Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F.

Smaisim 1
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 2

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Course

Objectives:

- The course will introduce fluid mechanics and establish its relevance in
mechanical engineering.
- Develop the fundamental principles underlying the subject.
- Demonstrate how these are used for different applications.

Mechanical Engineering Fluid Mechanics

- Fluid mechanics is involved in nearly all areas of Mechanical Engineering

either directly or indirectly.

direct involvement such as:

Sea and river (flood) defenses;
Water distribution / sewerage (sanitation) networks;
Hydraulic design of water/sewage treatment works;
Dams;
Irrigation & Drainage;
Pumps and Turbines;
Water retaining structures;
Ground-water flow
indirect involvement such as:
Flow of air in buildings;
Bridge piers in rivers;
Flow of air around buildings.
Course consist of :
2 hours theory lectures/week.
1 hour tutorial lectures/week for worked examples and home work solving.
3 hour laboratory works/week for applications.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 3

Assessment:
Semester 1:
15% semester final exam of 2 hours
5% Laboratory works
5% Quizzes and homework
Semester 2:
15% semester final exam of 2 hours
5% Laboratory works
5% Quizzes and homework
Final Exam of 3 hours worth 50% of the module credits

Course Schedule:
Lecture Month Week Unit
1 October 1 Unit1: Fluid Properties
2 2
3 3 Unit2: Fluid Hydrostatics Fluid Pressure and Its
Measurements
4 4
5 November 5 Hydrostatic Forces , Gates
6 6
7 7
8 8 Linear Accelerated Fluids
9 December 9 Angular Accelerated Fluids
10 10 Unit3: Fluid Flow Flow Regimes
11 11 Fluid Flow
12 12 Continuity Equation (Mass
Conservation)
13 January 13 Bernoulli’s equation
(conservation of mechanical
energy)
14 14
15 15 Momentum equation (force
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 4

and rate of change of

momentum)
16 16
17 February 17 Unit4: Real Flow Friction Coefficient &
Minor losses
18 18
19 March 19 Pipes in Series
20 20 Pipes in Parallel
21 21 Pipes in Branched
Connecting
22 22 Pipes Networks
23 April 23 Unit5: Unsteady Flow
24 24
25 25 Unit6: Flow Measurement Devices
26 26
27 May 27 Unit7: An Introduction to Open Channel Flow
28 28
29 29 Unit8: Dimensional Analyses
30 30
References:
Fluid Mechanics, Streeter & Wylie, McGraw-Hill, New York
Elementary Fluid Mechanics, J. K. Vennard, John Wiley & Sons, New York
Fluid Mechanics, F.M.White, McGraw-Hill, New York
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 5

Fluid Mechanics: Fluid mechanics may be defined as that branch of engineering

science that deals with the behavior of fluid under the condition of rest and motion

Fluid mechanics may be divided into three parts: Static’s, Kinematics, and
Dynamics

Static’s Deals with fluid at rest in equilibrium state, no force no acceleration

Kinematics Deals with flow behaviors of fluid like velocity, acceleration and
flow patterns.
Dynamics Deals with the effects of flow behaviors on fluid surroundings like
forces and momentum exchange

Fluid may be defined as a substance which deforms continuously (flows) when

subjected to shearing forces, or
A fluid is a substance which capable of flowing
A fluid has no definite shape unless it is supported (conforms to the shape of
the containing vessel)
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 6

Unit1: Fluid properties

The matter or substance classified on the bases of the spacing between the
molecules of the matter as follows:

 In solids, the molecules are very closely spacing and then inter-molecules
cohesive forces are quite large, and then groups compact and rigid form.
 Whereas in liquids these spacing are relatively large, and then less inter-
molecules cohesive forces between them, and then can move freely, but it
still has a definite volume (no definite shape, has free interface).
 While these forces is extremely small in gasses, and then have greater
freedom of movement so that the gas fill the container completely in which
they are placed( no definite volume, no definite shape, no free interface).

