Gafat Institute of Technology –Debre Tabor University

የጋፋት ቴክኖሎጂ እንስቲትዩት - ደብረ ታቦረ ዩኒቨርሲቲ

Civil Engineering Department
Engineering Hydrology
BY
Dessie W. (M.Sc.)

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4
 Five: Stream Flow/Runoff
➢Introduction

➢Discharge computation

➢Runoff Estimation from Rainfall

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 Introduction

❖Runoff is often defined as the portion of rainfall, that runs over and
under the soil surface toward the stream.

❖For a given precipitation, the evapotranspiration, initial loss,

infiltration, and detention-storage requirements will have first be
satisfied before runoff.

❖When these are satisfied, excess precipitation moves over the land
surfaces to reach smaller channels, called Run off.

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 Cont.…

Key Aspects:

1.Streamflow refers to water moving through a defined channel, such as a river

or stream.

2.Runoff: Refers to water that flows over the ground surface, often originating
from rainfall or snowmelt. Some runoff infiltrates the soil, but the remaining
water flows into streams and rivers.

3.Hydrological Cycle: Streamflow is an essential part of the global

hydrological cycle, which includes processes like evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, infiltration, and surface runoff.

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Cont.…

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Cont.….

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 Cont.…..
The types of runoff or flow or stream flow are

➢Overland flow is a thin sheet of water that flows over the land surface.

➢Underflow (subsurface flow) or interflow is the movement of water in the subsoil

laterally

➢Base flow is the ground water flow to the stream

➢Key points

❖Speed of flow: overland flow> interflow> base flow.

❖ Direct surface runoff = overland flow + interflow

❖To total runoff = Overland flow + interflow + base flow.

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 Factors that affect runoff
❑Watershed Geomorphology

1. Drainage Area

The drainage area (A) is probably the single most important watershed
characteristic for hydrologic design.

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 Cont.…
when rain falls uniformly over a larger basin and a smaller basin, the
larger basin produces more runoff volume.

2. Watershed Length

➢The length (L) of a watershed is the second watershed characteristic of

interest. While the length increases as the drainage area increases,

➢The length of a watershed is important in hydrologic computations; for

example, it is used in time-of concentration calculations

➢Watershed length is usually defined as the distance measured along the

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 Cont.….
➢main channel from the watershed outlet to the basin divide.

➢The length is measured along the flow path.

3. Watershed Slope

o Watershed slope reflects the rate of change of elevation concerning

distance along the principal flow path.

o Typically, the principal flow path is delineated, and the watershed slope (S) is
computed as the difference in elevation (E)between the endpoints of the
principal flow path divided by the hydrologic length of the flow path (L).

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 Cont.…
➢The most commonly used instrument for measuring precipitation is the
rain gauge.

➢ It essentially consists of a cylindrical vessel assembly kept open to

collect rain.

➢ Rain gauges can be broadly classified into two categories:

➢ non-recording and recording gauges.

➢Non-Recording Rain Gauge:

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 Cont.….
4. Watershed Shape

❖Consider two basins of equal area where one is long and narrow, and
the other is rounded, then consider runoff traveling from the farthest
point in each basin to their respective outlets.

❖The runoff in the more rounded basin will arrive more quickly at the
basin outlet.

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Cont.….

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 Cont.….
5. Land Cover and Use

➢Different land covers and uses have different runoff coefficients and
affect the rate of runoff

6. Soil type

➢As soil types varies spatially, the property of runoff also varies.

7. .Climiatic factor

❖Intensity of rainfall

❖Duration of rainfall and Areal distribution of rainfall

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 Cont.….
• rding Ty Recording Type Rain Gauge pe Rain Gauge

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 Methods of Discharge Measurement
❖The discharge in the river or stream can be measured by directly or
indirectly techniques .

❖Several methods may be used to measure a discharge of regular

irrigation channels and irregular channels like rivers, streams etc.

