method of humidifying air for these applications is by direct
addition of dry steam to air

Year Round Air Conditioning System

This system should have equipment for both the summer and
winter air conditioning. Outside air flows through the damper,
and mixes up with recirculated air (obtained from the conditioned
space). The mixed air passes through a filter to remove dust, dirt
and other impurities

In summer air conditioning, the cooling coil operates to cool the

air to the desired value. The dehumidification is obtained by
operating the cooling coil at a temperature lower than the dew
point temperature. In winter, the cooling coil is made inoperative
and the heating coil operates to heat the air

Or

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 8

Figure shows a complete air conditioning system that can be used
for providing air conditioning throughout the year, i.e., during
summer as well as winter. As shown in the figure, the system
consists of a filter, a heating coil, a cooling & dehumidifying coil,
a re-heating coil, a humidifier and a blower. In addition to these,
actual systems consist of several other accessories such as
dampers for controlling flow rates of re-circulated and outdoor
(OD) air, control systems for controlling the space conditions,
safety devices etc. Large air conditioning systems use blowers in
the return air stream also. Generally, during summer the heating
and humidifying coils remain inactive, while during winter the
cooling and dehumidifying coil remains inactive. However, in
some applications for precise control of conditions in the
conditioned space all the coils may have to be made active. The
blowers will remain active throughout the year, as air has to be
circulated during summer as well as during winter. When the
outdoor conditions are favourable, it is possible to maintain
comfort conditions by using filtered outdoor air alone, in which
case only the blowers will be running and all the coils will be
inactive leading to significant savings in energy consumption. A

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 9

control system is required which changes-over the system from
winter operation to summer operation or vice versa depending
upon the outdoor conditions.

Unitary Air-Conditioning Systems

Unitary refrigerant based systems consist of several separate air

conditioning units with individual refrigeration systems. These
systems are factory assembled and tested as per standard
specifications, and are available in the form of package units of
varying capacity and type. Each package consists of refrigeration
and/or heating units with fans, filters, controls etc. Depending
upon the requirement these are available in the form of window
air conditioners, split air conditioners, heat pumps, ductable
systems with air cooled or water cooled condensing units etc. The
capacities may range from fraction of TR to about 100 TR for
cooling. Depending upon the capacity, unitary refrigerant based
systems are available as single units which cater to a single
conditioned space, or multiple units for several conditioned
spaces
Types
 Window or Room Air conditioner
 Split Air conditioner
 Package unit with a remote condensing unit
 Vertical packed units

Window Air Conditioner or Room Air Conditioner

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 10

Figure shows the schematic of a typical window type, room air
conditioner, which is available in cooling capacities varying from
about 0.3 TR to about 3.0 TR. As the name implies, these units
are normally mounted either in the window sill or through the
wall. As shown in the figure, this type of unit consists of single
package which includes the cooling and dehumidification coil,
condenser coil, a hermetic compressor, expansion device
(capillary tube), condenser fan, evaporator fan, room air filter and
controls. A drain tray is provided at the bottom to take care of the
condensate water. Both evaporator and condensers are plate fin-
and-tube, forced convection type coils

All the components, namely the compressor, condenser,

expansion valve and evaporator are enclosed in a single casing.
The unit is divided into two parts; using partition; the indoor part
and the outdoor part. Window air conditioner is mounted on
windows or walls, such that the indoor part is inside the room and
the outdoor part is outside. The indoor unit consists of a filter,
evaporator, blower and an expansion valve

The outdoor part, located outside the room, consists of a

compressor, condenser and a fan. This unit has a double shaft fan
motor with fans on mounted on both sides of the motor; one at the

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 11

evaporator side (Blower) and other at the condenser side. The
evaporator side is located facing the room for cooling and the
condenser side outdoor for heat rejection. Insulated partition
separating the two sides within the same casing. Blower sucks the
warm air from the room through the air filter and delivers the
cooled and dehumidified air back into the room through the
supply air grill

Split Air Conditioner

For rooms that do not have external windows or walls, a split type
room air conditioner can be used. In these air conditioners, the
condensing unit comprising of the condenser, compressor and
condenser fan with motor are located outside, while the indoor
unit consisting of the evaporator, evaporator fan with motor,
expansion valve and air filter is located inside the conditioned
room. The indoor and outdoor units are connected by refrigerant
piping. In split type air conditioners, the condensed water has to
be taken away from the conditioned space using separate drain
pipes.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 12

Package unit with a remote condensing unit

Figure shows a typical package unit with a remote condensing

unit. As shown, in a typical package unit, the remote condensing
unit consists of the compressor and a condenser, while the indoor
unit consists of the plate fin-and-tube type, evaporator, a blower,
air filter, drain tray and an arrangement for connecting supply air
and return air ducts. These units are available in capacities
ranging from about 5 TR to upto about 100 TR. The condenser
used in these systems could be either air cooled or water cooled.
This type of system can be used for providing air conditioning in
a large room or it can cater to several small rooms with suitable
supply and return ducts. It is also possible to house the entire
refrigeration in a single package with connections for water lines
to the water cooled condenser and supply and return air ducts.
Larger systems are either constant air volume type or variable air
volume type. They may also include heating coils along with the
evaporator

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 13

Vertical Packed Units

Self-contained units of bigger capacity of 5 TR to 20 TR, and are

installed adjacent to the space to be conditioned. Bigger version
of the room air conditioner. Like the room air conditioner, the
package unit also houses the air filtering, cooling, dehumidifying
and air-handling components and is factory assembled.
Components for heating and humidifying purposes can also be
included within the unit. The condenser can be of the water-
cooled or the air-cooled type. For the evaporator side, centrifugal

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 14

fans are provided, which can develop a higher static pressure. So,
air distribution duct and grills can be connected to the unit

The salient aspects of unitary air-conditioning systems are:

 They are mass produced and factory assembled units including

internal wiring, controls and piping.
 The installation is quite easy and there is considerable
flexibility in shifting the unit from one place to another.
 The initial and operating cost is less when selection and control
of the system is done properly. However, the capital cost per
ton of refrigeration is quite high.
 These units are preferred for low capacity requirements upto
15 tons and about 200 m3/min air flow.
 The system does not need any duct work for air distribution.
 Failure of the unit puts off conditioning in one room only.
 The units are to be kept running only at the places where
cooling is required (units in other rooms can be stopped) and
accordingly these systems have high load factor.

However these systems have relatively few options with regard

to sizing the evaporator, condenser, fans, compressor and
controls. Further, each unit is required to meet the peak loads of
the space it serves and accordingly the installed capacity and
connected electrical load are usually larger.

The unitary systems are available as:

 Window units which are primarily found in residential

applications.
 Through-the-wall units are designed into the buildings and find
application in motels, health care facilities, schools and
offices.
 Roof top units are primarily applied in low rise buildings with
flat roofs such as stores, shopping centres and factories.
 Split systems where the unit is bifurcated into two parts:

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 15

  The evaporator coil, evaporator blower with its motor,
capillary tube, control panel, air filter, supply and return air
grilles etc. are mounted in a cabinet and kept inside the
room.
 The compressor, air cooled condenser, condenser fan and
motor are installed outside the room in a suitable casing.

The distance between the indoor and outside units has to be kept
as small as possible. With increase in distance, the pressure drop
in the suction and liquid lines becomes more and that results in a
reduction of the capacity of the unit. The split systems enable
noise, vibration and maintenance to be kept away from the
conditioned space and as such are quite acceptable for office
suite, residences, stores and restaurants.

Advantages of unitary refrigerant based systems:

1. Individual room control is simple and inexpensive.
2. Each conditioned space has individual air distribution with
simple adjustment by the occupants.
3. Performance of the system is guaranteed by the manufacturer.
4. System installation is simple and takes very less time.
5. Operation of the system is simple and there is no need for a
trained operator.
6. Initial cost is normally low compared to central systems.
7. Retrofitting is easy as the required floor space is small.

Disadvantages of unitary refrigerant based systems:

1. As the components are selected and matched by the
manufacturer, the system is less flexible in terms of air flow
rate, condenser and evaporator sizes.
2. Power consumption per TR could be higher compared to
central systems.
3. Close control of space humidity is generally difficult.
4. Noise level in the conditioned space could be higher.
5. Limited ventilation capabilities.
6. Systems are generally designed to meet the appliance
standards, rather than the building standards.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 16

7. May not be appealing aesthetically.
8. The space temperature may experience a swing if on-off
control is used as in room air conditioners.
9. Limited options for controlling room air distribution.
10. Equipment life is relatively short.

Applications of unitary refrigerant based systems:

Unitary refrigerant based systems are used where stringent
control of conditioned space temperature and humidity is not
required and where the initial cost should be low with a small lead
time. These systems can be used for air conditioning individual
rooms to large office buildings, classrooms, hotels, shopping
centers, nursing homes etc. These systems are especially suited
for existing building with a limitation on available floor space for
air conditioning systems

Central Air-Conditioning

This system is adopted where the cooling capacity required is 25

TR or more. This system is adopted when the air flow is more
than 300m3/min or different zones in a building are to be air
conditioned. The various components of the air conditioning
plant, namely the compressor with its drive motor, condenser,
Air-handling unit with the cooing coil, throttling devices and the
interconnecting refrigerant piping are carefully selected and field
installed.
The condensing unit (the compressor with its drive motor and
condenser) are located in the plant room separated from the air-
conditioned space and the air handling unit. A supply duct is used
to carry conditioned air to the room and a return duct carry the
return air to the air-handling room. Fresh air duct is used to supply
fresh air to the air-handling room. Both the supply and return-air
ducts will have to be insulated as these will have to pass through
the non-conditioned areas

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 17

The central air-conditioning systems can be either of the direct
or indirect type

Direct Type or Direct Expansion Sytem: The air from

the space to be air-conditioned is circulated over the coil in which
low pressure refrigerant liquid is boiling. The latent heat of
vaporization for the liquid refrigerant is taken from the air being
circulated over the coil

The compressor and condenser (or condensing unit) of the

refrigeration plant are located in a plant room near the air-
handling unit room. The cooling coil of the refrigeration plant is
fixed in the air-handling unit. The suction and liquid lines connect
the condensing unit to the cooling coil. These systems are most
suitable for installation where the condensing unit and the air-
handling unit are not far apart

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 18

Indirect Type or Central Chilled water (or brine)
System: Chilled water or brine from the refrigeration plant is
circulated through the cooling coil located in the air handling unit
to cool and dehumidify the room air.

All components of the system are grouped together at one

location and the secondary refrigerant (water or brine) is cooled
in the evaporator or cooler. The cooled liquid (water or brine) is

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 19

circulated by pump through cooling coils located in the air-
handling units located at various places near the space to be
conditioned

The salient aspects of central air-conditioning systems arc:

 The components comprising the system (e.g., cooling and

heating coils, humidifiers and dehumidifiers, air filters,
blowers with motors, and control devices) are assembled at site
rather than in the factory.
 These units are preferred for large capacity units above 25 tons
and about 2500 m3/min of airflow.
 The systems are easy to control, have the less power
consumption and are quite economical for large tonnage.
 Installation charges are more due to the requirement of duct
work.
 The control plant is located in unoccupied areas, hence
facilitating operation, maintenance and repair.
 Noise and vibration levels are fairly low.
 All rooms are affected by the system failure, and it is also
difficult to meet the needs of individual rooms.
 Low load factor as the plant has to be kept running even when
only few rooms require conditioning.

