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Chapter 3
More Flow of Control

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Overview

3.3 C++ Loop Statements

3.4 Designing Loops

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Slide 3- 3
3.3
C++ Loop Statements

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C++ Loop Statements

◼ A loop is a program construction that repeats a

statement or sequence of statements a number
of times
◼ The body of the loop is the statement(s) repeated

◼ Each repetition of the loop is an iteration

◼ Loop design questions:

◼ What should the loop body be?

◼ How many times should the body be iterated?

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Slide 3- 5
I. while loop
◼ When an action must be repeated, a loop is used
◼ C++ includes several ways to create loops
◼ We start with the while-loop
◼ Example: while (count_down > 0)
{
cout << "Hello ";
count_down -= 1;
}
◼ Output: Hello Hello Hello
when count_down starts at 3

Display 2.12

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Slide 2- 6
II. do-while loop
◼ A variation of the while loop
◼ A do-while loop is always executed at least once
◼ The body of the loop is first executed

◼ The boolean expression is checked after the body

has been executed

◼ Syntax: do Display 2.14
{ Display 2.15
statements to repeat;

} while (boolean_expression);

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Slide 2- 7
Increment/Decrement

◼ ++ increment operator
◼ Adds 1 to the value of a variable
x ++;
is equivalent to x = x + 1;
◼ -- decrement operator
◼ Subtracts 1 from the value of a variable
x --;
is equivalent to x = x – 1;

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Slide 2- 8
while and do-while Difference
◼ An important difference between while and
do-while loops:
◼ A while loop checks the Boolean expression at the

beginning of the loop

◼ A while loop might never be executed!
◼ A do-while loop checks the Boolean expression at
the end of the loop
◼ A do-while loop is always executed at least once
◼ Review while and do-while syntax in
Display 3.9

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Slide 3- 9
Sample Program
◼ Bank charge card balance of $50 (what you spent)
◼ 2% per month interest (penalty for not paying)
◼ Q: How many months to accumulate a debt of $100, if
starting with an initial balance of $50 owed?
◼ After 1 month: $50 + 2% of $50 = $51
◼ After 2 months: $51 + 2% of $51 = $52.02
◼ After 3 months: $52.02 + 2% of $52.02 …

Display 2.16
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Slide 2- 10
Infinite Loops
◼ Loops that never stop are infinite loops (problem due to
some error!)
◼ The loop body should contain a line that will eventually
cause the boolean expression to become false and,
hence, exit the loop
◼ Example: Print the odd numbers less than 12
x = 1;
while (x != 12)
{
cout << x << endl;
x = x + 2;
}
◼ Must use this comparison instead: while ( x < 12)
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Slide 2- 11
 The Increment Operator

◼ We have used the increment operator in statements such

as:
number++;
to increase the value of number by one
◼ The increment operator can also be used in expressions:
int number = 2;
int value_produced = 2 * (number++);
◼ (number++) first returns the value of number (2) to

be multiplied by 2, then increments number to three!!

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Slide 3- 12
number++ vs ++number

◼ (number++) returns the current value of number,

then increments number
◼ An expression using (number++) will use

the value of number BEFORE it is incremented

◼ (++number) increments number first and returns
the new value of number
◼ An expression using (++number) will use

the value of number AFTER it is incremented

◼ Number has the same value after either version!

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Slide 3- 13
++ Comparisons
◼ int number = 2;
int value_produced = 2 * (number++);
cout << value_produced << " " << number;

displays 4 3
◼ int number = 2;
int value_produced = 2* (++number);
cout << value_produced << " " number;

displays 6 3
Display 3.10
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Slide 3- 14
III. The for-Statement

◼ A for-Statement (for-loop) is another loop

mechanism in C++
◼ Designed for common tasks such as adding

numbers in a given range

◼ Is sometimes more convenient to use than a

while loop (when the number of iterations is

known beforehand)
◼ Does not do anything a while loop cannot do

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Slide 3- 15
for/while Loop Comparison

