Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F.

Smaisim 1
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 2

Introduction to Fluid Motion

Fluid motions manifest in many different ways. Some can be described
very easily, while others require a thorough understanding of physical laws.
In engineering applications, it is important to describe the fluid motions as
simply as can be justified. It is the engineer's responsibility to know which
simplifying assumptions (e.g., one-dimensional, steady-state, inviscid,
incompressible, etc) can be made.

A. Classification of Fluid Flows

1) Uniform flow and Steady flow
If we look at a fluid flowing under normal circumstances - a river for
example - the conditions (e.g. velocity, pressure) at one point will vary from
those at another point, and then we have non-uniform flow. If the conditions
at one point vary as time passes, then we have unsteady flow.
Under some circumstances, the flow will not be as changeable as this. The
following terms describe the states which are used to classify fluid flow:
Uniform flow: If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at
every point in the flow it is said to be uniform. That is, the flow conditions
DO NOT change with position.
Non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point
the flow is non-uniform.
Steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and
cross-section) may differ from point to point but DO NOT change with time.
Unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time, the
flow is described as unsteady.

2) One-, Two-, and Three-dimensional flows

A fluid flow is in general a three-dimensional as V=ui+vj+wk
A fluid flow is called three-dimensional if all three velocity components are
equally important. Basically, a three-dimensional flow problem will have the
most complex characters and is the most difficult to solve.
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 3

Fortunately, in many engineering applications, the flow can be

considered as two-dimensional. In such a situation, one of the velocity
components (say, w) is either identically zero or much smaller than the other
two components, and the flow conditions vary essentially only in two
directions (say, x and y). Hence, the velocity is reduced to V=ui+vj as
functions of ,uv(,xy (and possibly t).

It is sometimes possible to simplify further. Flow analysis by assuming

that two of the velocity components are negligible, leaving the velocity field
to be approximated as a one-dimensional flow field. That is, V=ui where the
velocity u may vary across the section of flow.

3) Viscous and Inviscid flows:

An inviscid flow is one in which viscous effects do not significantly
influence the flow and are thus neglected. In a viscous flow, the effects of
viscosity are important and cannot be ignored.
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 4

4) Incompressible and Compressible flows:

All fluids are compressible -even water- their density will change as
pressure changes. Under steady conditions, and if the changes in pressure are
small, it is usually possible to simplify analysis of the flow by assuming it is
incompressible and has constant density.
As you will appreciate, liquids are quite difficult to compress therefore
under most steady conditions they are treated as incompressible. In some
unsteady conditions and very high-pressure differences can occur and it is
necessary to consider these even for liquids. Gases, on the contrary, are very
easily compressed, it is essential in cases of high-speed flow to treat these as
compressible, taking changes in pressure into account.
Low-speed gas flows, such as the atmospheric flow referred to above, are also
considered to be incompressible flows. The Mach number is defined as
M=V/C where V is the gas speed and C is the speed of sound
if M<0.3 the it can be consider as incompressible.

5) Laminar and Turbulent flows

In the experiment shown above, a dye is injected into the middle of pipe
flow of water. The dye streaks will vary, as shown in (b), depending on the
flow rate in the pipe. The top situation is called laminar flow, and the lower
is turbulent flow, occurring when the flow is sufficiently slow and fast,
respectively. In laminar flow, the motion of the fluid particles is very orderly
with all particles moving in straight lines parallel to the pipe wall. There is
essentially no mixing of neighboring fluid particles.
In sharp contrast, mixing is very significant in turbulent flow, in which
fluid particles move randomly in all directions. It is therefore impossible to
trace motion of individual particles in turbulent flow. The flow may be
characterized by an unsteady fluctuating (i.e., random and 3-D) velocity
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 5

components superimposed on a temporal steady mean (i.e., along the pipe)

velocity.

Vd
Re   =density,  =viscosity, V=section-mean velocity, d=diameter

of pipe
If Re<2000 the flow is laminar and if Re is between 2,000 and 4,000
(2000<Re<4000) so the flow is transitional and if Re>4000 the flow is
turbulent.

B. Flow Visualization
There are four different types of flow lines that describe the flow field.
1) Streamline
A streamline is a line that is everywhere tangent to the velocity vector
at a given instant of time. A streamline is hence an instantaneous pattern.
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 6

2) Streakline
A streakline is an instantaneous line whose points are occupied by
particles, which have earlier passed through a prescribed point in space. A
streakline is hence an integrated pattern. A streakline can be formed by
injecting dye continuously into the fluid at a fixed point in space. As time
marches on, the streakline gets longer and longer, and represents an integrated
history of the dye streak.