The central air-conditioning systems are generally preferred for

auditoriums, departmental stores and large multi-storeys
buildings.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 20

 ALL AIR SYSTEMS
In these systems air is processed in the A/C plant and this
processed air is then conveyed to the conditioned space through
insulated ducts using blowers and fans. This air extracts (or
supplies in case of winter) the required amount of sensible and
latent heat from the conditioned space. The return air from the
conditioned space is conveyed back to the plant, where it again
undergoes the required processing thus completing the cycle. All
air systems can be further classified as:

 Single duct system

 Dual duct system

The single duct systems can provide either cooling or heating

using the same duct, but not both heating and cooling
simultaneously. These systems can be further classified into:
1. Constant volume, single zone systems
2. Constant volume, multiple zone systems
3. Variable volume systems

The dual duct systems can provide both cooling and heating
simultaneously. These systems can be further classified into:
1. Dual duct, constant volume systems
2. Dual duct variable volume systems

Single Duct System

The single duct system is used to provide either cooling or heating
using the same duct but not both heating and cooling
simultaneously. This system can be further classified into:

 Constant volume, single zone system

 Constant volume, multiple zone system
 Variable volume system

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 21

Single duct, constant volume, single zone system

As shown in the figure, outdoor air (OD air) for ventilation and
recirculated air (RC air) are mixed in the required proportions
using the dampers and the mixed air is made to flow through a
cooling and dehumidifying coil, a heating coil and a humidifier
using a an insulated ducting and a supply fan. As the air flows
through these coils the temperature and moisture content of the
air are brought to the required values. Then this air is supplied to
the conditioned space, where it meets the building cooling or
heating requirements. The return air leaves the conditioned space,
a part of it is recirculated and the remaining part is vented to the
atmosphere.
A thermostat senses the temperature of air in the conditioned
space and controls the amount of cooling or heating provided in
the coils so that the supply air temperature can be controlled as
per requirement. A humidistat measures the humidity ratio in the
conditioned space and controls the amount of water vapour added
in the humidifier and hence the supply air humidity ratio as per
requirement.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 22

This system is called as a single duct system as there is only one
supply duct, through which either hot air or cold air flows, but not
both simultaneously. It is called as a constant volume system as
the volumetric flow rate of supply air is always maintained
constant. It is a single zone system as the control is based on
temperature and humidity ratio measured at a single point. Here
a zone refers to a space controlled by one thermostat. However,
the single zone may consist of a single room or one floor or whole
of a building consisting of several rooms. The cooling/ heating
capacity in the single zone, constant volume systems is regulated
by regulating the supply air temperature and humidity ratio, while
keeping the supply airflow rate constant. A separate sub-system
controls the amount of OD air supplied by controlling the damper
position.

Applications of single duct, single zone, constant volume systems:

 Spaces with uniform loads, such as large open areas with
small external loads e.g. theatres, auditoria, departmental
stores.
 Spaces requiring precision control such as laboratories

Single duct, constant volume, multiple zone systems

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 23

For very large buildings with several zones of different
cooling/heating requirements, it is not economically feasible to
provide separate single zone systems for each zone. For such
cases, multiple zone systems are suitable. Figure shows a single
duct, multiple zone system with terminal reheat coils. In these
systems all the air is cooled and dehumidified (for summer) or
heated and humidified (for winter) to a given minimum or
maximum temperature and humidity ratio. A constant volume of
this air is supplied to the reheat coil of each zone. In the reheat
coil the supply air temperature is increased further to a required
level depending upon the load on that particular zone. This is
achieved by a zone thermostat, which controls the amount of
reheat, and hence the supply air temperature. The reheat coil may
run on either electricity or hot water.

Advantages of single duct, multiple zone, constant volume

systems with reheat coils:
 Relatively small space requirement
 Excellent temperature and humidity control over a wide
range of zone loads
 Proper ventilation and air quality in each zone is maintained
as the supply air amount is kept constant under all
conditions

Disadvantages of single duct, multiple zone, constant volume

systems with reheat coils:
 High energy consumption for cooling, as the air is first
cooled to a very low temperature and is then heated in the
reheat coils. Thus energy is required first for cooling and
then for reheating. The energy consumption can partly be
reduced by increasing the supply air temperature, such that
at least one reheat coil can be switched-off all the time. The
energy consumption can also be reduced by using waste
heat (such as heat rejected in the condensers) in the reheat
coil.
 Simultaneous cooling and heating is not possible.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 24

Single duct, variable air volume (VAV) systems

Figure shows a single duct, multiple zone, variable air volume

system for summer air conditioning applications. As shown, in
these systems air is cooled and dehumidified to a required level
in the cooling and dehumidifying coil (CC). A variable volume
of this air is supplied to each zone. The amount of air supplied to
each zone is controlled by a zone damper, which in turn is
controlled by that zone thermostat as shown in the figure. Thus
the temperature of supply air to each zone remains constant,
whereas its flow rate varies depending upon the load on that
particular zone.

Compared to constant volume systems, the variable air volume

systems offer advantages such as:
 Lower energy consumption in the cooling system as air is
not cooled to very low temperatures and then reheated as in
constant volume systems.
 Lower energy consumption also results due to lower fan
power input due to lower flow rate, when the load is low.
These systems lead to significantly lower power
consumption, especially in perimeter zones where

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 25

 variations in solar load and outside temperature allows for
reduced air flow rates.

Dual Duct System

Dual duct, constant volume systems

As shown in the figure, in a dual duct system the supply air fan
splits the flow into two streams. One stream flow through the
cooling coil and gets cooled and dehumidified to about 13oC,
while the other stream flows the heating coil and is heated to
about 35–45oC. The cold and hot streams flow through separate
ducts. Before each conditioned space or zone, the cold and hot air
streams are mixed in required proportions using a mixing box
arrangement, which is controlled by the zone thermostat. The
total volume of air supplied to each zone remains constant,
however, the supply air temperature varies depending upon load.

Advantages of dual duct systems:

 Since total airflow rate to each zone is constant, it is possible
to maintain proper IAQ and room air distribution.
 Cooling in some zones and heating in other zones can be
achieved simultaneously

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 26

  System is very responsive to variations in the zone load,
thus it is possible to maintain required conditions precisely.

Disadvantages of dual duct systems:

 Occupies more space as both cold air and hot air ducts have
to be sized to handle all the air flow rate, if required.
 Not very energy efficient due to the need for simultaneous
cooling and heating of the air streams. However, the energy
efficiency can be improved by completely shutting down
the cooling coil when the outside temperature is low and
mixing supply air from fan with hot air in the mixing box.
Similarly, when the outside weather is hot, the heating coil
can be completely shut down, and the cold air from the
cooling coil can be mixed with supply air from the fan in
the mixing box.

Dual duct variable air volume system

These systems are similar to dual duct constant volume systems
with the only difference that instead of maintaining constant flow
rates to each zone, the mixing boxes reduce the air flow rate if the
load on the zone drops.

Advantages of all air systems

 All air systems offer the greatest potential for energy
conservation by utilizing the outdoor air effectively.
 By using high-quality controls, it is possible to maintain the
temperature and relative humidity of the conditioned space
within ±0.15°C (DBT) and ±9.5%, respectively.
 Using dual duct systems, it is possible to provide simultaneous
cooling and heating. Change over from summer to winter and
vice versa is relatively simple in all air systems.
 It is possible to provide good room air distribution and
ventilation under all conditions of load.
 Building pressurization can be achieved easily.
 The complete air conditioning plant including the supply and
return air fans can be located away from the conditioned space.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 27

 Due to this, it is possible to use a wide variety of air filters and
avoid noise in the

Disadvantages of all air systems

 They occupy more space and thus reduce the available floor
space in the buildings. It could be difficult to provide air
conditioning in high-rise buildings with the plant on the
ground floor or basement due to space constraints.
 Retrofitting may not always be possible due to the space
requirement.
 Balancing of air in large and particularly with variable air
volume systems could be difficult.

Applications of all air systems

All air systems can be used in both comfort as well as industrial
air conditioning applications. They are especially suited to
buildings that require individual control of multiple zones, such
as office buildings, classrooms, laboratories, hospitals, hotels,
ships etc. They are also used extensively in applications that
require very close control of the conditions in the conditioned
space such as clean rooms, computer rooms, operation theatres,
research facilities etc.

All Water Systems

In all water systems the fluid used in the thermal distribution
system is water, i.e., water transports energy between the
conditioned space and the air conditioning plant. When cooling is
required in the conditioned space then cold water is circulated
between the conditioned space and the plant, while hot water is
circulated through the distribution system when heating is
required. Since only water is transported to the conditioned space,
provision must be there for supplying required amount of treated,
outdoor air to the conditioned space for ventilation purposes.
Depending upon the number of pipes used, the all water systems
can be classified into a 2-pipe system or a 4-pipe system.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 28

Two pipe - All water system

A 2-pipe system is used for either cooling only or heating only

application, but cannot be used for simultaneous cooling and
heating. Figure shows the schematic of a 2-pipe, all water system.
As shown in the figure and as the name implies, a 2-pipe system
consists of two pipes – one for supply of cold/hot water to the
conditioned space and the other for the return water. A cooling or
heating coil provides the required cold or hot water. As the supply
water flows through the conditioned space, required heat transfer
between the water and conditioned space takes place, and the
return water flows back to the cooling or heating coil. A flow
control valve controls the flow rate of hot or cold water to the
conditioned space and thereby meets the required building
heating or cooling load. The flow control valve is controlled by
the zone thermostat. As already mentioned, a separate
arrangement must be made for providing the required amount of
ventilation air to the conditioned space. A pressure relief valve
(PRV) is installed in the water line for maintaining balanced flow
rate.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 29

Four pipe - All water system

A 4-pipe system consists of two supply pipelines – one for cold

water and one for hot water; and two return water pipelines. The
cold and hot water are mixed in a required proportion depending
upon the zone load, and the mixed water is supplied to the
conditioned space. The return water is split into two streams, one
stream flows to the heating coil while the other flows to the
cooling coil.

Heat transfer between the cold/hot water and the conditioned

space takes place either by convection, conduction or radiation or
a combination of these. The cold/hot water may flow through bare
pipes located in the conditioned space or one of the following
equipment can be used for transferring heat:

1. Fan coil units

2. Convectors
3. Radiators etc.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 30

A fan coil unit is located inside the conditioned space and consists
of a heating and/or cooling coil, a fan, air filter, drain tray and
controls. Figure shows the schematic of a fan coil unit used for
cooling applications. As shown in the figure, the basic
components of a fan coil unit are: finned tube cooling coil, fan,
air filter, insulated drain tray with provision for draining
condensate water and connections for cold water lines. The cold
water circulates through the finned tube coil while the blower
draws warm air from the conditioned space and blows it over the
cooling coil. As the air flows through the cooling coil it is cooled
and dehumidified. The cold and dehumidified air is supplied to
the conditioned space for providing required conditions inside the
conditioned space. The water condensed due to dehumidification
of room air has to be drained continuously. A cleanable or
replaceable filter is located in the upstream of the fan to prevent
dust accumulation on the cooling coil and also to protect the fan
and motor from dust.