◼ sum = 0;
n = 1;
while(n <= 10) // add the numbers 1 - 10
{
sum = sum + n;
n++;
}

◼ sum = 0;
for (n = 1; n <= 10; n++) //add the numbers 1 - 10
sum = sum + n;

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Slide 3- 16
For Loop Dissection

◼ The for loop uses the same components as the

while loop in a more compact form
◼ for (n = 1; n <= 10; n++)

Initialization Action Update Action

Boolean Expression

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Slide 3- 17
for Loop Alternative

◼ A for loop can also include a variable declaration

in the initialization action
◼ for (int n = 1; n < = 10; n++)

This line means

◼ Create a variable, n, of type int and initialize it with 1
◼ Continue to iterate the body as long as n <= 10
◼ Increment n by one after each iteration
◼ For-loop syntax and while loop comparison
are found in

Display 3.11

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Slide 3- 18
for-loop Details

◼ Initialization and update actions of for-loops

often contain more complex expressions
◼ Here are some samples

for (n = 1; n < = 10; n = n + 2)

for(n = 0 ; n > -100 ; n = n -7)

for(double x = pow(y,3.0); x > 2.0; x = sqrt(x) )
Display 3.13
◼ The for loop body can be: i) single statement or
ii) multiple statements enclosed by braces
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Slide 3- 19
The for-loop Body
◼ The body of a for-loop can be
◼ A single statement (no braces)
◼ A compound statement enclosed in braces

◼ Example:
for(int number = 100; number >= 0; number--)
{
// loop body statements
}
◼ Display 3.13 shows the syntax for a for-loop
with a multi-statement body

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Slide 3- 20
The Empty Statement
◼ A semicolon creates a C++ statement
◼ Placing a semicolon after x++ creates the statement

x++;
◼ Placing a semicolon after nothing creates an

empty statement that compiles but does nothing

cout << "Hello" << endl;

;
cout << "Good Bye"<< endl;

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Slide 3- 21
Extra Semicolon
◼ Pitfall: Placing a semicolon after the parentheses of a
for loop creates an empty statement as the
body of the loop
◼ Example: for(int count = 1; count <= 10; count++);
cout << "Hello\n";

prints one "Hello", but not as part of the loop!

◼ The empty statement is the body of the loop
◼ cout << "Hello\n"; is not part of the loop body!

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Slide 3- 22
Which Loop To Use?

◼ Choose the type of loop late in the design process

◼ First design the loop using pseudocode

◼ Translate the pseudocode into C++

◼ The translation generally makes the choice of an

appropriate Loop clear

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Slide 3- 23
Choosing a for-loop

◼ for-loops are typically selected when doing

numeric calculations
◼ When there is a predetermined number of iterations
◼ When using a variable that changes by equal amount
each time the loop iterates

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Slide 3- 24
Choosing a while-loop

◼ A while-loop is typically used:

◼ When a for-loop is not appropriate (e.g. number

of loop iterations is unknown beforehand)

◼ When there are circumstances for which the

loop body should not be executed at all

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Slide 3- 25
Choosing a do-while Loop

◼ A do-while-loop is typically used:

◼ When a for-loop is not appropriate (e.g. number

of loop iterations is unknown beforehand)

◼ When the loop body must be executed at least

once

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Slide 3- 26
The break-Statement

◼ Often times, you need to exit a loop before it ends

◼ If the loop checks for invalid input that would
ruin a calculation, it is often best to end the
loop
◼ The break-statement can be used to exit a loop
before normal termination (abort it!)
◼ Be careful with nested loops! Using break only
exits the loop in which the break-statement
occurs
Display 3.14
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Slide 3- 27
Section 3.3 Conclusion
◼ Can you
◼ Determine the output of the following?

for(int count = 1; count < 5; count++)

cout << (2 * count) << " " ;

