MODULE CODE: DPMH 226 ( COUNSELLING AND DEVELOPMENT )

CLASS LEVEL: 2.2

QUESTION
Explain the contribution of the following people to the development of counselling
concepts and theories.

A. Sigmund Freud ( psychodynamic theory )

B. Alfred Adler
C. Carl Rogers ( humanistic )
D. Melanie Klein
E. Abraham Maslow ( humanistic )
The field of counseling has evolved through the contributions of several pioneering
theorists who have shaped our understanding of human behavior, personality, and
therapeutic practice. Among these influential figures are Sigmund Freud, Alfred
Adler, Carl Rogers, Melanie Klein, and Abraham Maslow, each of whom introduced
distinct concepts that have enriched counseling theories. Freud's psychodynamic
theory laid the groundwork for exploring the unconscious mind and its influence on
behavior. Adler expanded on this by emphasizing social interest and community,
while Rogers introduced the humanistic approach, focusing on self-actualization and
the therapeutic relationship. Klein contributed to object relations theory, highlighting
the significance of early relationships in personality development. Lastly, Maslow's
hierarchy of needs provided a framework for understanding motivation and personal
growth. Together, these theorists have created a multifaceted landscape of counseling
concepts that continue to inform contemporary practice.Counseling and development
theories are frameworks that help us understand human behavior and development,
particularly in the context of counseling and therapy. These theories provide a
foundation for understanding how individuals grow, learn, and change throughout
their lives. They also offer guidance on how to effectively support individuals in their
personal and professional development

Mohar Bhattacharjee (2021) defined counselling as a way of talking therapy that

allows people to discuss their problems with trained professionals in a peaceful and
safe ambiance. The exact meaning of counselling might vary among individuals. But
in general, it is the process where you talk about your issues in detail either intending
to overcome the same or to explore your thoughts comprehensively.

A. Sigmund Freud ( psycho-dynamic theory )

Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic theory began to take shape in the late 19th century,
with key ideas emerging around the 1890s. The development of his theory continued
throughout the early 20th century, with significant contributions up until his later
works in the 1930s. Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic theory posits that unconscious
processes and early childhood experiences significantly shape personality and
behavior. Central to this theory are concepts such as the id, ego, and superego, which
illustrate the internal conflicts that drive human behavior (Bornstein, 2005). The Id
The primal part of the mind that seeks immediate gratification and operates on the
pleasure principle, Ego is the rational part that mediates between the desires of the id
and the realities of the external world, operating on the reality principle and the
Superego that is the moral component that internalizes societal norms and values,
often in conflict with the desires of the id . Freud identified various defense
mechanisms that the ego employs to protect itself from anxiety and conflict, such as
repression, denial, and projection and that drives human behavior.
Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic theory has significantly influenced contemporary
counseling concepts and theories by emphasizing the importance of unconscious
processes and childhood experiences in shaping behavior and emotional responses.
Freud's ideas introduced the notion that unresolved conflicts from early life can
manifest in psychological distress, prompting counselors to explore clients' past
experiences to uncover underlying issues (Corey, 2016). For instance, the use of
techniques such as free association and dream analysis in psychodynamic therapy
encourages clients to express thoughts and feelings that may be repressed, facilitating
self-discovery and insight (Seligman et al., 2017). Furthermore, modern adaptations
of Freud's theories, such as object relations theory, highlight the role of interpersonal
relationships in emotional development, reinforcing the importance of the therapeutic
alliance in counseling practice (Klein, 1946). In the Psychodynamic Theory, Sigmund
Freud's dream interpretation technique remains a valuable tool for counselors to
explore clients' unconscious thoughts, desires, and conflicts. According to Freud
(1900), dreams represent a "royal road" to the unconscious mind, revealing repressed
memories, wishes, and unresolved issues. Counselors trained in psychodynamic
therapy use dream analysis to help clients gain insight into their subconscious
motivations and emotions. By examining the manifest content (literal meaning) and
latent content (symbolic meaning) of dreams, counselors can identify recurring
themes, defense mechanisms, and unresolved conflicts. This process enables clients to
confront and resolve unconscious issues, promoting self-awareness, emotional
regulation, and behavioral change. Through dream analysis, counselors can access
clients' unconscious minds, uncover hidden dynamics, and facilitate meaningful
therapeutic breakthroughs. Also Freud identified various defense mechanisms (e.g.,
repression, denial, projection) that individuals use to cope with anxiety and internal
conflicts. Understanding these mechanisms has helped counselors recognize how
clients may protect themselves from emotional pain.