The fan coil units are either floor mounted, window mounted or
ceiling mounted. The capacity of a fan coil unit can be controlled
either by controlling the cold water flow rate or by controlling air
flow rate or both. The airflow rate can be controlled either by a
damper arrangement or by varying the fan speed. The control may
be manual or automatic, in which case, a room thermostat
controls the capacity. Since in the fan coil unit there is no
provision for ventilation, a separate arrangement must be made to
take care of ventilation. A fan coil unit with a provision for
introducing treated ventilation air to the conditioned space is
called as unit ventilator

A convector consists of a finned tube coil through which hot or

cold fluid flows. Heat transfer between the coil and surrounding
air takes place by natural convection only, hence no fans are used
for moving air. Convectors are very widely used for heating
applications, and very rarely are used for cooling applications.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 31

In a radiator, the heat transfer between the coil and the
surrounding air is primarily by radiation. Some amount of heat is
also transferred by natural convection. Radiators are widely used
for heating applications, however, in recent times they are also
being used for cooling applications.

Advantages of all water systems

1. The thermal distribution system requires very less space
compared to all air systems. Thus there is no penalty in terms
of conditioned floor space. Also the plant size will be small
due to the absence of large supply air fans.
2. Individual room control is possible, and at the same time the
system offers all the benefits of a large central system.
3. Since the temperature of hot water required for space heating
is small, it is possible to use solar or waste heat for winter
heating.
4. It can be used for new as well existing buildings (retrofitting).
5. Simultaneous cooling and heating is possible with 4-pipe
systems.
Disadvantages of all water systems
1. Requires higher maintenance compared to all air systems,
particularly in the conditioned space.
2. Draining of condensate water can be messy and may also
create health problems if water stagnates in the drain tray. This
problem can be eliminated, if dehumidification is provided by
a central ventilation system, and the cooling coil is used only
for sensible cooling of room air.
3. If ventilation is provided by opening windows or wall
apertures, then, it is difficult to ensure positive ventilation
under all circumstances, as this depends on wind and stack
effects.
4. Control of humidity, particularly during summer is difficult
using chilled water control valves.
Applications of all water systems:
All water systems using fan coil units are most suitable in
buildings requiring individual room control, such as hotels,
apartment buildings and office buildings.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 32

 Air-Water Systems

In air-water systems both air and water are used for providing
required conditions in the conditioned space. The air and water
are cooled or heated in a central plant. The air supplied to the
conditioned space from the central plant is called as primary air,
while the water supplied from the plant is called as secondary
water. The complete system consists of a central plant for cooling
or heating of water and air, ducting system with fans for
conveying air, water pipelines and pumps for conveying water
and a room terminal. The room terminal may be in the form of a
fan coil unit, an induction unit or a radiation panel. Figure shows
the schematic of a basic air-water system. Even though only one
conditioned space is shown in the schematic, in actual systems,
the air-water systems can simultaneously serve several
conditioned spaces.

Normally a constant volume of primary air is supplied to each

zone depending upon the ventilation requirement and the required
sensible cooling capacity at maximum building load. For summer
air conditioning, the primary air is cooled and dehumidified in the
central plant, so that it can offset all the building latent load.
Chilled water is supplied to the conditioned space to partly offset
the building sensible cooling load only. Since the chilled water

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 33

coil kept in the conditioned space has to take care of only sensible
load, condensation of room air inside the conditioned space is
avoided thereby avoiding the problems of condensate drainage
and related problems in the conditioned space. As mentioned, the
primary takes care of the ventilation requirement of the
conditioned space, hence unlike in all water systems, there is no
need for separate ventilation systems. In winter, moisture can be
added to the primary air in the central plant and hot water is
circulated through the coil kept in the conditioned space. The
secondary water lines can be of 2-pipe, 3-pipe or 4-pipe type
similar to all water systems.

As mentioned the room unit may be in the form of a fan coil unit,
an induction unit or in the form of a radiant panel. In an induction
unit the cooling/heating coil is an integral part of the primary air
system. The primary air supplied at medium to high pressure to
the induction unit, induces flow of secondary air from the
conditioned space. The secondary air is sensibly cooled or heated
as it flows through the cooling/heating coil. The primary and
secondary air are mixed and supplied to the conditioned space.
The fan coil units are similar to the ones used in all water systems.

Advantages of air-water systems:

1. Individual zone control is possible in an economic manner
using room thermostats, which control either the secondary
water flow rate or the secondary air (in fan coil units) or both.
2. It is possible to provide simultaneous cooling and heating
using primary air and secondary water.
3. Space requirement is reduced, as the amount of primary
supplied is less than that of an all air systems.
4. Positive ventilation can be ensured under all conditions.
5. Since no latent heat transfer is required in the cooling coil kept
in the conditioned space, the coil operates dry and its life
thereby increases and problems related to odours or fungal
growth in conditioned space is avoided.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 34

6. The conditioned space can sometimes be heated with the help
of the heating coil and secondary air, thus avoiding supply of
primary air during winter.
7. Service of indoor units is relatively simpler compared to all
water systems.

Disadvantages of air-water systems:

1. Operation and control are complicated due to the need for
handling and controlling both primary air and secondary water.
2. In general these systems are limited to perimeter zones.
3. The secondary water coils in the conditioned space can
become dirty if the quality of filters used in the room units is
not good.
4. Since a constant amount of primary air is supplied to
conditioned space, and room control is only through the
control of room cooling/heating coils, shutting down the
supply of primary air to unoccupied spaces is not possible.
5. If there is abnormally high latent load on the building, then
condensation may take place on the cooling coil of secondary
water.
6. Initial cost could be high compared to all air systems.

Applications of air-water systems:

These systems are mainly used in exterior buildings with large
sensible loads and where close control of humidity in the
conditioned space is not required. These systems are thus suitable
for office buildings, hospitals, schools, hotels, apartments etc.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 35

 Winter Air Conditioning Systems

In winter the outside conditions are cold and dry. As a result, there
will be a continuous transfer of sensible heat as well as moisture
(latent heat) from the buildings to the outside. Hence, in order to
maintain required comfort conditions in the occupied space an air
conditioning system is required which can offset the sensible and
latent heat losses from the building. Air supplied to the
conditioned space is heated and humidified in the winter air
conditioning system to the required level of temperature and
moisture content depending upon the sensible and latent heat
losses from the building.

A winter air conditioning system with a pre-heater

As shown in the figure, the mixed air (mixture of return and

outdoor air) is first pre-heated (m-1) in the pre-heater, then
humidified using a humidifier or an air washer (1-2) and then
finally reheated in the reheater (2-s). The reheated air at state ‘s’
is supplied to the conditioned space

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 36

Pre-heating of air is advantageous as it ensures that water in the
humidifier/air washer does not freeze. In addition, by controlling
the heat supplied in the pre-heater one can control the moisture
content in the conditioned space.

The humidification of air can be achieved in several ways, e.g. by

bringing the air in contact with a wetted surface, or with droplets
of water as in an air washer, by adding aerosol sized water
droplets directly to air or by direct addition of dry saturated or
superheated steam. Humidification by direct contact with a
wetted surface or by using an air washer are not recommended
for comfort applications or for other applications where people
are present in the conditioned space due to potential health
hazards by the presence of micro-organisms in water. The most
common method of humidifying air for these applications is by
direct addition of dry steam to air

When air is humidified by contact with wetted surface as in an air

washer, then temperature of air decreases as its humidity
increases due to simultaneous transfer of sensible and latent heat.
If the air washer functions as an adiabatic saturator, then
humidification proceeds along the constant wet bulb temperature

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 37

line. However, when air is humidified by directly adding dry,
saturated steam, then the humidification proceeds close to the
constant dry bulb temperature line

A winter air conditioning system without a pre-heater

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 38

As shown in the figure, this system does not consist of a pre-
heater. The mixed air is directly humidified using an air washer
(m-1) and is then reheated (1-s) before supplying it to the
conditioned space. Though this system is simpler compared to the
system with pre-heater, it suffers from disadvantages such as
possibility of water freezing in the air washer when large amount
of cold outdoor air is used and also from health hazards to the
occupants if the water used in the air washer is not clean. Hence
this system is not recommended for comfort conditioning but can
be used in applications where the air temperatures at the inlet to
the air washer are above 0oC and the conditioned space is used
for products or processes, but not for providing personnel
comfort.

Note: Actual winter air conditioning systems, in addition to the

basic components shown above, consist of fans or blowers for air
circulation and filters for purifying air. The fan or blower
introduces sensible heat into the air stream as all the electrical
power input to the fan is finally dissipated in the form of heat.

Humidifiers
Methods of obtaining Humidification
The humidification is achieved either by supplying or spraying
steam or hot water or cold water into the air. The humidification
may be obtained by the following two methods

Direct Method
The water is sprayed in a highly atomised state into the room to
be air-conditioned

Indirect Method
The water is introduced into the air in the air conditioning plant
with the help of an air washer

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 39

Air Washers

An air washer is a device for conditioning air. As shown in Fig,

in an air washer air comes in direct contact with a spray of water
and there will be an exchange of heat and mass (water vapour)
between air and water. The outlet condition of air depends upon
the temperature of water sprayed in the air washer. Hence, by
controlling the water temperature externally, it is possible to
control the outlet conditions of air, which then can be used for air
conditioning purposes.

Air washer is extremely useful simple device, it is not commonly

used for comfort air conditioning applications due to concerns
about health resulting from bacterial or fungal growth on the
wetted surfaces. However, it can be used in industrial
applications.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 40

 Types of humidifiers
There are two basic categories of humidifiers: residential, and
commercial/industrial. Commercial and industrial humidifiers
can be divided into three types: adiabatic, direct injection steam,
and heated tank.

For Commercial/Industrial purpose

Adiabatic humidifiers:
Adiabatic humidifiers provide direct evaporation of water into the
air without adding external energy. Because no heat is added to
evaporate the water, there is a cooling effect that is directly
proportional to the amount of water evaporated. This is
sometimes referred to as sensible cooling. Sensible heat is taken
from the surrounding air and thus reducing air temperature.
Adiabatic humidifiers include both atomizing and evaporative
humidifiers

Atomizing and evaporative types

In general, atomizing humidifiers reduce water particles to a mist
or a fog. When the fog is sprayed into a warm, dry space, the
water evaporates without the addition of heat. Atomizing
humidifiers typically require purified water to prevent plugged
orifices or nozzles and to eliminate the distribution of mineral
dust into the indoor environment. The air’s ability to absorb
moisture depends on the temperature, flow rate, and moisture
content of the air moving through the system

o Centrifugal type atomizing

o Compressed air and water atomizing systems or
Compressed-air nozzle humidifiers
o High pressure atomizing systems or Pressurized-
water humidifiers
o Ultrasonic atomizing systems
o Wetted media evaporative

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 41

Direct Injection Steam Humidifiers
Steam is water vapor under pressure and at high temperature, so
the process of humidification can be simplified by adding steam
directly into the air. This method is an isothermal process because
the temperature of the air remains almost constant as the moisture
is added. For this type of humidification system, the steam source
is usually a central steam boiler at low pressure.
o Steam cup-type
o Steam separator-type
o Steam panel-type

Heated tank humidifiers or Self-Contained Steam Humidifiers

These units convert ordinary city tap water to steam by electrical
or gas energy using either electrodes, resistance heater elements,
infrared lamps, or gas combustion. Steam is generated at
atmospheric pressure and discharged into the duct system through
dispersion manifolds
o Electric (electrode type)
o Electric (resistive type)
o Infrared-type steam
o Gas-fired steam
o Steam-to-steam or Heated Pan Humidifiers
o Hot water type

For Residential purpose- Central Air System

Residential humidifiers are classified by the way they add
moisture to the air. A central system or whole home humidifier is
a device designed to add moisture to the home, and is installed
directly into the central heating and cooling system. It is
controlled by a humidistat, just like the temperature of the air is
controlled by a thermostat. In order to add moisture to the air,
humidifiers require heat, water, and air movement. There are
three main classifications of residential central system
humidifiers

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 42

Residential self-contained humidifiers are used in homes with
radiators or other non-ducted heating systems. Self-contained
humidifiers are installed in the wall or ceiling of a house, and
also have a humidistat to sense/control the home’s humidity level.
They are connected to the water lines and hard-wired to the
home’s electrical system. Self-contained humidifiers are
alternatives to portable humidifiers.

o Atomizing Humidifiers
o Pan Humidifiers
 Basic Pan
 Electrically heated pan
 Pan with wicking plates
o Steam Humidifiers
o Evaporative Humidifiers or Wetted-Element
Humidifiers
 Drum Type
 Flow Through-type
 Spray-type

Residential Humidifiers for Nonducted

Applications

For Commercial/Industrial purpose

Centrifugal Type Atomizing

Centrifugal type atomizing humidifiers utilize a high speed disk
to propel water onto plates or a comb to produce a fine mist. This
mist evaporates as it enters the air.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 43

Compressed air and water atomizing systems or
Compressed-air nozzle humidifiers
Compressed air and water atomizing systems combine the two
fluids inside a nozzle. The rapidly expanding air shears the water
into atomized water particles.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 44

The nozzles can operate in two ways:

Compressed air and water are combined inside the nozzle and
discharged onto a resonator to create a fine fog at the nozzle tip

Compressed air is passed through an annular orifice at the nozzle

tip, and water is passed through a center orifice. The air creates a
slight vortex at the tip, where the water breaks up into a fine fog
on contact with the high-velocity compressed air.