3) Timeline
A timeline is a set of fluid particles that form a line segment at a given
instant of time. A timeline is also an integrated pattern. For example, consider
simple shear flow between parallel plates. A timeline follows the location of
a line of fluid particles, which can be a straight line initially. Timelines of later
time are composed of the same particles, and will continually distort with
time, as shown in the sketch. Notice the no-slip condition in action. The top
and the bottom of the timelines stay in the same location at all times, because
the boundaries are not moving.
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 7

4) Pathline
A pathline is the actual path traversed by a given (marked) fluid
particle. A pathline is hence also an integrated pattern. A pathline represents
an integrated history of where a fluid particle has been.

Note: For steady flow, streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines are all identical.
However, for unsteady flow, these three flow patterns can be quite different.
In a steady flow, all particles passing a given point will continue to
trace out the same path since nothing changes with time; hence the pathlines
and streaklines coincide. In addition, the velocity vector of a particle at a given
point will be tangent to the line that the particle is moving along; thus the line
is also a streamline.

C. Elementary Equations of Motion

In analyzing fluid motion, we might take one of two approaches: (1)
seeking to describe the detailed flow pattern at every point (x,y,z) in the field,
or (2) working with a finite region, making a balance of flow in versus flow
out, and determining gross flow effects such as the force, or torque on a body,
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 8

or the total energy exchange. The first approach is the "differential" approach
and will be covered in a higher level fluid mechanics course while the second
approach is the "control-volume" method and is the subject of this section.
We shall derive the three basic control-volume relations in fluid mechanics:
1- The principle of conservation of mass, from which the continuity equation
is developed;
2- The principle of conservation of linear momentum, from which equations
evaluating dynamic forces exerted by flowing fluids may be established.
3- The principle of conservation of energy, from which the energy equation
is derived.
1) Control volume
A control volume is a finite region, chosen carefully by the analyst for a
particular problem, with open boundaries through which mass, momentum,
and energy allowed to cross. The analyst makes a budget, or balance, between
the incoming and outgoing fluid and the resultant changes within the control
volume. Therefore one can calculate the gross properties (net force, total
power output, total heat transfer, etc.).

With this method, however, we do not care

about the details inside the control volume (In
other words, we can treat the control volume as
a "black box.")
For the sake of the present analysis, let us
consider a control volume that can be a tank,
reservoir or a compartment inside a system,
and consists of some definite one-dimensional
inlets and outlets, like the one shown below:

Let us denote for each of the inlets and outlets:-

V = velocity of fluid in a stream
A = sectional area of a stream
p = pressure of the fluid in a stream
ρ = density of the fluid
Then, the volume flow rate, or
discharge (volume of flow crossing a section
per unit time) given by:

Q= V A
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 9

Similarly, the mass flow rate (mass of flow crossing a section per unit time)
given by:
o
m AV Q

For simplicity, we shall consider steady and incompressible flows only.

2) Continuity equation
By steadiness, the total mass of fluid contained in the control volume
must be invariant with time. Therefore, there must be an exact balance
between the total rate of flow into the control volume and that out of the
control volume:
Total Mass Inflow = Total Mass Outflow
Which translate into the following mathematical relation:

where M is the number of inlets, and N is the number of outlets. If the density
of fluid is constant, conservation of mass also implies conservation of volume.
Hence for a control volume with only one-dimensional sections,

For example, in a pipe of varying cross sectional area, the continuity equation
requires that, if the density is constant, between any two sections 1 and 2 along
the pipe

Another example involving two inlets and one outlet is shown below .
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 10

3) Bernoulli and Energy Equations

Bernoulli equation is one of the most well known equations of motion
in fluid mechanics, and yet is often misused. It is thus important to understand
its limitations, and the assumptions made in the derivation.
The assumptions of Bernoulli equation can summarized as follows:
-Inviscid flow (ideal fluid, frictionless)
-Steady flow (unsteady Bernoulli equation will not be discuss in this course)
-Along a streamline
-Constant density (incompressible flow)
-No shaft work or heat transfer

The Bernoulli equation based on the application of Newton's law of

motion to a fluid element on a streamline.

Let us consider the motion of a fluid element of length ds and cross-

sectional area dA moving at a local speed V, and x is a horizontal axis and z is
pointing vertically upward. The forces acting on the element are the pressure
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 11

forces pdA and (p+dp)dA, and the weight w as shown. Summing forces in the
direction of motion, the s-direction, there results

where as is the acceleration of the element in the s-direction. Since the flow
is steady, only convective acceleration exists

Note that Euler's equation is valid also for compressible flow. Now if we
further assume that the flow is incompressible so that the density is constant,
we may integrate Euler's equation to get

This is the Bernoulli equation, consisting of three energy heads.