One of the strengths of psychodynamic theory is its emphasis on the unconscious

mind. It suggests that our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by
unconscious drives and conflicts that we are not aware of. This understanding allows
therapists to explore the root causes of clients' problems and address them effectively.
Another strength is its focus on early childhood experiences. Psychodynamic theory
posits that our early relationships and experiences shape our personality and influence
our later relationships. By exploring these early experiences, therapists can help
clients understand their current patterns and develop healthier ways of relating to
others. Despite its strengths, psychodynamic theory also has weaknesses. One
criticism is its lack of empirical support. Many of its concepts, such as the
unconscious mind and the Oedipus complex, are difficult to test empirically. This lack
of empirical evidence raises questions about the validity of the theory. Another
weakness is its focus on the past. While past experiences are important,
psychodynamic theory can sometimes neglect the present and future. This can make it
difficult for clients to focus on their current problems and develop strategies for
change.

B. Alfred Adler

ALFRED ADLER an Austrian psychology (1992). He is known for his contributions

to the personality and it provided significant contributions to the development of
counselling and theories .The theory states that all children are suffering from a
inferior complex .This complex is a deep rooted feeling that a person is inferior to
others and to outside expectations .According to Rogers ,C.R.(1961), states that
Adlers’ ideas emphasized on understanding individuals with their social context
focusing on importance of community ,social relation and individual sense of
belonging .His work has provided an impact on councelling concepts and theories as
it overcomes feelings of inferiority and increasing social connectedness with
others ,therefore his works encourages counselors to consider full spectrum of human
experience emphasizing growth connection and understanding and also encourages
councelors in fostering social intrest to help clients develop health relationships and a
sense of community union .

Furthermore ,his theory also put much emphasis on enferioriix complex as feelings of
enferiorix are natural and can motivate individuals for personal growth ,therefore
counselors can help clients recognize and address their feelings enabling them to
pursue goals and develop resilience so as to have the ability of with standing any
shock . Amagma ( 1912), states that Adlers work emphasized the impact of these
feelings on personality and development and behavior .He also proposed that people
strive for superiority as a way to overcome their sense of inferiority .This concept is
foundational in counselling ,as it helps counselors understand the root of clients issues
and behaviours .By exploring how a persons feelings of inferiority influence their life
choices ,counselors can work with clients to to develop healthier coping mechanisms
and a sense of self worth.

However ,as his works proved its strengths that influenced counselling concepts and
theories ,it also brought failures and weaknesses that led to the outfall of the theory
the individual psychology has been criticized for relying externsively on the use of
interllectual insight to help clients change their misadaptive behavior .It is also
criticized for overempasizing the detemination for human behaviour by roles played
by subjective experiences on individual intrest and values , Generally it suffices to
say that Adlers theory is comprehensive ,authough like Freuds theory its motivational
base is limited .The concepts in Alfred Adlers theories are generally global in nature
and poorly defined .for example some individuals are thought to have proof
complexes ,It is very defficult to measure the proof complex in people even if
adequate measure is developed .The fact that there are only a few construct in the
theory means that they are going to be applied in a highly general and imprecise ways

C. Carl Rogers ( Humanistic )

The humanistic theory was developed in mid nineteen 50s and completed
behaviourism with its focus on the individual as a whole. Carl Ransom Rogers (1902-
1987) was an American psychologist who founded the Humanistic psychology and
was know for his personal centred psychotherapy. The contribution of Carl Rogers to
the development of counselling and theories, is that he paved the way for client led
therapies and also focusing on growth, thus according to Friedman (2008).Rogers
suggested and emphasised reflective listening ,empathy and acceptance
(unconditional positive regard) and also environment that provides them with
genuiness. In terms of growth Rogers theory suggests that there need to be
congruence between the real self and ideal self. Friedman(2008)stated that self
actualization was something every individual was lacking and seeking. Self
actualization is when an individual archives their full potential or desires.A good
example is when someone achieves their dream job. Rogers humanistic theory is
about helping the client to open to growth, getting closer to self actualization and
living their fullest life.