◼ Determine which type of loop is likely to be best

for
◼ Summing a series such as 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4 + … + 1/10?
◼ Reading a list of exam scores for one student?
◼ Testing a function to see how it performs with different
values of its arguments

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Slide 3- 28
3.4
Designing Loops

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Designing Loops

◼ Designing a loop involves designing

◼ The body of the loop

◼ The initializing statements

◼ The conditions for ending the loop

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Slide 3- 30
 for-loop for a sum

◼ Example: input a list of numbers and compute their

sum.

int sum = 0;
for(int count=1; count <= 100; count++)
{
cin >> next;
sum = sum + next;
}
◼ sum must be initialized to zero before the loop body!

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Slide 3- 31
for-loop For a Product

◼ Example: Computing the product of numbers is very

similar to the sum example given earlier
int product = 1;
for(int count=1; count <= this_many; count++)
{
cin >> next;
product = product * next;
}
◼ product must be initialized prior to the loop body
◼ Notice that product is initialized to 1, not 0!

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Slide 3- 32
 Ending a Loop

◼ The are four common methods to terminate an input loop:

◼ List headed by size (for loop)
◼ When we can determine the size of the list beforehand
◼ Ask before iterating (while loop)
◼ Ask if the user wants to continue before each iteration
◼ List ended with a sentinel value (while loop)
◼ Using a particular value to signal the end of the list
◼ Running out of input (while loop)
◼ Using the eof function to indicate the end of a file

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Slide 3- 33
1. List Headed By Size
◼ The for-loops provide a natural implementation of the list
headed by size method of ending a loop
◼ Example: int items;
cout << "How many items in the list?";
cin >> items;
for(int count = 1; count <= items; count++)
{
int number;
cout << "Enter number " << count;
cin >> number;
cout << endl;
// statements to process the number
}

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Slide 3- 34
2. Ask Before Iterating
◼ A while loop is used here to implement the ask
before iterating method to end a loop
sum = 0;
cout << "Are there numbers in the list (Y/N)?";
char ans;
cin >> ans;

while (( ans == 'Y') || (ans == 'y'))

{
//statements to read and process the number
cout << "Are there more numbers(Y/N)? ";
cin >> ans;
}

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Slide 3- 35
 3. List Ended With a Sentinel Value
◼ A while loop is typically used to end a loop using
the list ended with a sentinel value method

cout << "Enter a list of nonnegative integers.\n"

<< ”Enter a negative number to Exit.\n";
sum = 0;
cin >> number;
while (number > 0)
{
//statements to process the number
cin >> number;
}
◼ Notice that the sentinel value is read, but not processed

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Slide 3- 36
4. Running Out of Input
◼ The while loop is typically used to implement the
running out of input method of ending a loop

ifstream infile;
infile.open("data.dat");
while (! infile.eof( ) )
{
// read and process items from the file
// File I/O covered in Chapter 6
}
infile.close( );

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Slide 3- 37
Nested Loops

◼ The body of a loop may contain any kind of statement,

including another loop
◼ When loops are nested, all iterations of the inner loop

are executed for each iteration of the outer loop

◼ Give serious consideration to making the inner loop

a function call to make it easier to read your program

◼ Display 3.15 shows two versions of a program with nested
loops

Display 3.15
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Slide 3- 38
Debugging Loops

◼ Common errors involving loops include

◼ Off-by-one errors in which the loop executes

one more or one less times

◼ Infinite loops usually result from a mistake

in the Boolean expression that controls
the loop

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Slide 3- 39
Fixing Off By One Errors
◼ Check your comparison:
should it be < or <=?

◼ Check that the initialization uses the

correct value (e.g., 0 vs. 1?)

◼ Does the loop handle the zero iterations

case?

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Slide 3- 40
Fixing Infinite Loops

◼ Check the direction of inequalities:

< or > ?