Attribute Solid Liquid Gas

Typical
Visualization

Liquids take the

Solids hold their shape of the
Macroscopic Gases expand to fill a
shape; no need for a container and will
Description closed container
container stay in open
container
Liquids typically Molecules move around
Molecules have low
flow easily even freely with little
mobility because they
Mobility of though there are interaction except during
are bound in a
Molecules strong inter collisions; this is why
structure by strong
molecular forces gases expand to fill their
inter molecular forces
between molecules container
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 7

Often high; e.g., Medium; e.g.,

Small; e.g., density of air
Typical Density density of steel is density of water is
at sea level is 1.2 kg/m3
7700 kg/m3 1000 kg/m3
Small—molecules
Molecular Small—molecules are are held close Large—on average,
Spacing close together together by inter molecules are far apart
molecular forces
Effect of Shear
Produces deformation Produces flow Produces flow
Stress
Produces deformation Produces
Produces deformation
Effect of Normal that may associate deformation
associated with volume
Stress with volume change; associated with
change
can cause failure volume change
High; decreases as
Low; increases as
Viscosity NA temperature
temperature increases
increases
Difficult to
Easy to compress; bulk
Difficult to compress; compress; bulk
modulus of a gas at
Compressibility bulk modulus of steel modulus of liquid
room conditions is about
is160 × 109 Pa water is 2.2 × 109
1.0 × 105 Pa
Pa

System of Units
MKS system of units
This is the system of units where the meter (m) is used for the unit of length,
kilogram (kg) for the unit of mass, and second (s) for the unit of time as the
base (primary) units.
CGS system of units
This is the system of units where the centimeter (cm) is used for length,
gram (g) for mass, and second (s) for time as the base (primary) units.
International system of units (SI)
SI, the abbreviation of System International Unites, is the system developed
from the MKS system of units. It is a consistent and reasonable system of
units which makes it a rule to adopt only one unit for each of the various
quantities used in such fields as science, education and industry.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 8

BASIC (PRIMARY) DIMENSIONS

Dimension Symbol Unit (SI)

Length L meter (m)

Mass M kilogram (kg)
Time T second (s)
Temperature θ Kelvin (K)
Electric current I ampere (A)
Amount of light C candela (cd)
Amount of matter N mole (mol)
General fluid (liquid) properties:
1. Density: the density (also known as mass density or specific mass) of a
liquid defined as the mass per unit volume at a standard temperature and
pressure. It is usually denoted by Latin character ρ (rho). Its unit are Kg/m3

2. Weight Density: (also known as specific weight) is defined as the weight

per unit volume at the standard temperature and pressure, it is usually
denoted as γ ( Kama) . Its unit is N/m3.
W m.g
     .g
V V
Where g gravitational acceleration=9.81 m/s2
γ of water = 9810 N/m3 at 4oC and 1 Bar

3. Specific Volume: It is defined as a volume per unit mass of fluid, It is

denoted by  Its unit are m3/Kg.
V 1
 
m 
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 9

4. Specific Gravity: It is defined as the ratio of the specific weight of any fluid
to the specific weight of a standard fluid.
For liquids the standard fluid is pure water at 4oC, while for Gasses the
standard fluid is air and denoted by Sg
 liquid
Sg 
 water

Example: Calculate the Specific weight, specific mass, specific volume and
specific gravity of a liquid having a volume of 6m3 and weight of 44 kN.
Solution:

W=44 kN
V= 6 m3
Specific weight , γ:

Specific mass or density, ρ:

Specific volume, v:

Specific gravity, Sg:

5. Viscosity: it is a property of a real fluid (an ideal fluid has no viscosity)

which determine its resistance to shearing stresses. It is primarily due to
cohesion, adhesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid
layers.
1 - For solids, shear stress depends on
magnitude of angular deformation
(  ~ angular deformation)
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 10

2 – For many fluids shear stress is proportional to the time rate of angular
deformation (  ~ du/dy)

When two layer of fluid at the distance of δy apart, move one over the other
at different velocities, say u and u+δu, the viscosity together with relative velocity
causes shear stress acting between layers. With respect to the distance between
these two layers δy, the shear stress, τ, this becomes a relation between shear strain
rate and velocity gradient:
du
 
dy

Newton’s law of viscosity:

The shear stresses on a fluid element layers is directly proportional to the
velocity gradient (rate of shear strain). The constant of proportionality is called the
coefficient of viscosity (absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or simply
viscosity) and denoted as μ (mu).
du
 
dy

i.e.

Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity:

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 11

Units: (N s/m2 )or (Pa s) or (kg/m s)

The unit Poise (p) is also used where 10 P = 1 Pa·s
Water μ = 8.94 × 10−4 Pa s
Mercury μ = 1.526 × 10−3 Pa s
Olive oil μ = 0.081 Pa s
Honey μ = 2000 – 10000 Pa s
Ketchup μ = 50000 – 100000 Pa s (non-Newtonian)

6. Kinematic Viscosity,  (Nuo) is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density

Units m2/s and Called kinematic viscosity because it involves no force (dynamic)
dimensions.
The unit Stoke (St) is also used where 1 St = 10-4 m2/s (1 St=cm2/s)
For Water  = 1.7 × 10−6 m2/s.
For Air  = 1.5 × 10−5 m2/s.

 The fluid is non-Newtonian if the relation between shear stress and shear
strain rate is non-linear
 Typically, as temperature increases, the viscosity will decrease for a liquid,
but will increase for a gas.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 12

Example 1:

In figure if the fluid is oil at 20oC (µ = 0.44 Pa.s). What shear stress is required to
move the upper plate at 3.5 m/s, the distance between the layers is 7 mm?

Solution:

Example2:

A board 1 m by 1 m that weighs 25 N slides down an inclined ramp (slope = 20°)

with a velocity of 2.0 cm/s. The board is separated from the ramp by a thin film of
oil with a viscosity of 0.05 N.s/m2. Neglecting edge effects, calculate the space
between the board and the ramp.
Problem Definition

Situation: A board is sliding down a ramp, on a thin film of oil.

Find: Space (in m) between the board and the ramp.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 13

Assumptions: A linear velocity distribution in the oil.

Properties: Oil, μ = 0.05 N・ s/m2.

Sketch:

Plan
1. Draw a free body diagram of the board, as shown in “sketch.”
·For a constant sliding velocity, the resisting shear force is equal to the component
of weight parallel to the inclined ramp.
·Relate shear force to viscosity and velocity distribution.
2. With a linear velocity distribution, dV/dy can everywhere be expressed as
ΔV/Δy, where ΔV is the velocity of the board, and Δy is the space between the
board and the ramp.
3. Solve for Δy.
Solution
1. Free-body analysis

2. Substitution of dV/dy as ΔV/Δy

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 14

3. Solution for Δy

Example 3:

Oil has dynamic viscosity (μ = 1.0 × 10-3 Pa.s) filled the space between two
concentric cylinders, where the inner one is movable and the outer is fixed. If the
inner and outer cylinders has diameters 150mm and 156mm respectively and the
height of both cylinders is 250mm, determine the value of the torque (T) that
necessary to rotate the internal cylinder with 12 rpm?
rpm 12
v  2r   2  0.075  0.09425 m/s
60 60

T   c hr

T   (2r  h  r )   (2hr 2 )

dv v
  
dy y

Example 4:

The velocity distribution for flow over a plate is given by u= 2y-y2 where u is the
velocity in m/s at a distance y meters above the plate surface. Determine the
velocity gradient and shear stresses at the boundary and 1.5m from it. Take
dynamic viscosity of fluid as 0.9 N.s/m2

Solution:

Given u= 2y+y2
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 15

1) Velocity gradient,

At boundary :at y=0

At y=0.15m

2) Shear stresses, τ:

Example 5:

Oil has a density of 580 kg/m3 flow through a pipe its diameter 200mm. If it is
known from the pressure calculations for a certain length of the pipe that the shear
stress at the pipe wall equal to 0.07 N/m2, and its known from the velocity
calculations through a certain cross section of the pipe that the velocity profile
equation is v  1  100 r 2 Where the velocity dimension is in m/s and the distance
from the centre of pipe r in m. If the flow is laminar, calculate the kinematic
viscosity for the oil?