According to Martin( 2006)theory has the following strengths in development

counselling which is Client-Centric Focus.It prioritizes individual experiences,
fostering self-understanding, Unconditional Positive Regard as it Creates a safe,
accepting environment for exploration, Empathy which Strengthens the therapeutic
relationship and promotes growth, Self-Actualization which Encourages personal
development and goal pursuit. Along with Flexibility that is Adaptable to various
contexts and populations. Rogers’ approach has greatly influenced developmental
counselling but should be complemented with other methods to address diverse client
needs.

However, the humanistic theory faces criticism due weaknesses shuch as lack of
Structure and overreliance on therapists skils. Rogers' approach is non-directive,
meaning that therapists do not guide clients toward specific solutions or outcomes.
While this fosters a safe, supportive environment, it can also leave clients lost or
unsure about the direction of their therapy. Some individuals require more structured
interventions, especially those dealing with acute psychological issues or crises,
where guidance is crucial.The theory is criticised for it's overreliance on Therapist's
Skills. The success of the person-centered approach heavily depends on the therapist's
ability to provide empathy, unconditional positive regard, and active listening. Not all
therapists may possess these skills equally, which can lead to variable outcomes for
clients. If a therapist struggles to establish a genuine connection or fails to understand
the client's perspective, the therapeutic process may be hindered, leaving clients
feeling unsupported or misunderstood.

While Carl Rogers' theory has made significant contributions to counseling, these
weaknesses highlight the need for flexibility and integration with other therapeutic
approaches, particularly when addressing the diverse needs of clients
D. Melanie Klein.

Melanie Klein (1882-1960) was a pioneering figure in the field of psychoanalysis,

particularly known for her contributions to child psychology, the development of
object relations theory and the therapeutic process.According to Myers, J and Anna, F
(2000) they postulated that Melanie Klein published her foundational ideas primarily
between the 1920s and 1950s.Her work has had a profound impact on counseling
concepts and theories, influencing both clinical practice and theoretical frameworks
within psychotherapy and within the field of counseling.Core concepts of Klein’s
contribution include object relations theory,play therapy,emphasis on early
development,theoretical innovations and therapeutic relationship.Klein’s most
significant contribution is her development of object relations theory, which
emphasizes the importance of interpersonal relationships in psychological
development. She posited that early relationships with primary caregivers shape an
individual’s psyche and influence their future relationships. This theory shifted the
focus from intrapsychic conflicts to the relational dynamics between individuals,
thereby enriching counseling practices by highlighting the significance of early
attachments. For example the more a mother cares for the child with consistent acts
such as breastfeeding, playtime and loving support would deeply affect how the child
perceives the mother, themselves and their connection. In turn, this would lead to a
positive or negative ability to form relationships as an adult. Klein believed that
feelings of love and aggression are central to human relationships. Her theories
helpless counselors address these powerful emotions facilitating healthier coping
mechanisms and interpersonal relations.

Moreover Klein was one of the first to utilize play as a therapeutic tool for children.
She believed that children express their thoughts and feelings through play, allowing
therapists to gain insight into their inner worlds. This approach laid the groundwork
for modern play therapy techniques used in counseling today, emphasizing the
importance of understanding children’s perspectives and emotional experiences. Klein
also introduced several key concepts such as “projective identification,” “splitting,”
and “the paranoid-schizoid position” versus “the depressive position.” These concepts
describe how individuals manage internal conflicts and external relationships,
providing counselors with frameworks to understand clients’ behaviors and emotional
responses.

However, while her work has significantly influenced counseling concepts and
theories, it is also marked by various failures and weaknesses that have been critically
examined over time.Klein overemphasized on early childhood experiences and on
internal drives, thereby ignoring other external factors hence critics argue that this
focus can lead to an underestimation of later life experiences and environmental
factors that also shape personality and behavior. This narrow lens may limit the
applicability of her theories in understanding adult psychopathology or relational
dynamics.