❖Stream flow measurements can be broadly classified into two

categories

✓Direct measurement technique

✓ Indirect measurement technique.i

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 Direct Discharge Measurement
As a rule, direct measurement of discharge is a very time-consuming and
costly procedure. The direct discharge measurement methods are

➢Area-velocity methods,

➢Moving boat method

➢Ultrasonic methods ( Reading assignment)

➢Electromagnetic methods (Reading assignment)

➢Dilution methods (Reading assignment)

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 Indirect measurement technique
➢Indirect measurement of discharge refers to methods used to estimate
river or stream discharge without directly measuring the flow (e.g.,
using flow meters or weirs).

➢Instead, indirect methods rely on measuring other variables, such as

stage (water level), velocity, or environmental factors like precipitation
or water balance, and then using these measurements to estimate the

discharge.

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 Cont.…
❑Weir Measurement

➢L = Length of the weir crest (in meters or feet)

➢H = Head above the weir crest (in meters or feet)

➢C = Discharge coefficient, which depends on factors like weir shape

and flow conditions

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 Cont.….

❑Flume Measurement

➢C = A discharge coefficient, typically specific to the size and type of

flume.
➢H = Head (the difference in water height at a specific point from the
flume's throat).
➢n = A constant that depends on the type of flume, often around 1.5 to 2.

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 Estimation of Design Runoff Rate
The most widely used method to determine the design runoff rate that
makes use of precipitation data is the Rational Method. The runoff from
a catchment may be daily, monthly, or yearly.
1. Rational Method
One of the most commonly used for the calculation of peak flow from
small areas is the rational formula given as:
Qp = CiA
Where, Qp= peak runoff ( m3/sec) , C= runoff coefficient , i= Average
rainfall intensity and A= Average drainage area

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 Cont.…
Assumptions inherent in the Rational Formula are as follows:

➢The peak flow occurs when the entire watershed is contributing to the
flow

➢The rainfall intensity is the same over the entire drainage area

➢The rainfall intensity is uniform over a time duration equal to the time
of concentration, 𝑡𝑐.

➢The time of concentration is the time required for water to travel from
the hydraulically most remote point of the basin to the point of interest.

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 Cont.…
➢The frequency of the computed peak flow is the same as that of the
rainfall intensity, i.e., the 10-yr rainfall intensity is assumed to produce
the 10-yr peak flow
➢The coefficient of runoff is the same for all storms of all recurrence
probabilities.
❑Runoff Coefficient
➢The ground cover and a host of other hydrologic abstractions
considerably affect the coefficient.
➢The Values of C vary from 0.05 for flat sandy areas to 0.95 for
impervious urban surfaces,

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 Cont.…
➢ If the basin contains varying amounts of different land cover or other abstractions, a
coefficient can be calculated through areal weighting as shown in the following
equation.
σ 𝐶𝑖∗𝐴𝑖
➢ 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶 =
Total Area
➢ Where , Ci and Ai is each individual run off coefficient and area of the land surface
respectively.

• getwor

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Cont.….

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Cont.…

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 Rainfall intensity
➢The rainfall intensity, I, is the average rainfall rate in inches, cm, and
mm per hour for the period of maximum rainfall of a given recurrence
frequency having a duration equal to the time of concentration.

➢Rainfall intensity, duration curve, and frequency curves are necessary

to use the Rational method.

Figure Example of IDF Curve

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 Time of Concentration
➢Time of concentration (𝑡𝑐), is the time required for rain falling at the
farthest point of the catchment to flow to the measuring point of the
river.

➢The value of i, the mean intensity, assumed that the rate of rainfall is
constant during 𝑡𝑐 and that all the measured rainfall over the
catchment area contributes to the peak flow.

➢The peak flow 𝑄𝑃 occurs after the period 𝑡𝑐.

