UNIT-IV DATA PROCESSING

INTRODUCTION

The data which is collected for the purpose of the study itself cannot reveal
everything. This being a raw data, it is required to process and analyze in order to have
desired result. The data which is collected cannot be directly used for making analysis.
Before analysis, data is required to be processed. Data processing is an intermediate stage
between collection of data and their analysis and interpretation, which include Checking,
Editing, Coding and Tabulation.

Data processing is a crucial stage in research. After collecting the data from the
field, the researcher has to process and analyze them in order to arrive at certain
conclusions which may confirm or invalidate the hypothesis which he had formulated
towards the beginning of research worth. The mass of data collected during the field work
is to be processed with a view to reducing them to manageable proportions.
The processing of data includes editing, coding, classification and tabulation. The
collected data should be organized in such a way so that table charts can be prepared for
presentation. The processing of data is necessary because, the data collected should be
examined and errors and mistakes are rectified so that at the stage of analysis of data, no
difficulty is experienced. Various steps involved in processing of data are Editing, Coding,
Classification and Tabulation.
PROCESSING OF DATA

The collected data in research is processed and analyzed to come to some

conclusions or to verify the hypothesis made. Processing of data is important as it makes
further analysis of data easier and efficient. Processing of data technically means

1.Editing of the data 2.Coding of data 3.Classification of data 4.Tabulation of data.

EDITING

Data editing is a process by which collected data is examined to detect any errors or
omissions and further these are corrected as much as possible before proceeding further.
Editing is of two types:

1. Field Editing

2. Central Editing.
FIELD EDITING

This is a type of editing that relates to abbreviated or illegible written form of

gathered data. Such editing is more effective when done on same day or the very next day
after the interview. The investigator must not jump to conclusion while doing field
editing.

CENTRAL EDITING

Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection process has been
completed. Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like entry in the wrong
place, entry in wrong unit etc. As a rule all the wrong answers should be dropped from the
final results.

EDITING REQUIRES SOME CAREFULCONSIDERATIONS:

Editor must be familiar with the interviewer’s mind set, objectives and everything
related to the study.

Different colors should be used when editors make entry in the data collected.

The editors name and date of editing should be placed on the data sheet.

CODING

⮚ Classification of responses may be done on the basis ofone or more common

concepts.
⮚ In coding a particular numeral or symbol is assigned to the answers in order to put
the responses in some definite categories or classes.
⮚ The classes of responses determined by the researcher should be appropriate and
suitable to the study.
⮚ Coding enables efficient and effective analysis as the responses are categorized into
meaningful classes.
⮚ Coding decisions are considered while developing or designing the questionnaire or
any other data collection tool.
⮚ Coding can be done manually or through computer.

Classification

Classification of the data implies that the collected raw data categorized in to common
group having common feature.

Data having common characteristics are placed in a common group.

 The entire data collected is categorized into various groupsor classes, which convey a
meaning to the researcher.

Classification is done in two ways:

1. Classification according to attributes.

2. Classification according to the class intervals.

Classification according the attributes

⮚ Here the data is classified on the basis of common characteristics that can be
descriptive like literacy, gender, honesty, marital status etc. or numeral like weight,
height, income etc.
⮚ Descriptive features are qualitative in nature and cannot be measured quantitatively
but are kindly considered while making an analysis.
⮚ Analysis used for such classified data is known as statistics of attributes and the
classification is known as the classification according to the attributes.

Classification on the basis of the interval

The numerical feature of data can be measured quantitatively and analyzed with the help
of some statistical unit like the data relating to income, production, age, weight etc come
under this category. This type of data is known as statistics of variables and the data is
classified by way of intervals.

Classification according to the class interval usually involves the following three main
problems:
1. Number of Classes.
2. How to select class limits.
3. How to determine the frequency of each class
Coding of the data
The questionnaire must be properly coded. Before either, sending it for feeding into
the computer, or entering it in the master chart, the coding of data is necessary. The
coding of data will make data entry easy. Coding of data means assigning numerical
symbol to each response of the question.
 The purpose of giving numerical symbols is to translate raw data into numerical
data, which may be counted and tabulated. An example of coding of the marital status and
education is given below.
Marital Status
Married : 01 Separated : 02 Widow : 03 Divorced : 05 Never Married : 06
The coding of data and checking that codes are properly inserted in the
questionnaire must be done during the editing of the questionnaire. It is always better to
prepare a code book for your questionnaire. The coding can also be done during the time
of data collection, if the code book is available with you.

TABULATION

The mass of data collected has to be arranged in some kind of concise and logical order.

Tabulation summarizes the raw data and displays data in form of some statistical tables.

Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in rows and columns.