A head corresponds to energy per unit weight of flow and has dimensions
of length.
Piezometric head = pressure head + elevation head
Which is the level registered by a piezometer connected to that point in a
pipeline.
Total head = piezometric head + velocity head.
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 12

It follows that for ideal steady flow, the total energy head is constant
along a streamline, but the constant may differ in different streamlines. (For
the particular case of irrotational flow, the Bernoulli constant is universal
throughout the entire flow field.)
Applying the Bernoulli equation to any two points on the same streamline, we
have:

There is similarity in form between the Bernoulli equation and the energy
equation that can be derived directly from the first law of thermodynamics.
Without getting into the derivation, the energy equation for a control volume
with only one inlet (section 1) and one outlet (section 2). Energy equation
can be written as;

Where Ws is the shaft work, or the rate of work transmitted by rotation

shafts (such as that of a pump or turbine; positive if output to a turbine,
negative if input by a pump) that are cut by the control surface, and h, called
the head loss, is the sum of energy losses required to overcome viscous forces
in the fluid (dissipated in the form of thermal energy) and the heat transfer
rate.
In the absence of these two terms, the energy equation is identical to
the Bernoulli equation. We must remember however that the Bernoulli
equation is a momentum equation applicable to a streamline and the energy
equation above applied between two sections of a flow. The energy equation
is more general than the Bernoulli equation, because it allows for (1) friction,
(2) heat transfer, (3) shaft work, and (4) viscous work (another frictional
effect).

4) Momentum equation
On applying Newton's second law of motion to the control volume as shown
above, we get
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 13

Note that this equation follows from the principle of conservation of

linear momentum: resultant force on the control volume balanced by the net
rate of momentum flux (i.e., mV) through the control surface.
Momentum equation is a vector equation and can be used to calculate the
magnitude and direction of the impact force exerted on the control volume by
its solid boundary.
Further, consider a steady-flow situation in which there is only one
entrance (section 1) and one exit (section 2) across which uniform profiles can
be assumed. By continuity

represents all forces acting on the control volume, including:

1- Surface forces resulting from the surrounding acting on the control volume:
2- Impact force, which is usually the unknown to be found, on the control
surface in contact with a solid boundary
3- Pressure force on the control surface, which cuts a flow inlet, or exit.
Remember that the pressure force is always a compressive force.
4- Body force that results from gravity.
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 14

Sign of the vector variables

When plugging into the equations, one should be careful about the sign of the
force and velocity components. These quantities should carry a positive
(negative) sign when they are in the same (opposite) sense as that of the
corresponding coordinate.

D. Applications of the Bernoulli and Momentum Equations

1) Pitot tube
If a stream of uniform velocity flows into a blunt body, the streamlines take a
pattern similar to this:

Streamlines around blunt bodies

Note how some move to the left and some to the right. But one, in the
centre, goes to the tip of the blunt body and stops. It stops because at this point
the velocity is zero - the fluid does not move at this one point. This point is
known as the stagnation point.
From the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the pressure at this point. Apply
Bernoulli equation along the central streamline from a point upstream where
the velocity is V1 and the pressure P1 to the stagnation point of the blunt body
where the velocity is zero, V2=0. Take Z1=Z2 .
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 15

This increase in pressure, which brings the fluid to rest, is called the dynamic
pressure.

The total pressure is know as the stagnation pressure (or total pressure)
/

It could be a static column of fluid. Two piezometers, one as

normal and one as a Pitot tube within the pipe can be used in an arrangement
shown below to measure velocity of flow.

A Piezometer and a Pitot tube.

Using the above theory, we have the equation for P2

Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 16

Which is an expression for velocity obtained from two pressure measurements

and the application of the Bernoulli equation? This equation is for ideal flow
only. To account for real fluid effects, the equation can be modified into
where Cv is the coefficient of velocity to be determined
empirically.

A Pitot tube used to measure velocity of flow in a channel.

A Pitot tube underneath the wing of an aircraft.

Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 17

2) Pitot static tube

The necessity of one piezometer
and one Pitot tube and thus two
readings make this arrangement a
little awkward. Connecting the two
tubes to a manometer would
simplify things but there are still
two tubes. The Pitot static tube combines the
tubes, and they can then be easily connected to
a differential manometer. A Pitot static tube
shown here. The holes on the side of the tube
connect to one side of a manometer and
register the /static head, (h1), while the central hole is connected to the other
side of the manometer to register, as before, the stagnation head (h2). The
difference of the two heads, being the dynamic head, is now measured directly
by the differential manometer.