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 Cont.…
➢For urban areas, values of 𝑡𝑐 are normally calculated as length
divided by velocity determined by hydraulic formulas.
➢For rural drainage basins, 𝑡𝑐 is generally estimated using an empirical
formula such as Kirpich’s equation.
tc = 0.0195 L0.77 S-0.385
➢tc - time of concentration (minutes)
➢ L - maximum length of travel (meters) or tc calculated as
➢tc = 3.976 L0.77 S-0.385 , where L is in km units

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 Cont.….
S – slope (m/m) = (H/L) where H is the difference in elevation between
the furthest point in the catchment and the outlet.
Example 1
A watershed has a runoff coefficient of 0.20, area of 150 ha with a
general slope of 0.001, and a maximum length of travel of overland flow
of 1.25 km. Information on the storm of 50 years return period is given
as follows

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 Cont.…
Estimate the peak flow to be drained by a culvert for a 50-
year storm.
Solution.
First the time of concentration 𝑡𝑐 is calculated

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Cont.…

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Cont.…

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 Example 2
An urban catchment has an area o f 85 ha. The slope of the catchment is
0.006 and the maximum length of travel of water is 950 m. The
maximum depth of rainfall with a 25-year return period is as below.
5 10 20 30 40 60
Duration (min)
17 26 40 50 57 62
Max. Depth of rainfall (mm)
If a culvert for drainage at the outlet o f this area is to be designed for a
return period of 25 years, estimate the required peak-flow rate, by
assuming the runoff coefficient as 0.3.

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 Example 3
If the urban area of Example (2), the land use of the area, and the
corresponding runoff coefficients are as given below, calculate the
equivalent runoff coefficient.

Solution
σ 𝐶𝑖∗𝐴𝑖 0.7∗8 + 0.1∗17 + 0.3∗50 +(0.8∗10)
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔h𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐶 = = = 0.36
Total Area 8+17+50+10

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 Example 4
An engineer is required to design a drainage system for an airport of area
2.5 km2 for 35-year return period .if the equation of rainfall intensity is

𝑇
i=
(𝑡+10)^0.38

where i=rainfall intensity in cm/hr, and t = duration in minutes.

T = return period in year. If the concentration time for the area is

estimated as 50 minutes ,for what discharge the system must design?

Solution

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 Cont.…
𝑇 35
First determine rain fall intensity (i) = i = = =
(𝑡+10)^0.38 (50+10)^0.38

7.385cm/hr, then Qp = 2.78*(CIA) = 2.78*1*7.385*2.5 =51.33 m3/sec.

➢ Individual Assignment

1. A watershed of 500 ha has the land use/cover and corresponding

runoff coefficient as given below.

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 Cont.…
The maximum length o f travel o f water in the watershed is about 3000
m and the elevation difference between the highest and outlet points o f
the watershed is 25 m. The maximum intensity duration frequency
relationship o f the watershed is given by.

6.311∗𝑇^0.1523
➢i = ,
(𝐷+0.5)^0.945

Where; i = intensity in cm/h,

T = Return period in years and D = duration of the rainfall in hours.

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 Cont.…
Estimate
1. A 25-year peak runoff from the watershed and
2. The 25-year peak runoff if the forest cover has decreased by
50% ha and pasture land increased by 125 ha
3. forest land to have a total coverage of 350 ha and pasture
land 50 ha.

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 Curve Number Method
➢The soil conservation services (SCS) method is widely used for
estimating depth of floods (depth of peak flow) on small to medium-
sized ungauged drainage basins around the world

➢The method was developed based on 24-hr rainfall-runoff data in the

USA.

In its derivation it is assumed that no runoff occurs until rainfall equals

an initial abstraction (that is losses before runoff begins or Ia), and also
satisfies cumulative infiltration F (the actual retention before runoff
begins) or water retained in the drainage basin, excluding Ia.

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 Cont.….
➢The potential retention (the potential retention before runoff begins )

S is the value that (F + 𝐼𝑎) would reach in a very long storm.

➢Soil Conservation Service(SCS) Curve Number (CN) model estimates

precipitation excess as a function of cumulative precipitation, soil
cover, land use, and antecedent moisture.

➢SCS methods also Classify soils into four hydrologic soil groups.

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 Cont.…
➢The Curve Number (CN) is a hydrological parameter used in the Soil
Conservation Service (SCS) Method to estimate direct runoff from a
rainfall event.