Solution:
dv
For laminar flow :   
dy

the distance from the centre of pipe is r  R  y

Where R is the radius of the pipe, y is the distance from the pipe wall toward the
pipe centre.
dv
Where dr  dy and then the above equation become:    
dr

And from the section of velocity distribution, the strain in any point equal to :
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 16

dv
 200r
dr

then the shear stress in any distance from the pipe centre is expressed as :
  200 r

whereas τ at the wall equal to 0.07 N/m2 then by substitution this value in the last
equation we obtain follows:
0.07 N .s
  0.0035 Pa.s
20 m 2

and the kinematic viscosity is :

 0.0035N .s.m 2 8 N .s.m 8 m

2
   4.1176  10  4.1176  10
 850kg.m 3 kg s

7. Surface Tension: Surface tension is a property of liquids that is making what is

like a thin tensioned membrane at the interface between the liquid and another
fluid (typically a gas). Surface tension has dimensions of force per unit length and
denoted as, σ (Sigma), and its unit is N/m.

Surface tension is a property of certain fluid-fluid interface

Water-Air ….. σ =0.075 N/m at 20oC

Water-Air …. σ = 0.056 N/m at 100oC

Mercury-Air … σ = 0.1 N/m

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 17

7.1 Pressure inside water bubble:

2(2πRσ) = (π R2) Δ P bubble

ΔP bubble = 8σ/d

7.2 Pressure inside water droplet:

Let P = Pressure inside the drop

d = Diameter of droplet
σ = Surface tension of the liquid (water-air interface)
From sectional free body diagram of water droplet we have
1. ΔP between inside and outside = P-0 =P

2. Pressure force =

3. Surface tension force acting around the circumference= ,

under equilibrium condition these two forces will be equal and opposite, i.e.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 18

From this equation, we show that (with an increase in size of droplet the
pressure intensity is decreases).

Q1: Prove: The pressure inside the bubble is twice the pressure inside the droplet?

Q2: What is the effect of the temperature on the size of the droplet?

Example:

If the surface tension of water-air interface is 0.069 N/m, what is the

pressure inside the water droplet of diameter 0.009 mm?

Given d= 0.009 mm; σ= 0.069 N/m

The water droplet has only one surface, hence,

8. Surface Tension – Capillary

 Property of exerting forces on fluids by fin tubes and porous media, due to
both cohesion and adhesion.

 If Cohesion < adhesion, liquid wets solid, rises at point of contact (then φ is
less than 900) as in water.

 If Cohesion > adhesion, liquid surface depresses at point of contact, non-

wetting fluid (then φ is more than 900) as in mercury.

 The contact angle: defined as the angle between the liquid and solid surface.

 Meniscus: curved liquid surface that develops in a tube,

Weight of fluid column = Surface tension pulling force

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 19

● Expression above calculates the approximate capillary rise in a small tube.

● The meniscus lifts a small amount of liquid near the tube walls, as r increases
this amount may become insignificant.
● Thus, the equation developed overestimates the amount of capillary rise or
depression, particularly for large r.
● For a clean tube, = 0o for water, = 140o for mercury.
● For r > 6 mm, capillarity is negligible.
● Its effects are negligible in most engineering situations.
● Important in problems involving capillary rise, e.g., soil water zone, water
supply to plants, when small tubes are used for measuring properties, e.g.,
pressure account must be made for capillarity.

Example 2: What is the height above the reservoir level will water (at 20°C) rise
in a glass tube, such as that shown in Figure below, if the inside diameter of the
tube is 1.6 mm?

Problem Definition

Situation: A glass tube of small diameter placed in an open reservoir of water

induces capillary rise.
Find: The height the water will rise above the reservoir level.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 20

Properties: Water (20 °C), Table A.5, σ = 0.073 N/m; γ = 9790 N/m3.
Plan
1. Perform a force balance on water that has risen in the tube.
2. Solve for Δh.
Solution
1. Force balance: Weight of water (down) is balanced by surface tension force
(up).

Because the contact angle θ for water against glass is so small, it can be assumed to
be 0°;
Therefore cos θ≈ 1. Therefore:

2. Solve for Δh

Example 3: A clean tube of diameter 2.5 mm is immersed in a liquid with a

coefficient of surface tension = 0.4 N/m. The angle of contact of the liquid with the
clean glass can be assumed to be 135 o. The density of the liquid is 13600 kg/m3.
What would be the level of the liquid in tube relative to free surface of the liquid
inside the tube?