Moreover according to Stephen, A (2002) argued that Klein’s theories primarily

stem from a Western perspective, which may not adequately account for cultural
differences in parenting styles, familial structures, or societal norms. The universality
of her concepts has been challenged by scholars such as Ruth L. Cohn, Hanna Segal
and Michael Balint who argue that cultural context plays a crucial role in
psychological development and should be integrated into counseling practices, for
example Ruth L. Cohn (1996) argued that Klein’s theories are too focused on
intrapsychic processes and do not adequately consider the socio-cultural factors
influencing an individual’s psychological development.Like Freud, many criticised
her for simply helping people accept a negative reality instead of building a new,
positive one. Klein’s unconscious phantasy theory also presupposes that humans are
innately born with violent thoughts, becoming a cause for concern from others in the
field.

E. Abraham Maslow ( Humanistic)

Abraham Maslow, was an influential psychologist known for his groundbreaking

work in humanistic psychology, made significant contributions to the development of
counseling concepts and theories. Maslow was fascinated by human motivation and
behavior from an early age. He is best known for his hierarchy of needs theory, which
posits that human beings have a hierarchy of needs that must be met in a specific
order to achieve self-actualization. This theory emerged as a reaction against the
deterministic views of psychoanalysis and behaviorism and was proposed in 1943.

Abraham Maslow made significant contributions to the field of psychology and

counseling, primarily through his development of the hierarchy of needs and his
emphasis on humanistic psychology. He emphasizes on hierarchy of needs. Maslow
proposed a five-tier model of human needs. These include physiological needs (basic
survival needs such as food, water, and shelter) safety needs (security and stability in
one’s environment), love and belongingness needs (emotional relationships, including
friendships and family) ,esteem needs (self-esteem, respect from others, and feelings
of accomplishment) and self-actualization (the realization of personal potential, self-
fulfillment, and seeking personal growth). According to Maslow ( 1943) individuals
must satisfy lower-level needs before they can address higher-level psychological
needs. In counseling, this framework helps practitioners understand clients'
motivations and challenges, guiding interventions that address unmet needs.Adding
on, he highlights on the focus on self-actualization. Maslow described self-
actualization as the process of realizing one’s full potential and becoming the best
version of oneself. He believed that self-actualized individuals are more autonomous,
creative, and have a clearer sense of purpose.Counselors can facilitate self-
actualization by creating supportive environments where clients feel safe to explore
their identities, values, and aspirations. This focus encourages clients to pursue
personal growth and fulfillment rather than merely addressing deficits or
problems.Moreso , Maslow’s work promotes a holistic understanding of individuals,
considering emotional, psychological, social, and physiological aspects of human
experience. Hoffman (2014) ,this holistic perspective encourages counselors to
consider various factors influencing a client’s life, leading to more comprehensive
assessments and interventions that address multiple dimensions of well-being. This
humanistic approach continues to influence therapeutic practices, encouraging a focus
on strengths, personal growth, and the overall well-being of clients. Scholars like
Zimmerman (2008), noted that Maslow's theories provide a foundation for various
therapeutic approaches. For instance, his emphasis on understanding clients' needs
helps therapists develop more empathetic and individualized treatment plans.
Seligman Csikszentmihalyi, (2000)says that the focus on self-actualization resonates
with positive psychology, which aims to enhance well-being rather than merely
treating psychological disorders.The integration of Maslow's ideas into counseling
practices has encouraged a more client-centered approach that prioritizes personal
growth ,self-discovery and a holistic approach counseling. Techniques such as
motivational interviewing and strengths-based approaches reflect Maslow's influence
by focusing on client strengths and aspirations rather than deficits.

However it is important to note that while Maslow's work has been widely influential,
some scholars have critiqued the hierarchy of needs as overly simplistic and culturally
biased. Critics argue that not all cultures prioritize needs in the same hierarchical
manner and that individuals may pursue higher-level needs even when basic needs are
unmet. According to Neher (1991), Moslows theories lack rigorous empirical
validation. The subjective nature of self-actualization makes it difficult to measure or
quantify effectively . Despite these critiques, Maslow's framework remains a valuable
tool for understanding human motivation in counseling contexts. Abraham Maslow's
contributions to counseling concepts and theories have had a lasting impact on how
practitioners understand human motivation and potential. His emphasis on personal
growth, self-actualization, and a holistic view of individuals continues to shape
therapeutic practices today. While his ideas have faced critique, they remain
foundational in fostering a positive, growth-oriented approach to mental health and
well-being.

In a nutshell,
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