◼ Test for < or > rather than equality (==)

◼ Remember that doubles are really only

approximations

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Slide 3- 41
More Loop Debugging Tips …

◼ Be sure that the mistake is really in the loop

◼ Trace the variable to observe how the variable
changes
◼ Tracing a variable is tracking its value change during

execution
◼ Many systems include utilities/tools to help with this
◼ cout statements can be used to trace a value

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Slide 3- 42
Debugging Example
◼ The following code is supposed to conclude
with the variable product containing the product
of the numbers 2 through 5
int next = 2, product = 1;
while (next < 5)
{
next++;
product = product * next;
}

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Slide 3- 43
Tracing Variables
◼ Add temporary cout statements to trace variables

int next = 2, product = 1;

while (next < 5)
{
next++;
product = product * next;
cout << "next = " << next
<< "product = " << product
<< endl;
}

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Slide 3- 44
First Fix
◼ The cout statements added to the loop show us
that the loop never multiplied by 2
◼ Solve the problem by moving the statement next++

int next = 2, product = 1;

while (next < 5)
{
product = product * next;
next++;

cout << "next = " << next

<< "product = " << product
<< endl;
}

◼ But, there is still a problem!

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Slide 3- 45
Second Fix
◼ Re-testing the loop shows us that now the loop
never multiplies by 5
◼ The fix is to use <= instead of < in our comparison

int next = 2, product = 1;

while (next <= 5)
{
product = product * next;
next++;
}

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Slide 3- 46
Loop Testing Guidelines
◼ Every time a program is changed, it must be
retested
◼ Changing one part may require a change to another

◼ Every loop should at least be tested using input

to cause:
◼ Zero iterations of the loop body

◼ One iteration of the loop body

◼ One less than the maximum number of iterations

◼ The maximum number of iterations

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Slide 3- 47
Starting Over

◼ Sometimes it is more efficient to throw out a

buggy program and start all over
◼ The new program will be easier to read

◼ The new program is less likely to be as buggy

◼ You may develop a working program faster

than if you repair the bad code
◼ The lessons learned in the buggy code will help you
design a better program faster

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Slide 3- 48
Chapter 3.4 Conclusion

◼ Can you

◼ Describe how to trace a variable?

◼ List possible solutions to an off-by-one error?

◼ Determine the number of fence posts needed

for a 100 meter long fence?

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Slide 3- 49
Chapter 3 -- End

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 Display 2.12
Back Next

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Display 2.14 Back Next

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 Display 2.15
Back Next

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 Display 3.9
Back Next

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 Display 2.16
Back Next

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 Display 3.10
Back Next

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 Display 3.11
Back Next

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Display 3.12 Back Next

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Display 3.13 Back Next

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 Display 3.14
Back Next

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 Display 3.15
Back Next
//DISPLAY 3.15 Explicitly Nested Loops
//Determines the total number of green-necked vulture eggs
//counted by all conservationists in the conservation district. cout << "Enter the number of eggs in each nest.\n"
#include <iostream> << "Place a negative integer at the end of your list.\n";
using namespace std; subtotal = 0;
int next;
int main() cin >> next;
{ while (next >=0)
cout << "This program tallies conservationist reports\n" {
<< "on the green-necked vulture.\n" subtotal = subtotal + next;
<< "Each conservationist's report consists of\n" cin >> next;
<< "a list of numbers. Each number is the count of\n" }
<< "the eggs observed in one " cout << "Total egg count for conservationist "
<< "green-necked vulture nest.\n" << " number " << count << " is "
<< "This program then tallies " << subtotal << endl;
<< "the total number of eggs.\n"; grand_total = grand_total + subtotal;
}
int number_of_reports; cout << endl << "Total egg count for all reports = "
cout << "How many conservationist reports are there? "; << grand_total << endl;
cin >> number_of_reports;
return 0;
int grand_total = 0, subtotal, count; }
for (count = 1; count <= number_of_reports; count++)
{
cout << endl << "Enter the report of "
<< "conservationist number " << count << endl;

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