High pressure atomizing systems or Pressurized-water

humidifiers
High pressure atomizing systems use a high pressure pump to
force water through one or more small orifice nozzles to produce
a fine mist. High pressure water passing through the nozzles leads
to evaporation. The nozzles use swirl jet or impaction features to
produce billions of very small droplets that spontaneously
evaporate, humidifying and cooling the air

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 45

Ultrasonic Atomizing Systems
Ultrasonic atomizing systems use a piezoelectric transducer
immersed in a reservoir of purified water. The transducer creates
a high frequency mechanical oscillation directed at the water’s
surface, which results in creation of a fine mist. Here, Ultrasonic
vibrations are used as the atomizing force, to produce a fine mist
or fog

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 46

Wetted Media Evaporative
Wetted media evaporative humidifiers circulate water over a
porous core media while air is blown through the openings. The
rate of evaporation varies with air temperature, humidity, and
velocity. Wetted media humidifiers can be designed with or
without water recirculation.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 47

Steam Cup-Type
Steam cup-type humidifiers receive steam in a vessel mounted
beneath an air duct. Condensate drains from the cup and steam is
released into the airstream.

Steam Separator-Type
Steam separator-type humidifiers are comprised of a steam
separator, integral control valve, steam jacketed dispersion
tube(s), and a manifold when there is more than one dispersion
tube. A steam trap and wye-type pipeline strainer are typically
included in the package. Supply steam flows through the strainer
and pre-heats the steam jackets before entering the separator.
Liquid separates and falls with gravity through the separator drain
connection to the steam trap.
High quality steam vapour travels to the control valve and, with
demand for humidity, passes through the dispersion tube(s) into
the airstream.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 48

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 49
Steam Panel-Type
Steam panel-type humidifiers typically include a wye strainer,
and a steam control valve. The panel consists of a steam supply
header and multiple steam dispersing tubes. Steam flows through
the control valve to the panel, passes through the dispersion tubes,
and is introduced to the airstream. Condensate is discharged
through the drain to one or two mechanical steam or P-traps.

Electric (Electrode Type)

Electrode humidifiers operate by passing an electric current
directly into ordinary tap water, thereby creating heat energy to
boil the water and produce steam vapour. Output is modulated by
varying the water level in contact with electrodes. Steam
discharges out the top of the steam generator for dispersion into
duct systems using dispersion tubes or into open spaces using
fans.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 50

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 51
Electric (Resistive Type)
Electric (resistive type) humidifiers use one or more resistive
heating elements, submersed in a cleanable stainless-steel tank, to
heat and boil water. Steam discharges out the top of the tank. A
drain valve initiates a periodic blowdown of the tank to reduce
scale build up. They disperse humidification steam into duct
systems using dispersion tubes or into open spaces using fans.

Infrared-Type Steam
Infrared-type steam humidifiers use one or more radiant heat
bulbs to create heat energy to produce steam. The boiling water
produces steam, which is then removed by air flowing over the
surface of the tank

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 52

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 53
Gas-Fired Steam
Gas-fired steam humidifiers use natural gas or propane, a
burner/blower assembly, and a submersed heat exchanger to
create atmospheric steam. The water is typically contained in a
stainless steel tank, and the heat exchangers can be made from
stainless steel or aluminum. A drain valve provides periodic tank
blowdown to reduce scale build-up. Gas-fired steam humidifiers
can use any type of fill water (tap, softened, RO/DI). They
disperse humidification steam into duct systems using dispersion
tubes or into open spaces using fans.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 54

Steam-to-Steam or Heated Pan Humidifiers
Steam-to-steam humidifiers use treated steam from a boiler at
pressures up to 15 psi as a heat source in heat exchangers
submersed in clean tap, softened, or RO/DI-treated fill water.
Steam control valves control the steam pressure to the heat
exchanger based on humidity demand, and the clean fill water is
converted to atmospheric steam, exiting from the top of the tank.
Condensate that forms is drained from a steam trap. They disperse
humidification steam into duct systems using dispersion tubes or
into open spaces using fans.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 55

Hot Water Type
Hot water type humidifiers utilize the heat energy from an
existing hot water source passing through a heat exchanger
submersed in water to produce steam. These humidifiers are very
similar to steam-to-steam humidifiers

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 56

 For Residential purpose- Central Air
System

Atomizing Humidifiers
Atomizing, or spray, humidifiers are similar to evaporative
humidifiers in that they do not heat the water, but unlike their
evaporative counterparts, atomizing humidifiers increase the
moisture in the air by spraying small water droplets into the
central system’s airstream. The air’s ability to absorb moisture
depends on the temperature, flow rate, and moisture content of
the air moving through the system. Small particles of water are
formed and introduced into the airstream in one of the following
ways:
o Spray nozzles rely on water pressure to produce a fine
spray.
o Spray nozzles use compressed air to create a fine mist
o A spinning disk or cone throws a water stream centrifugally
to the rim of the disk and onto deflector plates or a comb,
where it is turned into a fine fog
o Ultrasonic humidifiers, also known as piezoelectric
humidifiers, atomize the water using a vibrating element
that operates at a very high frequency of about 100 kHz
(100,000 cycles per second).

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 57

Pan Humidifiers
Vapour is introduced into the air by evaporation.

Basic pan
A shallow pan is installed within the furnace plenum. Household
water is supplied to the pan through a control device.
Electrically heated pan
Similar to the basic unit, this type adds an electric heater to
increase water temperature and evaporation rate.
Pan with wicking plates
Similar to the basic unit, this type includes fitted water-absorbent
plates. The increased area of the plates provides greater surface
area for evaporation to take place

Steam Humidifiers
Steam humidifiers heat water to the boiling point, producing
steam. Because steam humidifiers contain their own heat source,
electric heating elements, they are able to add moisture to cooler
airstreams than atomizing or evaporative type humidifiers.

Evaporative Humidifiers or Wetted-Element

Humidifiers
Evaporative humidifiers do not heat the water, but use hot air flow
through a water panel and the HVAC system’s heat draw to turn
the water to vapour. Dry, hot air from the HVAC system is moved
through a water panel, and natural evaporation takes place. The

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 58

now humidified air carrying moisture in vapour form is circulated
throughout the home

Vapor is introduced into the air by evaporation. Air circulates

over or through an open-textured, wetted medium. The
evaporating surface may be a fixed pad wetted by either sprays or
water flowing by gravity, or a paddle-wheel, drum, or belt
rotating through a water reservoir

Flow Through-type
Flow through units maintain indoor relative humidity by flowing
fresh water across a porous evaporator pad, where it is exposed
to warm, dry air forced through the humidifier by the furnace
blower or an internal fan.

Drum-type
Drum humidifiers rely on forced air, and are well-suited for
warm-air heating systems. A rotating evaporator pad, or drum,
lifts water from the water pan into the air stream, which is warmed
and circulated by the furnace blower. The pad’s multiple holes
and connecting strands increase the area from which water can
evaporate.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 59

Spray-type
Spray humidifiers are designed to be mounted on the warm air
side of a furnace system and should only be used with naturally
soft water. Spray humidifiers release a fine mist into the system’s
ductwork, where it is distributed evenly throughout the home by
the furnace blower.

Residential Humidifiers for Nonducted

Applications

Portable units evaporate water by any of the means, such as

heated pan, fixed or moving wetted element, or atomizing
spinning disk. They may be tabletop-sized or a larger, furniture-
style appliance. A multispeed motor on the fan or blower may be
used to adjust output. Portable humidifiers usually require
periodic filling from a bucket or filling hose.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 60

 AC SYSTEM CONTROL

The main purpose of the air-conditioning system is to create

comfort conditions by controlling the temperature, humidity and
flow of air inside the rooms. To provide the comfort conditions
throughout the year, the air-conditioning systems have three
controls: Thermostats for temperature controls, humidistats for
humidity controls and airstats to control the flow of air (amount
of air) inside the room. ,

Thermostat
It is a temperature control device fitted on a wall in home to
control the cooling (or heating) system. A thermostat is
something that tries to maintain the temperature.

Thermostat is a temperature control device to maintain the proper

temperature inside the room as per the comfort requirements.
When the desired temperature is reached, thermostat switches off
the compressor of the air-conditioning system and when
temperature is high, thermostat restarts the compressor. The
setting of the temperature is done manually or automatically
using the remote control device of the air-conditioning system.

Thermostat senses the temperature inside the room and causes the
electrical contact switch to the compressor ON or OFF depending
on the temperature inside title room. The most commonly used
Thermostat is the bimetallic type. It comprises of two metals
which at particular temperature are of same length, but when their
temperature is increased, one metal increases in length more
while the other increases less due to their different coefficients of
thermal expansions. Hence it gets bent so that this bending action
swithes on or off the ac compressor.

How thermostats work?

Most of the things get bigger when they are heated up and smaller
when they are cooled down. This phenomena is called thermal

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 61

expansion. Thermostats use this principle to switch an electric
circuit on and off so that ac compressor may be started or stopped.
The two most common types are bimetallic strips and gas-filled
bellows.

Bimetallic strips
A thermostat has two pieces of different metals joined together to
form a bimetallic strip (or bimetal strip). The strip works as a
bridge in an electrical circuit connected to the cooling system.
When the room becomes hot, bimetallic strip gets hot. When the
strip gets hot, one of the metals expands more than the other so
the whole strip bends so that it connects the circuit and starts the
compressor, and the room starts to cool.

As the room cools, the strip cools too and bends back to its
original shape. Eventually, it detaches the circuit and makes the
electricity stops, so the compressor stops. By adjusting the
temperature settings, one can change the temperature at which the
circuit switches on and off.

How a bimetallic thermostat switches on and off?

 An outer dial enables you to set the temperature at which the

thermostat switches on and off.
 The dial is connected through a circuit to the temperature
sensor (a bimetal strip,), which switches an electrical circuit on
and off by bending more or being straight.
 The bimetal (“two metal”) strip is made of two separate metal
strips fastened together: a piece of brass (grey color) bolted to
a piece of iron (black).