➢It represents the potential for runoff in a given area based on land use,
soil type, hydrologic condition, and cover type.

➢The Curve Number method is commonly used in hydrology to predict

the runoff volume from a watershed based on the rainfall and land
characteristics

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 Cont.….
➢ Actual runoff taking place = Q

➢ Potential maximum runoff = P - Ia

➢ Actual moisture retention by the soil = Fa

➢ Potential moisture retention by the soil = S

Basic concepts

➢ The SCS-CN method is based on the water balance equation of the rainfall
in a known interval of time Δt, and from the continuity

➢ principle it can be expressed as P = Pe + Ia + Fa ………… 1

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in which

➢P = Total precipitation,

➢Ia= Initial abstraction,

➢Fa = Cumulative infiltration excluding Ia and,

➢Pe = direct surface runoff

❖Two other concepts as below are also used with Eq. (1). (i)

✓The first concept is that the ratio of actual amount of direct runoff ,Pe to

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 Cont.…
Maximum potential runoff (P - Ia) is equal to the ratio of actual
infiltration (Fa ) to the possible maximum retention (or infiltration), S.
This proportionality concept can be schematically shown in Fig.

𝑃𝑒 𝐹𝑎
=
𝑃−𝐼𝑎 𝑆
Then from equation 1 determine ,Fa as

the function of P, pe and Ia or using figure

In the next slide.

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Cont.…

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 Cont.…
✓The second concept is that the amount of initial abstraction (Ia) is some
fraction of the potential maximum retention (.S), Thus ; 𝐼a = 𝜆𝑆

Combining these equations and solving for pe gives

𝑃−𝐼𝑎 ^2
Pe = ,
𝑃−𝐼𝑎+𝑠

Which is the basic equation for computing direct runoff from a storm by
the SCS method.

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Cont.….

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 Cont.…

For practical application, the Soil Conservation Services (SCS) has expressed S (mm)
in terms of a dimensionless parameter CN (the Curve number) using equation 2 above

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 Cont.…

❑The Curve Number is a practical tool in hydrology for predicting

runoff and managing water resources effectively, considering a variety
of land, soil, and environmental conditions.
❖Determination of CN depends on:

➢ Soil type

➢ Land use/cover

➢Antecedent moisture conditions (AMC)

1. Soil type

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 Cont.…
Group Minimum Infiltration Soil type
Rate (in/hr)
A 0.3-0.45 High infiltration rates (i.e. low runoff potential),
Deep, well drained sands and gravels
B 0.15-0.3 Moderate infiltration rates ( i.e. moderately low runoff
potential). Moderately deep, moderately well drained
soils with moderately coarse textures
C 0.05-0.15 Slow infiltration rates (i.e. moderately high runoff
potential). Soils with layers, or soils with moderately
fine textures
D 0.00-0.05 Very slow infiltration rates (i.e. high runoff potential).
Clayey soils, high water table, or shallow impervious
Layer

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 Cont.…
❑Antecedent moisture conditions (AMC)

❖AMC(I) = Dry soil conditions but not wilting point

❖AMC (II) = Normal (Average) antecedent moisture conditions

❖AMC(III) = sufficient rainfall (wet) conditions

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Curve Number Value

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Cont.…

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Cont.…

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Cont.….

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Cont.…

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 Cont.…
NB: In the table above % of soil B&C is calculated by dividing the given
% into two. Because the soil groups are 50% B and 50% C

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Cont.…

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 Example 2
The following rainstorm (Columns 1 and 2) falls on a watershed that is

35 % bare soil in hydrologic soil group D and has 30% of its soils in

hydrologic soil group B under grass and 35 % in hydrologic soil group

C under forest. Determine the effective rainfall (runoff) pattern.

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 Cont.…
❑Solution

➢The appropriate CN can be calculated by referring to SCS Table and

noting that the bare soil area has a CN of 91, the B soil has a CN of 58,
and the C soil has a CN of 77. Thus, the weighted CN is

➢ CN = 0.35(91) + 0.35(77) + 0.30(58) = 77

➢It is assumed that an unknown antecedent moisture condition exists.