Solution: Given d= 2.5 mm, σ= 0.4 N/m, = 135o ; ρ = 13600 kg/m3

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 21

Level of the liquid in the tube, h:

Negative sign indicates that there is a capillary depression (fall) of 3.39 mm.

Example 4: Derive an expression for the capillary height change h, for a fluid
of surface tension σ and contact angle between two parallel plates W apart.
Evaluate h for water at 20°C (σ=0.0728 N/m) if W = 0.5 mm.

Solution: With (b) the width of the plates into the paper, the capillary forces on
each wall together balance the weight of water held above the reservoir free
surface:

for water at 20°C (σ=0.0728 N/m, ) and W = 0.5 mm.

Q: Drive the expression for h if the cross section area of the tube is square with
length of a.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 22

Unit 2: Fluid at Rest, Fluid Static, or Hydrostatics

 Fluids exerted both normal (due to their weights) and shearing forces
(primary due to their viscosity) on surfaces (any plane) that are contacted
with (or submerged in) them.
 The normal forces that are exerted by fluid weights is called the (fluid
pressure force) and fluid pressure or (intensity of fluid pressure).
 The source of pressure and its effects and its variation of a fluid at rest is
due only to the weight of the fluid.
 Fluids at rest cannot resist a shear stress; in other words, when a shear
stress is applied to a fluid at rest, the fluid will not remain at rest, but will
move (flow) because of the shear stress.
 Hydrostatics is the study of pressures throughout a fluid at rest.
 The controlling laws are relatively simple, and analysis is based on a straight
forward application of the mechanical principles of force and moment.
Pressure may be defined as the normal force that’s applied toward the unit area,
and denoted by P. Its units are N/m2 or what is called Pascal, Pa.

SO at the fluid at rest, the pressure at any point has the same pressure in all
direction.To prove this, a small wedge-shaped free body element is taken at the
point (x,y,z) in a fluid at rest.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 23

For unit width of element in z direction, and from the geometry of wedge we have
the follows:

Substitute of eq.3 in eqs. 1 and 2 and rearrange the terms yields:

Px =PS

At a point the element limits to have an infinitesimal dimensions and then we can
eliminate the term (1/2 δxδy.γ) from the above equation. Because of it’s a higher
order of differential values. Thus we have at final that: Px =PS =Py
Where is an arbitrary angle, these results gives an important first principle of
hydrostatics:

At a point, fluid at rest has the same pressure in all direction.

Pressure variation:

 For static fluid, pressure varies only with elevation (depth, head) change
within fluid.

To prove this real, we take a cubic fluid element as shown. While fluid at rest,
applying the equations of equilibrium on the element. That’s yield:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 24

1. In vertical direction y:

When the direction of downward (means in the negative direction of y),

which is called depth and denoted by h, last above equation become:

these results gives an important second principle of hydrostatics:

 For static fluid, pressure varies only with elevation (depth) change
within fluid by rate equal to specific weight of that fluid.

 In a fluid, pressure decreases linearly with

increase in height

 PB – PA = −γ (zB – zA)

 This is the hydrostatic pressure change with

liquids we normally measure from the surface.

 Open free surface pressure in liquids is

atmospheric, Patmospheric.

 For constant density fluids, and taking the free

surface pressure as zero,

p = γ h. Thus h=P/ γ

 Pressure related to the depth, h, of a fluid column referred to as the pressure

head, h.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 25

2. In horizontal direction x:

This equation means there is no change in horizontal pressure with horizontal

direction.

These results gives an important third principle of hydrostatics:

 For certain continuous static fluid, there is no pressure change in

horizontal direction.

EXAMPLE:1

A fresh water lake has a maximum depth of 60m, and the mean atmospheric
pressure is 91 kPa. Estimate the absolute pressure in kPa at this maximum depth.

Take γ = 9790 N/m3. With Patm = 91 kPa and h = 60 m, the pressure at this depth
will be

P abs = 91 kN/m2 + (9790 N/m3)(60 m) 1kN/1000N

= 91 kPa + 587 kN/m2 = 678 kPa Ans.

By omitting Patm we could state the result as P = 587 kPa (gage).

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 26

Pressure Measurements.