Consider the pressures on the level of the centre line of the Pitot static tube
and using the theory of the manometer,
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 18

The Pitot/Pitot-static tubes give velocities at points in the flow. It does

not give the overall discharge of the stream, which is often what is wanted. It
also has the drawback that it is liable to block easily, particularly if there is
significant debris in the flow.
3) Orifice and Vena Contracta
We are to consider the flow from a tank through a hole in the side close to
the base. The general arrangement and a close-up of the hole and streamlines
are shown in the figure below

Tank and streamlines of flow out of a sharp-edged orifice

The shape of the holes edges are as they are (sharp) to minimize frictional
losses by minimizing the contact between the hole and the liquid - the only
contact is the very edge.
Looking at the streamlines you can see how they contract after the orifice
to a minimum cross section where they all become parallel, at this point, the
velocity and pressure are uniform across the jet. This convergence is called
the Vena Contracta (from the Latin 'contracted vein'). It is necessary to know
the amount of contraction to allow us to calculate the flow.
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 19

We can predict the velocity at the orifice using the Bernoulli

equation. Apply it along the streamline joining point 1 on the surface to point
3 at the centre of the vena contracta. At the surface velocity is negligible (V1
= 0) and the pressure atmospheric (p1 = 0). Outside the orifice the jet is open
to the air so again the pressure is atmospheric (p3 = 0). If we take the datum
line through the orifice then z1 = h and z3 =0, leaving

This is the theoretical value of velocity. Unfortunately it will be an over-

estimate of the real velocity because friction losses have not been taken into
account. To incorporate friction we use the coefficient of velocity to correct
the theoretical velocity,
V actual = Cv V ideal
Each orifice has its own coefficient of velocity Cv, which usually lies in the
range (0.97 - 0.99).
To calculate the discharge through the orifice we multiply the area of the jet
by the velocity. The actual area of the jet is the area of the Vena Contracta
not the area of the orifice. We obtain this area by using a coefficient of
contraction Cc for the orifice:
A actual = Cc A orifice
So the discharge through the orifice is given by

where Cd is the coefficient of discharge, and Cd = Cc Cv.

Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 20

4)

Venturi, nozzle and orifice meters

The Venturi-, nozzle- and orifice-meters are three similar types of devices
for measuring discharge in a pipe. The Venturi meter consists of a rapidly
converging section, which increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces
the pressure. It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a gently
diverging 'diffuser' section. By measuring the pressure differences the
discharge can be calculated. This is a particularly accurate method of flow
measurement as energy losses are very small.
The nozzle meter or flow nozzle is essentially a Venturi meter with the
convergent part replaced by a nozzle installed inside the pipe and the divergent
part omitted. The orifice meter is a still simpler and cheaper arrangement by
which a sharp-edged orifice is fitted concentrically in the pipe.
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 21

Schematic arrangements for three types of devices measuring flow-rate in a

pipe

The working formulae are similar for the three devices. Let us for illustration
show the one for the Venturi meter. Applying the Bernoulli equation along
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 22

the streamline from point 1 to point 2 in the narrow throat of the Venturi
meter, we have

By using the continuity equation we can eliminate the velocity V2

Substituting this into and rearranging the Bernoulli equation we get

To get the theoretical discharge this is multiplied by the area. To get the actual
discharge taking in to account the losses due to friction, we include a
coefficient of discharge

Suppose a differential manometer is connected between (1) and (2). Then the
terms inside the square brackets can be related to the manometer reading as
given by

Thus the discharge can be expressed in terms of the manometer reading:

Notice how this expression does not include any terms for the elevation or
orientation (z1 or z2) of the Venturi meter. This means that the meter can be
at any convenient angle to function.
The purpose of the diffuser in a Venturi meter is to assure gradual
and steady deceleration after the throat. This is designed to ensure that the
pressure rises again to something near to the original value before the Venturi
meter. The angle of the diffuser is usually between 6 and 8 degrees. Wider
than this and the flow might separate from the walls resulting in increased
friction and energy and pressure loss. If the angle is less than this the meter
Introduction to Fluid Motion, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 23

becomes very long and pressure losses again become significant. The
efficiency of the diffuser of increasing pressure back to the original is rarely
greater than 80%.
It should be noted that in deriving a formula for a discharge measuring device
(Venturi, nozzle, orifice meters, etc), assumptions are taken to simplify the
situations so that the Bernoulli equation can be applied. For example, there is
no energy loss and the flow is steady. In this way, exact analytical solutions
can be obtained, but as the assumptions are not exactly true, these solutions
fail to account for the real situations. Empirical coefficients such as Cv, Cd are
therefore introduced to allow for these errors. The final formula will be an
analytical solution modified by an empirical coefficient. On the other hand,
the value of the empirical coefficient can also reflect the justification of using
the ideal approach. Cd for orifice meter is far below unity (0.6-0.65), while
Cd for nozzles and venturi meters are close to one (approximately 0.98). It
shows that energy loss is rather substantial in an orifice meter, as is expected
from its abrupt configuration.
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