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 62

 Iron expands less than brass as it gets hotter, so the bimetal
strip curves inward as the temperature rises.
 When the strip is cool, it is straight, so it breaks the electric
circuit and electricity stops. The circuit is off and so no
cooling.
 When the strip is hotter, it bends and closes the circuit, so
electricity can flow and Now the circuit is ON. Compressor
starts and cooling starts.

Gas-filled bellows
The disadvantage of bimetallic strips is that they take a long time
to heat up or cool down, so they don’t react quickly to temperature
changes. Hence to sense temperature changes more quickly gas-
filled bellows are used for operation of thermostat

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 63

In this, a pair of metal discs with gas-filled bellows in between is
used. Since the discs have a large surface area, they react quickly
to heat. When the room is heated up, the gas in the bellows
expands and forces the discs apart. The movement of inner disc
pushes a micro-switch on to turn on compressor and cooling
starts.
As the room cools, the gas in the bellows contracts and the metal
discs are forced back together. This action switches off the
compressor and cooling stops.

Bellow is a small circular closed metallic chamber of circular,

flexible, corrugated(with folds) metallic sheets bound by and
soldered to thick metal end sheets at either end. The circular,
flexible, corrugated sheet facilitates its expansion and
contraction. One end of the bellow is made stationary by fixing it
to a base plate, while the other end is free to move. A fitting is
provided at the fixed or anchored end plate for connecting to a
source of gas or liquid under pressure. Changes in the pressure of
the liquid or gas inside the bellow, along with consequent
expansion/contraction makes its free end to move to and fro, and
this movement is utilized in controls and controlled devices

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 64

 Humidistat
While the thermostat on air conditioner measures and controls the
temperature inside the home, a humidistat measures, and controls
the humidity. If the temperature is high but the humidity level is
low, the humidistat does not allow the air conditioner to run.

Humidistat has a hygroscopic material. Electrical resistance of

hygroscopic salts like calcium chloride, lithium chloride, etc.
varies with changes in humidity and this property makes them
suitable to be used for humidity control and measurement A
humidistat also called a hygrostat is an electronic device which
responds to relative humidity, but not temperature. Humidistats
are widely used in many number of devices like dehumidifiers,
humidifiers, and microwave ovens.

In heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, the

humidistat is used to maintain constant relative humidity
conditions. Humidistat would be set by adjusting the control
switch to automatically adjust the amount of moisture in the air
to maintain a constant specific humidity level throughout the
room. That is, humidity sensors are used to sense the air relative
humidity in the controlled space and turn on and off the HVAC
equipment. A humidistat helps to monitor and maintain the set or
preferred relative humidity in the air and better manage home’s
moisture level. A hygrometer measures the room’s humidity
level, but humidistat goes beyond monitoring, helping to restore
and maintain an optimum or preferred humidity level.
Maintaining a proper moisture balance in home is crucial to
prevent over-humidifying, which can result in mold spores, or to
prevent dry room which would be uncomfortable. The
recommended home humidity level is within the range of 45 to
60%. A dehumidifier is required to remove excess humidity. A
humidifier is used to add moisture to a room.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 65

Factors affecting humidifier
Factors influencing humidifier or dehumidifier are
 Climate
 Weather
 Temperature
 Heating or cooling effects on air comfort and

Working Principle
A humidistat includes a sensing element, made of a material that
is sensitive to air moisture, and a relay amplifier. Increasing
humidity, strengthens the electrical resistance between the metal
conductors of the sensing element. Similarly decreasing
humidity, weakens the electrical resistance between the metal
conductors of the sensing element. These variations are in turn
amplified by the relay amplifier.

When used in conjunction with an air-conditioning system, a

humidistat will operate the air conditioner on and off in response
to internal humidity level instead of responding to internal
temperature levels.

Effects of improper humidity

Maintaining proper humidity levels is important for health and
comfort. Indoor air that’s too damp feels sticky on the skin, and
can encourage the growth of mold and milde which will not only
damage furniture, books and leather items, but also cause health
problems.
On the other hand, if air is too dry, then it also causes problems.
That is, Low humidity dries out skin and nasal passages, leading
to colds and respiratory problems such as asthma and bronchitis.
Dry air can also create cracks in furniture, leather, plaster and
drywall.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 66

Instruments for measurement of humidity
Hygrometer- A hygrometer measures the value of humidity
directly. The various types of hygrometers used for humidity
measurement are:
 Hair hygrometer
 Resistive hygrometer
 Capacitive hygrometer
 Microwave hygrometer
 Aluminium oxide hygrometer
 Crystal hygrometer

Hair Hygrometer
The length of the element increases or decreases as relative
humidity surrounding it changes, and this change in length
actuates the making and breaking mechanism of the electrical
contact points for the cycling of the humidifying or
dehumidifying equipment’s

Resistive Hygrometer
Electrical resistance of hygroscopic salts like calcium chloride,
lithium chloride, etc. varies with changes in humidity and this
property makes them suitable to be used for humidity control and
measurement

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 67

Two metal electrodes are bonded to a sheet of plastic. The whole
is coated with a layer of moisture sensitive chemical such as
lithium chloride. The resistance of the element changes when it is
exposed to variations in humidity. The higher the relative
humidity, the more moisture the lithium chloride will absorb and
the lower will be its resistance. The resistance of the sensing unit
is a measure of the relative humidity. The current flow is a
measure of the resistance and hence of the relative humidity

Capacitive Hygrometer
Capacitive hygrometer sensors use a capacitor that is sensitive to
the amount of water vapour in the air to measure humidity. It
consists of a hygroscopic dielectric material placed between a pair
of electrodes. In capacitive hygrometer sensors, changes in the
amount of water vapor in the air alter the capacitance. This
change in capacitance is proportional to a change in relative
humidity.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 68

 AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The conditioned air needs to be properly and uniformly
distributed within the enclosed space to meet the comfort
requirements of the occupants. The duct systems convey the
conditioned air from the air conditioning equipment to the proper
air distribution points or air supply outlets in the room and carry
the return air from the room back to the air conditioning
equipment for reconditioning and recirculation. For that, the
following points have to be given due consideration while
designing the air distribution systems:

 Create and maintain appropriate combination of temperature,

humidity, air purity and air velocity.
 The quantity of air to be distributed to various rooms or zones
of a building should be in proportion to the load in the
respective areas
 Air velocity has to be between 7.5 to 15 m/s if the occupants
are sitting; higher velocity upto 20 m/s is permissible when the
occupants are moving.
 Flow direction of air has to be towards the faces (not back side)
of occupants.
 Down flow is to be preferred over upward flow; the upward
flow produces draft which causes discomfort.
 Excessive temperature fluctuations and excessive air motion
has to be avoided; a temperature variation of more than 2°C is
not to be allowed.
 Ensure availability of fresh air in all parts of the room.
 Zone of conditioned space for comfort is to be taken upto a
height of 1.8 m above the ground.

The factors affecting the air distribution are:

 Size of the duct
 Velocity of air in the duct
 Location of grilles and diffusers
 Flow pattern of air in the room

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 69

  Entrainment of room air

The air distribution system basically consists of :

 Inlets for recirculated air and outlets for supply air
 Duct system including return duct, supply duct and the air-
conditioning apparatus.
 Fan which provides necessary energy to the air for its motion.

The air enters from inlet and reaches the fan section and during
this journey the pressure of air drops. The fan raises the pressure
which again drops when the air is released into the system.

Terms Related to Air Distribution System

Some of the terms related to air-distribution system are :

Intake and outlet: Intake is the opening through which air is

returned or exhausted from the space. The opening through which
air is supplied to the spaced being conditioned is called outlet.

Grille and diffuser : A grille is a perforated covering that

controls the direction of flow of air and provides a decorative

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 70

appearance to the end of duct. Grilles consist of a frame and fixed
or adjustable parallel bars.
The fixed grilles direct the air in one direction only while
adjustable grilles can be arranged to direct the air in different
directions. Registers are grilles with volume control dampers
mounted behind the grille. A diffuser is the outlet grille designed
to guide the direction of air. The diffusers ensure proper supply
of conditioned air to the room.

Grilles and diffusers improve the aesthetics of the air-

conditioning system. They are usually located at the level of false
ceiling which is provided to conceal the duct.

Throw, drop, spread: Blow or throw is distance travelled by the

supply air stream in the horizontal direction on leaving the air
outlet and reaching a specified low velocity known as terminal
velocity. The velocity is measured at 1.8 m above the floor level
and is usually taken as 0.25 m/s, 0.5 m/s or 0.75 m/s depending
on the application.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 71

Drop is the vertical distance the air moves after it leaves the outlet
and reaches the end of throw.

Spread is the angle of divergence of air stream after it leaves the

outlet.

Straight vanes produce a spread of 14° to 24°. Converging vanes

produce the same spread as the straight vanes but are 15 percent
longer. Diverging 45° vanes produce a spread of 60°.

Slot and ceiling diffusers : A slot diffuser is a long strip shaped

outlet with one or more narrow openings. This elongated outlet
has an aspect ratio of 25 : 1 and its maximum height is limited to
7.5 cm. The slot diffusers are fitted in high side wall locations or
in perimeter installations in floors.

The ceiling diffusers consists of separated concentric rings or

louvres with a collar or neck to connect to duct, they may be

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 72

round, square, rectangular or in the form of perforated panels. The
louvres may be of adjustable pattern or variable area type. These
diffusers are mounted in the ceilings.

Primary, secondary and total air: Primary air is the air that
comes out of the outlet. The room air picked up by the primary
air by entrainment is called secondary air. The sum of primary air
and secondary air is called the total air. The induction ratio is
defined as the ratio of total air to primary air.
Blow depends on the initial supply air velocity, temperature
difference between the supply and room air and induction ratio.

Draft: Draft is the localised feeling of coolness or warmth of any

portion of the body due to both air movement and air temperature,
with humidity and radiation considered constant.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 73

 Arrangements of Supply and Return Air

System A: The supply and return grilles are located on the same
wall. The system is simple and cheap to construct and is used
mostly for cooling (summer air-conditioning) rather than heating.

System B: The supply and return grilles are located on different

walls. The system provides uniform supply and prevents
downward and reverse current. However, there is possibility of
creation of a stagnant space below the supply duct.

Another arrangement for imparting still better air distribution is

obtained when the inlet and outlet ducts are installed as shown in
system C.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 74

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 75
System D: This pan type air distribution system is efficient and
ensures air circulation throughout the space.

System E: The system has two supply registers and two return
grilles and these provide a cross draft. The system is preferred for
heating, i.e., for winter air-conditioning.

System F: The occupants in a gymnasium and health clubs

remain active. The airflow is then required to be kept upto 2 m
height above the floor.

System G: For low ceiling structures, perforated asbestos sheets

are placed below the ceiling, and the in-between space is supplied
with conditioned air. The arrangement is quite effective, has
better appearance, silent in operation (asbestos is sound absorbing
material) but is costly.

The air distribution systems as discussed above can be classified

as

Ejection system: The inlet grille ejects the air into the room and
induces sufficient velocity for circulation.

Downward flow system: The conditioned air is induced through

the openings located in the ceiling and removed through openings
made in the floor or in walls near the floor.