● Pressure measurement reads as follows:

1. Relative to absolute zero (perfect vacuum): called absolute pressure.

2. Relative to atmospheric pressure: called gage pressure.

● If P < Patm , we call it a vacuum (or negative or suction) pressure, its gage value
below atmospheric.

● Absolute pressure values are all positive.

● While gage pressures may be either :

– Positive: if above atmospheric, or

– Negative (vacuum, suction): if below atmospheric

● Relationship between absolute, gage and atmospheric pressure reading:

Pabs = Patm + Pgage

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 27

EXAMPLE 2:

For two points A, B:

PA = 200 kPa gauge, PB = 51 kPa abs. , Where Patm = 101 kPa

Re-read the value of pressures in A and B in all possible forms. (Pabs = Patm + Pgage)
Pressure kPa
PA=200 kPa gauge

PA=200 kPa gauge

Patm. = 0 kPa
PB= -50 kPa gauge
PA=301 kPa abs. PB=50 kPa vacuum Pabs. = 101kPa
PB= 50 kPa suction
PB=51 kPa

PB=51 kPa abs.

Pabs = 0 kPa

EXAMPLE 3:

In figure below, the tank contains water and oil at 20°C. What is head (h) in
(cm) if the density of the oil is 898 kg/m3?
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 28

EXAMPLE 4:

A closed circular tank filled with water and connected by a U-piezometric

tube as shown in figure below. At the beginning, the pressure above the water table
in the tank is atmospheric, and then the gauge that connected with tank read an
increasing in pressure that caused falling in the water level in the tank by 3 cm.

a) calculate the deference in height that accrued between water levels inside the
tank and in the external tube leg. b) Determine the final pressure that was reading
by the gauge.

EXAMPLE 5(H.W):

One means of determining the surface level of oil in a tank is by discharging

a small amount of air through a small tube, the end of which is submerged in the
tank, and reading the pressure on the gauge that is tapped into the tube. Then the
level of the oil surface in the tank can be calculated. If the pressure on the gauge is
30 KPa and the specific gravity of oil is S = 0.85, what is the depth d of oil in the
tank?
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 29

* Pressure Measurement Devices:

Barometers : The instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure is called

barometer.

Mercury Barometer : which is illustrated in figure below, which consist of a one

meter length tube filled with mercury and inverted into a pan that’s filled partially
with mercury. The height difference of mercury in inverted tube respect to outside
them reads the atmospheric pressure value.

Aneroid Barometer: uses elastic diaphragm to measure atmospheric pressure.

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 30

* Piezometer:
For measuring pressure inside a vessel or pipe in which liquid is there, a tube open at
the top to atmosphere may be attached, tapped, to the walls of the container (or pipe or
vessel) containing liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric), so liquid can rise in the
tube. By determining the height to which liquid rises and using the relation P1 =ρgh,
gauge pressure of the liquid can be determined. Such device known as piezometer. To
avoid capillary effects, a Piezometer tube should be about 12mm or greater.
* Manometers:
The manometer in its various forms is an extremely useful type of pressure
measuring instrument, but suffers from a number of limitations.
 While it can be adapted to measure very small
pressure differences, it cannot be used
conveniently for large pressure differences -
although it is possible to connect a number of
manometers in series and to use mercury as the
manometric fluid to improve the range. (limitation)
 A manometer does not have to be calibrated against
any standard; the pressure difference can be calculated
from first principles. (Advantage)
 Some liquids are unsuitable for use because they do
not form well-defined meniscus. Surface tension can
also cause errors due to capillary rise; this can be avoided if the diameters of the tubes are
sufficiently large - preferably not less than 15 mm diameter. (limitation)
 A major disadvantage of the manometer is its slow response, which makes it
unsuitable for measuring fluctuating pressures. (limitation)
 It is essential that the pipes connecting the manometer to the pipe or vessel containing
the liquid under pressure should be filled with this liquid and there should be no air
bubbles in the liquid. (important point to be kept in mind).
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 31