The total

➢Run off from the 4.04 in of rain is computed as

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 Cont.…

➢S = 1000/CN - 10 = 1000/77 - 10 = 2.99 in

➢Pe = (P - 0.2S)^2 / (P + 0.8S)

➢(4.04 - 0.2 x 2.99)^2 / (4.04 + 0.8 x 2.99)

➢= 1.84 in

Table 1 shows the calculations required to arrive at the effective rainfall

Pattern.

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 Cont.…
Calculation of effective rainfall using the SCS method.
Time Incremental Rainfall Accumulated Rainfall Accumulated Runoff Incremental Runoff

(in) (in) (in) (in)

10.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
10.75 0.10 0.10 0.00 0.00
11.00 0.11 0.21 0.00 0.00
11.25 0.15 0.36 0.00 0.00
11.50 0.17 0.53 0.00 0.00
11.75 0.71 1.24 0.11 0.11
12.00 1.88 3.12 1.15 1.04
12.25 0.33 3.45 1.39 0.24
12.50 0.16 3.61 1.51 0.12
12.75 0.15 3.76 1.63 0.11
13.00 0.10 3.86 1.70 0.08
13.25 0.10 3.96 1.78 0.08
13.50 0.08 4.04 1.84 0.06

Total 4.04 4.04 1.84 1.84

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 Cont.…
➢Determine the runoff from a watershed of 60 ha. The following data
are available:
➢Depth of rainfall, 100 mm Antecedent rainfall condition, AMC I
➢Row crop, good condition in 40 ha (Soil group C)
➢Woodland, good condition in 20 ha (Soil group B)
➢The day after the rainfall of 100 mm, another rainfall of 50 mm
occurred.

➢Estimate the surface runoff from the watershed .

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 Cont.…
The curve number data reported by USSCS are available for AMC II.
Since the present condition is AMC I, therefore, the curve numbers need
to be appropriately converted to this condition from AMC II.

Solution 4.2 CN(II)

CN(I) =
10 − 0.058 CN(II)

Types of crop Curve number at AMC II Curve number at AMC I

Row crop good 82 65.6

Wood land good 55 33.9

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 Cont.…
➢ Weighted CN = [(65.6 x 40) + (33.9 x 20)] / (60) = 55
➢ S = 25400 / 55 - 254 = 207.82 mm
➢ Q = (100 - 0.2 x 207.82)^2 / (100 + 0.8 x 207.82) = 12.82 mm
➢The runoff in response to 100 mm of rainfall will be 12.82 mm
➢For the second rainfall of 50 mm, occurring a day after, runoff will be
calculated as follows.
➢Sum of the volume of two rainfalls = 100 + 50 = 150 mm
➢Since the 2-day total rainfall is 150 mm, antecedent condition AMC III
The curve numbers at AMC II are to be converted to AMC III.

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 Cont.…
Solution
23 CN(II)
CN(III) =
10 + 0.13 CN(II)

Types of crop Curve number at AMC II Curve number at AMC I

Row crop good 82 91.3

Wood land good 55 73.8

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Cont.…

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 Cont.…

Individual , Assignment ≠ 𝟐
➢The land use and soil characteristics of a 5000-ha watershed are
as follows:

➢Soil: Not a black soil.

➢Hydrologic soil classification: 60% in Group B and 40% in Group

C Land Use:

➢Hard surface areas = 10%

➢Waste Land = 5%

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 Cont.…
➢Orchard (without understory cover) = 30% Cultivated (Terraced),
poor condition = 55%

➢Antecedent rain: The total rainfall in past five days was 30 mm.
The season is dormant season.

1. Compute the runoff volume from a 125 mm rainfall in a day on

the watershed

2. What would have been the runoff if the rainfall in the previous 5
days was 10 mm?

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3.If the entire area is urbanized with 60% residential area (65%

average impervious area), 10% of paved streets and 30%

commercial and business area (85% impervious), estimate the runoff

volume under AMC-II condition for one day rainfall of 125 mm.

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The End!!!

Thank You!!!

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