Upward flow system: The supply air enters the space through
openings near the floor. The return air outlets are provided either
in the ceiling or at walls near the ceiling height. The system helps
the return air to carry with it the vitiating products from the bodies
of the occupants and some other objectionable odour. The air
velocity in the system, however, needs to be properly controlled
so that the occupant’s do not face draft.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 76

 DUCTS

The conditioned air (cooled or heated) from the air conditioning

equipment must be properly distributed to rooms or spaces to be
conditioned in order to provide comfort conditions. When the
conditioned air cannot be supplied directly from the air
conditioning equipment to the spaces to be conditioned, then the
ducts are installed. The duct systems convey the conditioned air
from the air conditioning equipment to the proper air distribution
points or air supply outlets in the room and carry the return air
from the room back to the air conditioning equipment for
reconditioning and recirculation.

Classification of Ducts
The ducts may be classified as follows:

Supply air duct. The duct which supplies the conditioned air
from the air conditioning equipment to the space to be
conditioned is called supply air duct.

Return air duct. The duct which carries the recirculating air from
the conditioned space back to the air conditioning equipment is
called return air duct.

Fresh air duct. The duct which carries the outside air is called
fresh air duct.

Low pressure duct. When the static pressure in the duct is less
than 50 mm of water gauge, the duct is said to be a low pressure
duct.

Medium pressure duct. When the static pressure in the duct is

up to 150 mm of water gauge, the duct is said to be a medium
pressure duct.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 77

High pressure duct. When the static pressure in the duct is from
150 to 250 mm of water gauge, the duct is said to be a high
pressure duct.

Low velocity duct. When the velocity of air in the duct is up to

600 m/min, the duct is said to be a low velocity duct.

High velocity duct. When the velocity of air in the duct is more
than 600 m/min, the duct is said to be a high velocity duct.

Duct Shape
The ducts may be made in circular, rectangular or square shapes.
From an economical point of view, the circular ducts are preferred
because the circular shape can carry more air in less space. This
means that less duct material, less duct surface, less duct surface
friction and less insulation is needed. From an appearance point
of view, the rectangular duct shape may be preferred because it
presents a flat surface that is sometimes easier to work with in
relation to the finish surface of the room or space. From the
practical point of view, the square duct may be preferred.

Pressure in Ducts
The flow of air within a duct system is produced by the pressure
difference existing between the different locations. The greater
the pressure difference, the faster the air will flow. The following
are the three types of pressures involved in a duct system

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 78

Static pressure
The static pressure always exists in a duct system. Since it is not
dependent upon the air movement, therefore, it is called static (or
stationary) pressure. This type of pressure pushes against the
walls of the duct. It tends to burst a duct when it is greater than
the atmospheric pressure and tends to collapse the confining
envelope when its force is less than that of the atmosphere. The
static pressure overcomes the friction and shock losses as the air
flows from the delivery of the fan to the outlet of the duct.

Dynamic or velocity pressure

The dynamic or velocity pressure is equal to the drop in static
pressure necessary to produce a given velocity of flow.
Conversely, it is equal to the increase of static pressure possible
when the velocity is reduced to zero.

Total pressure
The total pressure is the algebraic sum of the static pressure and
dynamic or velocity pressure. Mathematically, total pressure of
air,
PT = Ps + PV

Ps = Static pressure of air

PV = Dynamic pressure of air

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 79

 Continuity Equation for Ducts

A1V1 = A2V2

Q1 = Q2

m1 = m2

m1 = m2 + m3

Q1 = Q2 + Q3

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 80

  Q1 = quantity of air passing through section 1-1
 m1 = mass flow rate of air through section 1-1
 A1 = cross sectional area of duct at section 1-1
 V1 = velocity of air at section 1-1
 ρ1 = density of air at section 1-1
 Q2, m2 , A2 , V2 , ρ2 = corresponding values at section 2-2
 Q3, m3 , A3 , V3 , ρ3 = corresponding values at section 3-3

Bernoulli’s equation for ducts

𝝆𝟏𝑽𝟏𝟐 𝝆𝟐𝑽𝟐𝟐
Ps1 + = Ps2 +
𝟐 𝟐

Ps1 + Pv1 = Ps2 + Pv2

When the flow is frictionless and there is no pressure drop
between the two sections, then the total pressure at the two
sections will be equal

PT = Ps1 + Pv1 = Ps2 + Pv2

If PL is the total pressure drop or loss between the two sections 1-

1 and 2-2, then

Ps1 + Pv1 = Ps2 + Pv2 + PL

If the velocity of air (V) flowing through the duct in m/s, then
velocity pressure in the duct,

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 81

 𝝆𝒂 𝑽𝟏𝟐
PV = = 0.6 V2 N/m2
𝟐

𝑽
PV = ( )2 mm of water
𝟒.𝟎𝟒

Pressure loss due to friction in ducts

𝐟𝐋𝛒𝐚 𝐕 𝟐
Pf =
𝟐𝐦

Pf = pressure loss due to friction in N/m2

f = friction factor depending upon the surface of the duct
L = length of the duct in meters
V = mean velocity of the air flowing through the duct in m/s
m = hydraulic mean depth in metres

Cross−sectional area of the duct(A)

m=
Wetted perimeter of the duct(P)

𝐟𝐋
Pf = PV mm of water
𝟐𝐦

𝑽
PV = ( )2 mm of water
𝟒.𝟎𝟒

 For circular duct of diameter D, the hydraulic mean depth,

m = D/4

 For a rectangular duct of sides a and b, the hydraulic mean

𝐚𝐛
depth, m =
𝟐(𝐚+𝐛)

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 82

 Duct Design

The objective of duct design is to determine the dimensions of all

ducts in the given system. The ducts should carry the necessary
volume of conditioned air from the fan outlet to the conditioned
space with minimum frictional and dynamic losses. The number
of bends, elbows, obstructions and area changes should be
minimum in the duct design to minimize losses. The velocities in
the ducts must be high enough to reduce the size of the ducts but
it should be low enough to reduce the noise and pressure losses
to economize power requirement

After the layout of the duct is decided and the requirements of air
quantities at various outlets are known, then the size of the ducts
may be obtained

Methods for determination of Duct Size

Equal Pressure Drop (or Equal Friction Loss) Method

In this method, the friction loss per unit length of duct is kept
constant throughout the system. The velocity of air flowing in
different sections and branches of the duct system is
automatically reduced since the air quantities are reduced in the
branches, but the frictional loss per unit length of duct is kept
constant.

If the layout of the ducts is symmetrical giving the same length of

the various runs, this method gives equal pressure loss in various
branches and no dampering is required to balance them

In case the runs are of different lengths, then the shortest run will
have minimum loss and consequently high pressure at the outlet.
So it is necessary to reduce this high pressure by heavy dampering
or modifying this method to provide higher velocities in shorter
runs

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 83

In case both short and long run of branch ducts are present,
dampers will have to provided at the entrance of the short run
ducts for balancing purpose

Velocity Reduction Method

In this method, the velocities in the ducts are assumed such that
they progressively decrease as the flow proceeds. The pressure
drops are calculated for these velocities for respective branches
and the main duct

The size of the main duct is established by selecting a velocity

from the recommended range. Thereafter, for every branch take-
off, arbitrarily reduced velocities are selected. With the selected
velocities and air quantity to be handled, duct sizes are
determined
The pressure at the outlet is adjusted by dampers in the respective
ducts
This method is usually adopted for very simple systems

Static Regain Method

In this method, the size of the duct is decided to give equal
pressure at all outlets, for perfect balancing of the air duct layout
system. This may be done by equalising the pressure losses in
various branches. This is possible if the friction loss in each
branch is made equal to the gain in pressure due to reduction in
velocity

When the velocity of air in the duct reduces, the resulting velocity
pressure difference gets converted to static pressure or a static
regain is obtained. The principle of this method is to size the duct
such that the increase in static pressure (due to static regain) at
each branch offsets the pressure loss in the succeeding section of
the duct. Thus, the static pressure for each branch is the same.
This method involves lengthy and complicated calculations, and
hence is generally not used

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 84

 Air Conditioning System in Cinema Theatre
An air-conditioning system affects the microclimate conditions,
including indoor air quality, temperature and air humidity. The
proper maintenance of microclimate parameters influences on the
occupant health as well as comfort. In addition, ventilation fresh
air is necessary to dilute odors and limit the concentration of
carbon dioxide and airborne pollutants such as dust, smoke and
volatile organic compounds.

Cinema hall is the place where thousands of people visit every

day. Thus, proper work of the AC system is essential to idealize
microclimate conditions, which requires the special approach not
only in technical decisions, but also in the aesthetic sense. Cinema
hall has a few complexities, such as the ceiling height of the
cinema hall and unsteady cinema hall loading. Thus these factors
must be considered while planning a ventilation system in a
cinema hall.

Mechanical conditioner
Mechanical conditioner is found out to be a huge application in
the comfortable and technology air conditioning. This mechanical
conditioner is not an autonomous conditioner. Thus, it is
necessary to provide it by the outside cold (supply the cold or
non-freezing liquid), heat (supply the hot water or the steam) and
also by the electricity to drive the fans and some other regulations
devices for air & liquid communications.

Mechanical conditioner has a lot of advantages such as: effective

temperature and humidity maintaining in the very high square
premises. Mechanical conditioner has also a lot of disadvantages
including the carrying out of the quite complex construction
works, lying of the building extended communications including
airways and air pipes.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 85

The cooling section of a mechanical conditioner contains water
or Freon heat exchanger -air cooler. This cooling section is made
of copper pipes with aluminum ribs. There are various types of
the refrigerant available, such as cooled water, glycol and water
mixture and so on. Depending on the type of working area,
refrigerant can be supplied from the chiller, cooler or from
artesian well.

On the other hand, the heating section in a mechanical conditioner

contains steam, water or electric heaters. Constructively air
heaters are made from the aluminum pipes with aluminum ribbed.

There is also a sound attenuation section in a mechanical

conditioner and the main purpose of this section is to reduce the
noise level that is caused by the mechanical conditioner itself.
Also for providing the high quality of filtration, two sections of
nitrations are generally added in a mechanical conditioner.
Usually filters are located in the parts, in which the whole
recycled air is pasted. The main purpose of the filters is to defend
from the dust each section of the conditioner, if possible.

Restaurant Air Conditioning

The reputation of a restaurant and converting it into repeat
business can be achieved by a number of factors that influence
the overall dining experience. While the hygienic food with taste
is clearly important, the ambience is also very important. The
diners expect a comfortable and relaxing environment
irrespective of the outdoor weather conditions. Therefore, the
restaurant AC engineers should control the restaurant’s
environment effectively, without incurring excessive running
costs.

When there is a need for both heating and cooling throughout the
year, heat pump air conditioners are installed to provide energy-
efficient heating and cooling from the same units. In addition,
these units provide pleasurable dining experience all year round.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 86

For selecting the most appropriate units, the following factors are
considered.
 Aesthetics
 Energy efficiency
 Type of air conditioning units

Aesthetics
The air conditioning system should not detract from the aesthetics
of the restaurant environment. Thus, the air conditioning units
should have pleasing appearance aesthetically without occupying
more space within the restaurant.

Energy Efficiency
The energy efficiency of air conditioning system is an important
factor to minimize the overall running costs of the system. Heat
pump air-conditioners are very much economical for heating as
they are able to extract heat from outside air, even at very low
temperatures, with minimum power consumption.

Effective control is also important, because the diners within the

restaurant are likely to vary throughout the day and evening. This
means that the heating and cooling requirements will also vary
with respect to the number of diners as well as external weather
conditions. Hence, DC inverter control should be installed to
provide a very responsive and highly efficient air conditioning
system.