E. Pressure Measurement and Manometers

* Piezometer tube
The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached
to a vessel or a pipe containing liquid at a pressure (higher than
atmospheric) to be measured. This simple device is known as a
piezometer tube. As the tube is open to the atmosphere the pressure

measured is relative to atmospheric so is gauge pressure: PA =γ1 h1

This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and
only when the liquid height is convenient to measure. It must not
be too small or too large and pressure changes must be detectable.
* U-tube manometer
This device consists of a glass tube bent into the shape of
a "U", and is used to measure some unknown pressure.
For example, consider a U-tube manometer that is used to
measure pressure PA in some kind of tank or machine.
Again, the equation for hydrostatics is used to calculate
the unknown pressure. Consider the left side and the right
side of the manometer separately:
P2 =P1 + γ1 h1 =PA + γ1h1 → P3= γ2 h2
Since points labeled (2) and (3) in the figure are at the same
elevation in the same fluid, they are at equivalent pressures,
and the two equations above can be equated to give:
PA =γ2 h2 – γ1 h1
Finally, note that in many cases (such as with air pressure
being measured by a mercury manometer), the density of
manometer fluid 2 is much greater than that of fluid 1. In
such cases, the last term on the right is sometimes neglected.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 32

* Differential Manometer

A differential manometer can be used to

measure the difference in pressure between
two containers or two points in the same
system. Again, on equating the pressures at
points labeled (2) and (3), we may get an
expression for the pressure difference
between A and B:
P2 =PA + γ1h1
P3= γ2 h2 +γ3 h3 + PB
→ Δ P= PA - PB =γ2 h2+γ3 h3 -γ1 h1
In the common case when A and B are at
the same elevation (h1=h2+h3) (and the
fluids in the two containers are the same
(γ1=γ3) one may show that the pressure
difference registered by a differential
manometer is given by
Δ P=(ρm /ρ - 1) ρ g h
where ρm is the density of the manometer
fluid, ρ is the density of the fluid in the system,
and h is the manometer differential reading.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 33

* Inclined-Tube Manometer
As shown above, the differential reading is proportional to the pressure difference. If
the pressure difference is very small, the reading may be too small to be measured with
good accuracy. To increase the sensitivity of the differential reading, one leg of the
manometer can be
inclined at an angle θ,
and the differential
reading measured
along the inclined
tube. As shown above,
h2 =L2 sin θ
PA -PB = γ 2 L2 sin θ + γ3 h3 – γ1 h1

* Multi fluid Manometer

The pressure in a pressurized tank is measured by a multi fluid manometer,
as is shown in the figure. Show that the air pressure in the tank is given by
P air =P atm + g (ρ mercury h3 –ρ oil h2 – ρ water h1)
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 34

F. Pressure Distributions
Flat Surfaces
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 35

Curved Surfaces
When the curved surface is a circular arc (full circle or any part of it), the
resultant hydrostatic force acting on the surface always passes through the center
of the circle. This is because the elemental pressure forces are normal to the
surface, and by the well-known geometrical property all lines normal to the surface
of a circle must pass through the center of the circle.

G. Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface

Suppose a submerged plane surface is inclined at an angle θ to the free
surface of a liquid.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 36

Where: -
A - area of the plane surface
O- The line where the plane in which the surface lies intersects the free surface,
C - Centroid (or centre of area) of the plane surface,
CP - Center of pressure (point of application of the resultant force on the plane surface),
FR - Magnitude of the resultant force on the plane surface (acting normally),
hc - Vertical depth of the centroid C,
hR - Vertical depth of the center of pressure CP,
yc - Inclined distance from O to C,
yR - Inclined distance from O to CP.

Find Magnitude of Resultant Force:

The resultant force found by integrating the force due to hydrostatic pressure on an element
dA at a depth h over the whole surface:

The resultant force on one side of any plane submerged surface in a uniform fluid is therefore
equal to the pressure at the centroid of the surface times the area of the surface, independent of the
shape of the plane or the angle θ at which it is slanted.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 37

Location of Centre of Pressure:

To find the location of the center of pressure, take a moment about O,

where IO = second moment of area (or moment of inertia) of the surface about O,
Ic = second moment of area (or moment of inertia) about an axis through the centroid and
parallel to the axis through O (depends on the geometry of the surface, see below for the
values for some common figures).
Therefore, on substituting,
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 38

Properties for Some Common Sectional Areas

GG is an axis passing through the centroid and parallel to the base of the figure.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 39
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 40
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials, Prof. Dr. Ghassan F. Smaisim 41