Type of air conditioning units:

Split System Air Conditioners:

Split system air-conditioners comprising of aesthetic, silent
indoor unit inside the restaurant and outdoor unit outside the
building, the two being connected by pipe work are installed to
provide the highest energy efficiency, particularly in heating
mode.
However, installation is more complex and must be carried out
by a certified air conditioning engineer. In some cases, it is very

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 87

difficult to find a suitable position for the outdoor unit, in which
case a packaged air-conditioner may be a better option.

Packaged air conditioners:

Packaged air conditioners comprise a single indoor unit with a
discrete connection through a wall to the outdoor unit. It is similar
to window room air-conditioner but with higher tonne of
refrigeration in the range of 5 to 10 tonnes

Air Conditioning Requirements In Hospitals

Microbiological transmission in healthcare setting is inevitably a
very potential risk. Proper air conditioning of medical care
facilities is helpful in prevention and treatment of diseases: There
is a need for constant evaluation of air conditioning needs of the
hospitals and medical facilities for better patient care

Need for air conditioning of hospital facilities

Proper air conditioning is helpful in the prevention and treatment
of diseases. The factors determining the need for air conditioning
in hospital facilities are as follows:
 The need to restrict air movement within and between
various departments.
 The specific requirements for ventilation and filtration to
dilute and remove contaminants in the form of airborne
microorganisms, viruses, odor, hazardous chemicals and
radioactive substances.
 Different types of temperature and humidity requirements
for various areas.
 Permit accurate control of environmental conditions.
 Control of air quality and air movement

Operating Room Air Conditioning Requirements

The primary task of the ventilation system in an operating room
is to provide an acceptable indoor climate for personnel and
patients, to remove odor, released anesthetic gases and to reduce

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 88

the risk of infection in the operating area. The greatest amount of
bacteria found in operating rooms comes from the surgical team
and is a result of their activity during surgery. During an operation
most members of the surgical team are in the vicinity of the
operating table, creating the undesirable situation of
concentrating contaminants in this highly sensitive area. Hence,
air movement pattern should be controlled in Operation theatres
for limiting the concentration of contaminants to an acceptable
level.

To maintain oxygenation, for 10 persons in the operating room, a

volume of about 28 m3 of air will be required per hour. Amount
of fresh air-outside air - required for the dilution of odor will
depend on the nature and intensity of odor producing sources.
Usually, air supplied at 0.24 m3 per minute per person is the
critical level of odor suppression. A ventilation rate of 10 air
changes per hour reduces the level of any contamination present
in the air. Bacteriological contamination of the air is markedly
reduced by the use of ultra clean air filters.

Proper design and ventilation of operation theatre is the most

important means of controlling airborne infection in operation
theatre. Some of the design considerations are as follows:

Direction of Air Flow

Direction of airflow should be from clean to less clean areas.
Airflow rate of 0.28 -0.47 m /sec is desirable across an open door
to prevent back flow into cleaner area.

Humidity Control
Bacteriological microorganisms ride on dust particles in low
relative humidity resulting in increased static energy. High
humidity in the hospital enhances the danger of growth of
Pseudomonas Aeruginosa. Humidity contributes to the
prevention of dehydration of exposed tissue. To minimize the
risk, the relative humidity required is 40-65 per cent.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 89

Air-conditioning other zones

Patient rooms: Air conditioning of bed rooms in our warm humid

climate is desirable not only for medical reason but also to keep
out noise, pollution from mainly cars & buses, trucks. When
central air-conditioning system is used for patient rooms,
common ducted air supply should be avoided in order to eliminate
chances of cross infection and odors through the common ducts.
Use of individual evaporator cooling coir units in each room with
thermostats connected to a central plant for independent
temperature control is the ideal solution .

ICU: This unit serves seriously ill patients. Hence need of clean
filtered air without contamination from adjoining areas and
variable temperature range of 24 to 270C are important.

Laboratory & Delivery: The procedures for normal child birth are
considered non invasive and rooms are controlled as similar to
patient’s rooms. Invasive caesarean sections are controlled as
performed in Operation Theatre.

MRI &CT SCAN Rooms: Normal comforts AC and ventilation

is required here. However, the special attention is needed in AC
to handle the high heat release of computer equipment and
cryogens used to cool the magnet.

Autopsy Room: Comforts conditions are maintained with a 100%

fresh air system with full exhaust. Due to heavy bacterial
contamination and odor, autopsy room requires special attention
for exhausting all air above the roof of the hospital. To prevent
spread of contamination to adjoining areas, the autopsy room
must be maintained at NEGATIVE pressure.

Physical Therapy Department: The normal AC cooling load of

the physiotherapy section is affected by the short wave diathermy,

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 90

infrared and ultraviolet equipment used in this area. The exercise
section requires no special treatment, temperature, and humidity
should be within the comfort zone.

CSSD: Comfort AC is optional but ventilation and exhaust air

systems are essential. Used and contaminated utensils,
instruments and equipment are brought to this unit for cleaning
and sterilization prior to reuse. The storage area should,
preferably be air conditioned on 24 hour basis but the remaining
CSSD department can be merely ventilated.

Kitchen: This is generally ventilated, so that fresh filtered air is

distributed to the entire area and stale air should be exhausted
through the hoods kept over the cooking area where the heat is
concentrated. Cooler and freezer rooms are located close to the
kitchen area and the refrigeration equipment for these Should
preferably be water cooled for the best cooling efficiency

Laundry: A laundry should generally be ventilated with fresh

filtered air and exhausted through hoods placed over the heat
generating laundry equipment such as washers, flat work ironers
and tumblers, above, the roof or where it will not be nuisance to
neighbors.

Pharmacies and Drug Storage: These areas require air

conditioning in order to carry ‘temperature dependent’ drugs.
Inadequate temperature control here either means that medication
would not function as required or the hospital would simply not
be able to do some emergency treatments

Air-Conditioning of Retail Outlets

Air conditioning for shops and retail outlets is becoming
increasingly important both in the colder winter days and the,
warm summer days. Keeping the retail outlet at comfortable
conditions year round is a great way to make customers as well

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 91

as staff happy and comfortable to work in optimum conditions.
Some of the benefits for air conditioning in Retail Outlets are as
follows:
To attract people into the retail outlet: In winter days, people
naturally want to come in to the heat, if there is an efficient air
conditioning system .Conversely, in the summer days, people
rush to air-conditioned outlets when the temperatures can soar
with more and more frequent heat waves. Both staff and
customers are cool on those warm days and it is another great way
to get people in to store for purchasing. Once people are in store,
they are much more likely to be attracted to buy products.

Happy staff means happy customers: One of the big benefits of

keeping retail outlet at comfortable condition year round is the
happiness of working staff. Customer service by staff in retail
stores is vital in converting browsers into customers to buy the
products. Keeping the retail outlet at the right temperature can
have a huge impact on the well-being and attitude of staff to do
best customer service.

Energy performance: One final benefit of installing air

conditioning in retail outlet is the energy performance of modem
systems. Store owners are now required to commit to reducing
energy emissions. Energy efficient air conditioning system helps
to reduce cutting of extra bills.

The Best Types of Air Conditioning for Retail Environments

In retail outlets, customer comfort should be a priority. The ability
to control the temperature in retail outlet is an essential element
to making customers have an enjoyable shopping experience,
which in turn leads to increased sales and return visits. .

When choosing air conditioning unit for retail outlets, the unit
should be best suited for retail environment’s needs, and cost
effective investment for business. To make decisions, the
advantages and limitations of the various air conditioning units
are listed here:

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 92

Wall or Floor Mounted Systems: Wall or floor mounted systems
are comprised of one internal and one external unit.

Advantages:
 These types of units are very energy efficient and offer full
control of the surrounding environment, making them an ideal
choice for smaller shops
 Wall or floor mounted units are usually smaller than their
alternative counterparts, and hence they have low running
costs, especially if installed in a smaller building.
 Cheap installation.
 Units can be controlled remotely and hence full control of the
retail environments cooling and heating levels at all times can
be achieved.

Limitations:
 Wall units, if not installed correctly, can cause unwanted cold
drafts
 These types of units are more obviously seen by occupants,
and could distract from the stylish layout of store.
 It creates noise pollution than other types of Air Conditioning

Ducted units: These are the least intrusive type of Air

Conditioning unit, as most of the system is hidden above a
suspended ceiling.

Advantages:
 The air conditioning box is kept hidden from sight
 Customers cannot see anything other than a small grill
mounted in the ceilings- outlet for introducing conditioned air

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 93

Limitations:
 Ducted units are best installed and hence if any repair is to be
done, then suspended ceiling has to be removed.
 Ducted units are more expensive to install.

Ceiling Cassette: Ceiling cassette air conditioning units are the

most common type of unit, installed into the ceiling for a
convenient, practical installation.

Advantages:
 Ceiling cassette units have the advantage of being remote
control operated, giving, us the complete control over the
temperature levels of the building.
 Placed in the ceiling, this type of unit blends easily into the
store’s environment, allowing to retain shop’s aesthetics
without sacrificing on customer comfort.
 Being ceiling mounted; these units won’t take up any of the
valuable sales floor space.

Limitations:
 Installation can be most costly for ceiling mounted units, and
can cause some disruption to the business while being fitted.
 Ceiling cassette units have to be accessed from below when
carrying out servicing, which may need to be done only during
shop closing hours.

COMPUTER CENTRE AIR CONDITIONING

UNIT (CRAC)

A computer room air conditioning (CRAC) unit is a device that

monitors and maintains the temperature, air distribution and
humidity in a network room or data centre or computer centre.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 94

Computers do a lot of work; consume energy in the form of
electricity. The energy is then converted into heat energy and heat
is produced. To control this heat, we need to cool down the
system. For cooling purpose, air conditioners are installed in
computer labs. Mainframes and racks of servers can get heated
up, so climate control is an important part of the data center’s
infrastructure.

CRAC units are positioned in such a way that outside air is

passing through the cooling coil, gets cooled and then it flows
through an elevated floor, then flows through the racks where it
picks up heat. The warm exit air forms hot aisles behind the racks,
and the hot air returns to the CRAC intakes, which are positioned
above the floor and again gets cooled and this cycle repeats.

The purpose of AC computer labs is not only just cooling the

computers but to control dust in the computer labs. This dust and
small fiber materials get deposited around the processor and clogs
it so much that its heat does not get dissipated. With the result,
processor trips on overheating. Similarly, the fan in the power
supply is unable to dissipate heat and many parts in the computer
get so much of dust and hence computers may malfunction.

A computer server is a heater, and hence, it needs to be kept

within a temperature range or it will burn up. The higher the
temperature, the harder the server fans need to work, so the more
power they draw. The critical temperature is the temperature of
the air entering the server. The air being discharged out the back
of the server is 20-25 degrees warmer, and is usually over 100
degrees.

Applications of Air Conditioning in Industry

The air conditioning has numerous applications in industry.
Generally, in an industry air conditioning is required to control
the temperature, air flow, dust content and humidity to get a

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 95

quality product. In addition, air conditioning is required for the
following purposes:

 To provide comforts to the workers.

 To provide necessary low temperature conditions required for
the manufacture of certain products in industries such as
textile, printing and refineries.
 To provide a clean room for the precision work, laboratories
and quality control rooms.
 For drying of products.
 To preserve food during storage and transportation

Textile industry
The air-conditioning plays an important role in textile industry
and is essential for the production of quality textile products in
addition to reduction in wastage. The industries producing cotton,
silk, rayon, wool and nylon require maintenance of specific
relative humidity during manufacturing process. The finished
fabrics are soft and durable when manufactured under proper
humidity conditions. If these are manufactured under dry
humidity conditions, the finished product becomes brittle and
weak.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 96

The different manufacturing processes require different
temperatures as well as humidity conditions. For example, low
humidity (55 - 60%) is required in spinning department to avoid
sticky action of cotton to leather aprons. However, high humidity
(70 - 85%) in weaving department is maintained to reduce the
static electricity effects and to increase the strength of the cotton
threads. Table shows some of the recommended environmental
conditions for textile industry.

Photographic industry
In photographic industry, the manufacturing processes require
accurate control of temperature and humidity. The photographic
film is made of cellulose ester, coated with silver salt emulsion.
The photographic paper used for films is manufactured by
applying a coating of emulsion on a particular, highly pure wood
pulp paper. All these processes are carried out under controlled
conditions, as these are sensitive to variations in temperature and
humidity. The dust particles are undesirable during
manufacturing processes in the photographic industry. Special
type of filters are employed to supply clean cool air at the required
humidity. The absolute filters are normally employed as the
filtering media along with pre-filters.

Printing Industry
In printing industry, the required temperature and humidity are in
the range of 23°C to 27°C (296 K to 300 K) and 20% to 50%
relative humidity. In textile printing factory, it is very essential to
maintain correct humidity conditions as low humidity may result
in light prints and high humidity may result in blurring or blots.

In paper printing industries, in low humidity conditions paper

becomes dry and under high humidity conditions, the printing ink
dries slowly which may result in non-uniform printing.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 97

Food Industry
In food industry, air-conditioning is universally employed for the
preservation of perishable foods such as cheese, butter, fruits,
milk, vegetables, meats etc. Also, during the manufacturing
processes, air-conditioning is used for cooling the materials, e.g.
during milk and butter processing, cooling is provided by
refrigeration equipment.

In cold storage, the temperature, humidity and dust-particles are

controlled to prolong their life. It may be noted that in high
humidity conditions, biscuits, pastries and cakes absorb moisture
and product deterioration is inevitable. In high temperatures,
fungus and bacteria growth multiply in perishable foods, thus
controlled conditions of temperature and humidity are very
essential.

Air-conditioning plays an equally important role in the

transportation of food from one place to another. For this,
refrigerated trucks are employed. Dry ice is commonly used for
the transportation of food with an advantage that it does not spoil
the food as it directly gets converted from solid to vapour.

Farm Animals
The yield of Jersey cows decreases drastically during summer
months. Low temperature results in more efficient digestion of
food and increase in weight of cow and the milk yield. Animal
barns have to be ventilated in any case since their number density
is usually very large. In many countries evaporative cooling is
used for creating comfort conditions in animal houses

Computer Rooms
These require control of temperature, humidity and cleanliness.
The temperature of around 25 °C and relative humidity of 50% is
maintained in these rooms. The dust spoils the CD drives and
printers etc.; hence the rooms have to be kept clean also by using
micro filters in the air-conditioning system.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 98

Power Plants
Most of the modem power plants are microprocessor controlled.
In the earlier designs, the control rooms were very large and were
provided with natural ventilation. These days the control rooms
are very compact, hence these require air-conditioning for
persons and the microprocessors.

Vehicular Air-conditioning
Bus, tram, truck, car. recreational vehicle, crane cabin, aircraft
and ships all require air-conditioning. In bus. tram, aircraft and
ship, the occupancy density is very high and the metabolic heat
and water vapour generated by persons has to be rejected. The
cooling load in these is very high and rapidly changes that
provides a challenge for their design.

Laboratories
This may involve precision measurement to performance testing
of materials, equipment and processes at controlled temperature
and relative humidity. Laboratories carrying out research in
electronics and biotechnology areas require very clean
atmosphere. Many laboratories using high voltage like in
LASERS require very low humidity to avoid the sparking.

Manufacture of Precision Parts

If the metal parts are maintained at uniform temperature during
manufacturing process, these will neither expand nor shrink,
maintaining close tolerances. A lower relative humidity will
prevent rust formation also. A speck of dust in a switch or relay
can cause total or partial malfunction in spacecraft. The
manufacture of VLSI chips, microprocessors, computers, aircraft
parts. Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS).
Nanomaterial fabrication and many areas of modem progress
require a very clean atmosphere and proper control over
humidity. Any impurity in the atmosphere will spoil the VLSI
chips. The concept of Clean rooms has been introduced for such

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 99

industries. In fact, all precision industries that use
microprocessors require these clean rooms.

Pharmaceutical Industries
In these industries to obtain sterile atmosphere, the airborne
bacteria and dust must be removed in the air-conditioning system
by filters. These industries require clean rooms. If capsules are
made or used in the plant, then air has to be dry otherwise the
gelatin of capsules will become sticky

Marine Air-conditioning
The air-conditioning of the passenger ships as well as cargo ships
is recently developed and is used by many companies of the
world. It may be noted that the general principles of air-
conditioning which apply to land installations are also applicable
to marine, provided all the factors affecting the construction and
operation of a ship are given proper considerations. The system
should be flexible to work under different climates, ranging from
extreme hot to extreme cold as the ship may pass through regions
of different climates. This should be taken into account for
selecting the equipment for outside design conditions.

In case of cargo ships, the refrigeration system should be capable

of providing any temperature between - 23.5° C and 12.5° C. The
reciprocating compressors with R-12 as refrigerant are
universally employed. It may be noted that R-22 is not
recommended because of its critical oil miscibility. Also,
compound compression system is generally employed with R-12
instead of parallel operation as with R-12 there is a tendency for
oil to migrate and flood one compressor while starving another.
Thus, this increases the number of compressors as each
evaporator has an independent compressor. The condensers are
of the shell and tube type using sea water for cooling. The
corrosion resistant cupronickel material is, therefore, used for
tubes and end covers. A receiver capable of holding 20 per cent
more charge in addition to whole charge is essential. The liquid

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 100

line should emerge from both ends of the condenser, and later
joining into one is required as it ensures continuous draining of
the liquid during roll or pitch of the ship.

However, the various factors that are also considered while

designing air-conditioning system for ships are as follows:

 The working of the system should be free from objectionable

noise and vibration. The vibration of ducts , water piping and
refrigerant piping may cause fatigue and failure. In order to
avoid this, it is necessary to provide proper vibration dampers
and canvas duct joints from the vibration machinery to the
conditioned air carrying ducts.
 The equipment’s should be designed to occupy minimum
space because of limited space on ship board.
 The design of air-circulation system needs special attention, as
the heat load in every compartment is likely to be different.
The load in each room also differs in day and night. Thus, duct
layout is more difficult due to lack of space for carrying the
ducts.
 The low ceiling height of rooms in the ship needs special
attention for layout of supply and return air ducts. The
attention should be given to the room dimensions, ceiling
heights, volume of air handled and air temperature difference
between the supply and room air.
 The certain quantity of spare parts of essential items and extra
refrigerant charge should be carried as the period of voyage
may be long.

Comfort Air-Conditioning
Energy of food is converted into chemical energy for functioning
of brain, lungs, heart and other organs and this energy is
ultimately rejected to the surroundings. Also the internal organs
require a temperature close to 35oC for their efficient operation,
and regulatory mechanisms of human body maintain this

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 101

temperature by rejecting appropriate amount of heat. Human
beings do not feel comfortable if some extra effort is required by
the body to reject this energy. The air temperature, humidity and
velocity at which human body does not have to take any extra
action, is called comfort condition. Comfort condition is also
sometimes called as neutral condition

The residences, offices, shopping centers, stores, large buildings,

theatres, auditorium etc. all have slightly different requirements
and require different design. The required cooling capacities also
vary widely depending upon the application. The factoiy
assembled room air conditioners are very widely used for small
residences, offices etc. These units are available as window type
or split type. The capacity of these systems vary from a fraction
of a ton (TR) to about 2 TR. These systems use a vapour
compression refrigeration system with a sealed compressor and
forced convection type evaporators and condensers. Figure 3.6
shows the schematic of a widow type room air conditioner. In this
type all the components are housed in a single outer casing. In a
split type air conditioner, the compressor and condenser with fan
(commonly known as condensing unit) are housed in a separate
casing and is kept away from the indoor unit consisting of the
evaporator, blower, filter etc. The outdoor and indoor units are
connected by refrigerant piping. For medium sized buildings
factory assembled package units are available, while for very
large buildings a central air conditioning system is used.

Hospitals require sterile atmosphere so that bacteria emitted by

one patient does not affect the other persons. This is specially so
for the operation theatres and intensive care units. In these places
no part of the room air is re-circulated after conditioning by A/C
system. In other places up to 90% of the cold room air is re-
circulated and 10% outdoor fresh air is taken to meet the
ventilation requirement of persons. In hospitals all the room air is
thrown out and 100% fresh air is taken into the AC system. Since,
outdoor air may be at 45°C compared to 25°C of the room air, the
air-conditioning load becomes very large. The humidity load also

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 102

increases on this account. Operation theatres require special
attention in prevention of spores, viruses, bacteria and
contaminants given off by various devices and materials. Special
quality construction and filters are used for this purpose

Restaurants, theatres and other places of amusement require air-

conditioning for the comfort of patrons. All places where, a large
number of people assemble should have sufficient supply of fresh
air to dilute CO2 and body odours emitted by persons. In addition,
people dissipate large quantities of heat that has to be removed by
air-conditioning for the comfort of persons. These places have
wide variation in air-conditioning load throughout the day. These
have large number of persons, which add a lot of water vapour by
respiration and perspiration. The food cooked and consumed also
adds water vapour. This vapour has to be removed by air-
conditioning plant. Hence, these buildings have large latent heat
loads. Infiltration of warm outdoor is also large since the large
number of persons enter and leave the building leading to entry
of outdoor air with every door opening. Ventilation requirement
is also very large.

Air-conditioning in stores and supermarkets attracts more

customers, induces longer period of stay and thereby increases
the sales. Supermarkets have frozen food section, refrigerated
food section, dairy and brewage section, all of them requiring
different temperatures. The refrigeration system has to cater to
different temperatures, apart from air-conditioning. These places
also have a wide variation in daily loads depending upon busy
and lean hours, and holidays.

Large commercial buildings are a world of their own; they have

their own shopping center, recreation center, gymnasium
swimming pool etc. Offices have very-high density of persons
during office hours and no occupancy during off time. These
buildings require integrated concept with optimum utilization of
resources and services. These have security aspects, fire
protection, emergency services, optimum utilization of energy all

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 103

built-in. Modem buildings of this type are called intelligent
buildings where air-conditioning requires large amount of energy
and hence is the major focus.

Since persons have to spend a major part of their time within the
building, without much exposure to outdoors, the concept of
Indoor .Air Quality (IAQ) has become very important. There are
a large number of pollutants that are emitted by the materials used
in the construction of buildings and brought into the buildings.
IAQ addresses to these issues and gives recommendation for their
reduction to safe limits. Sick building syndrome is very' common
in poorly designed air conditioned buildings due to inadequate
ventilation and use of improper materials. The sick building
syndrome is characterized by the feeling of nausea, headache, eye
and throat irritation and the general feeling of being
uncomfortable with the indoor environment. In developed
countries this is leading to litigation also.

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 104

Prepared By

ARUN JOSE TOM

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
CARMEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY

RAC, MODULE 6, ARUN JOSE TOM, CCET pg. 105