Objective of tabulation

1. Conserves space & minimizes explanation and descriptive statements.

2. Facilitates process of comparison and summarization.

3. Facilitates detection of errors and omissions.

4. Establish the basis of various statistical computations.

Basic principles of tabulation

1. Tables should be clear, concise & adequately titled.

2. Every table should be distinctly numbered for easy reference.

3. Column headings & row headings of the table should be clear & brief

4. Units of measurement should be specified at appropriate places.

5. Explanatory footnotes concerning the table should be placed at appropriate places.

6. Source of information of data should be clearly indicated.

7. The columns & rows should be clearly separated with dark lines

8. Demarcation should also be made between data of one class and that of another.
9. Comparable data should be put side by side.

10. The figures in percentage should be approximated before tabulation.

11. The alignment of the figures, symbols etc. should be properly aligned and adequately
spaced to enhance the readability of the same.

12. Abbreviations should be avoided

TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some evidence. This is the

initial point of any investigation that translates the research questions into predictions. It
includes components like variables, population and the relation between the variables.

Several factors are considered into the determination of the appropriate statistical
technique to use when conducting a hypothesis tests. The most important are as:

1. The type of data being measured.

2. The purpose or the objective of the statistical inference. Hypothesis can be tested by
various techniques. The hypothesis testing techniques are divided into two
broadcategories:

1. Parametric Tests.

2. Non- Parametric Tests.

Alternative hypothesis

Alternative hypothesis defines there is a statistically important relationship between

two variables. Whereas null hypothesis states there is no statistical relationship between
the two variables. In statistics, we usually come across various kinds of hypotheses.

The Hypothesis Testing Process

First off, let’s talk about data-driven decision-making. It consists of the following steps:

1.First, we must formulate a hypothesis.

2.After doing that, we have to find the right test for our hypothesis.

3.Then, we execute the test.

4.Finally, we make a decision based on the result.

 Once you have developed a clear and focused research question or set of research
questions, you’ll be ready to conduct further research, a literature review, on the topic to
help you make an educated guess about the answer to your question(s). This educated
guess is called a hypothesis.

In research, there are two types of hypotheses: null and alternative. They work as a
complementary pair, each stating that the other is wrong.

Null Hypothesis (H0) – This can be thought of as the implied hypothesis. “Null” meaning
“nothing.” This hypothesis states that there is no difference between groups or no
relationship between variables. The null hypothesis is a presumption of status quo or no
change.

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) – This is also known as the claim. This hypothesis should
state what you expect the data to show, based on your research on the topic. This is your
answer to your research question.
Examples:

Null Hypothesis: H0: There is no difference in the salary of factory workers based on
gender.
Alternative Hypothesis: H1: Male factory workers have a higher salary than female
factory workers.
Null Hypothesis: H0: There is no relationship between height and shoe size.
Alternative Hypothesis: H1: There is a positive relationship between height and shoe size.
Null Hypothesis: H0: Experience on the job has no impact on the quality of a brick
mason’s work.
Alternative Hypothesis: H1: The quality of a brick mason’s work is influenced by on-the-
job experience.
What is Hypothesis?
Hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods, that
relates an independent variables to some dependent variable.
A hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a proportion which can be put to a
test to determine its validity
e.g. Students who receive counseling will show a greater increase in creativity than
students not receiving counseling.

The Purpose of a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is used in an experiment to define the relationship between

two variables. The purpose of a hypothesis is to find the answer to a question. A
formalized hypothesis will force us to think about what results we should look for in an
experiment.

The first variable is called the independent variable. This is the part of the
experiment that can be changed and tested. The independent variable happens first and can
be considered the cause of any changes in the outcome. The outcome is called the
dependent variable. The independent variable in our previous example is not studying for
a test. The dependent variable that you are using to measure outcome is your test score.

Let’s use the previous example again to illustrate these ideas. The hypothesis is
testable because you will receive a score on your test performance. It is measurable
because you can compare test scores received from when you did study and test scores
received from when you did not study.

A hypothesis should always:

⮚ Explain what you expect to happen

⮚ Be clear and understandable
⮚ Be testable
⮚ Be measurable
⮚ And contain an independent and dependent variable

How to Develop a Hypothesis

Another important aspect of a hypothesis is that it should be based on research.

Remember that the purpose of a hypothesis is to find the answer to a question. The first
thing you should do if you want to answer a question is to find as much information on the
topic as you can. Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing
research. Then, start thinking of questions you still have. After thoroughly researching
your question, you should have an educated guess about how things work. This guess
about the answer to your question is where your hypothesis comes from.

Let’s imagine that you want to know why the leaves on the tree in your front yard
change color in the fall. First, you would research this phenomenon. You observe what
you see happen and read about the subject. You discover that the color change happens
when the temperature cools. What question does this information make you ask?

Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing is the formal procedure used by statisticians to test whether a certain
hypothesis is true or not. It’s a four-step process that involves writing the hypothesis,
creating an analysis plan, analyzing the data, and then interpreting the data. These tests are
useful because you can use these tests to help you prove your hypotheses. If you have a
successful test, then you can publish that information to let people know what you have
found.
For example, a cleaning company can publish information that proves that their
cleaning product kills 99% of all germs if they perform a hypothesis test that has data that
proves their hypothesis that their cleaning product kills 99% of germs.
While these tests can be very helpful, there is a danger when it comes to interpreting the
results. It is possible to make two different kinds of errors when interpreting the results.
Type I Errors
The first type is called a type I error. This type of error happens when you say that
the null hypothesis is false when it is actually true. Our null hypothesis is the hypothesis
for our expected outcome. If our null hypothesis is that dogs live longer than cats, it would
be like saying dogs don’t live longer than cats, when in fact, they do. To help you
remember this type I error, think of it as having just one wrong. You are wrongly thinking
that the null hypothesis is true. In statistics, we label the probability of making this kind of
error with this symbol:

∝
 It is called alpha. This is a value that you decide on. Usually, it is 0.05, which
means that you are okay with a 5% chance of making a type I error. The lower the alpha
number, the lower the risk of you making such an error. The tricky part with setting the
alpha number is that if you set it too low, it may mean that you won’t catch the really
small differences that may be there.
Type II Errors
The other type of error is called a type II error. This type of error happens when
you say that the null hypothesis is true when it is actually false. For our null hypothesis
that dogs live longer than cats, it would be like saying that dogs do live longer than cats,
when in fact, they don’t. To help you remember a type II error, think of two wrongs. You
are wrongly thinking that the null hypothesis is wrong. The probability of making a type II
error is labeled with a beta symbol like this:

β
This type of error can be decreased by making sure that your sample size, the
number of test subjects you have, is large enough so that real differences can be spotted.
So, for the dogs and cats, this would mean that you need to gather data about enough dogs
and cats to see a real difference between them. If you have information about just one dog
and one cat, you can’t say for sure that the statement that dogs live longer than cats is true
or not. If the dog lives longer than the cat, then you might make the mistake of saying that
dogs do live longer than cats, even though the opposite were true. Your sample size isn’t
large enough for you to see a difference.
Null hypothesis definition
The null hypothesis is a general statement that states that there is no relationship between
two phenomenons under consideration or that there is no association between two groups.

● A hypothesis, in general, is an assumption that is yet to be proved with sufficient pieces

of evidence. A null hypothesis thus is the hypothesis a researcher is trying to disprove.
● A null hypothesis is a hypothesis capable of being objectively verified, tested, and even
rejected.
● If a study is to compare method A with method B about their relationship, and if the
study is preceded on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this
assumption is termed as the null hypothesis.
● The null hypothesis should always be a specific hypothesis, i.e., it should not state about
or approximately a certain value.
Null hypothesis purpose

● The main purpose of a null hypothesis is to verify/ disprove the proposed statistical
assumptions.
● Some scientific null hypothesis help to advance a theory.
● The null hypothesis is also used to verify the consistent results of multiple experiments. For
e.g., the null hypothesis stating that there is no relation between some medication and age of
the patients supports the general effectiveness conclusion, and allows recommendations.
Null hypothesis principle
● The principle of the null hypothesis is collecting the data and determining the chances
of the collected data in the study of a random sample, proving that the null hypothesis is
true.
● In situations or studies where the collected data doesn’t complete the expectation of the
null hypothesis, it is concluded that the data doesn’t provide sufficient or reliable pieces
of evidence to support the null hypothesis and thus, it is rejected.
● The data collected is tested through some statistical tool which is designed to measure
the extent of departure of the date from the null hypothesis.
● The procedure decides whether the observed departure obtained from the statistical tool
is larger than a defined value so that the probability of occurrence of a high departure
value is very small under the null hypothesis.
● However, some data might not contradict the null hypothesis which explains that only a
weak conclusion can be made and that the data doesn’t provide strong pieces of
evidence against the null hypothesis and the null hypothesis might or might not be true.
● Under some other conditions, if the data collected is sufficient and is capable of
providing enough evidence, the null hypothesis can be considered valid, indicating no
relationship between the phenomena.

When to reject null hypothesis?

● When the p-value of the data is less than the significant level of the test, the null
hypothesis is rejected, indicating the test results are significant.
● However, if the p-value is higher than the significant value, the null hypothesis is not
rejected, and the results are considered not significant.
● The level of significance is an important concept while hypothesis testing as it
determines the percentage risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when H 0 might happen to
be true.
● In other words, if we take the level of significance at 5%, it means that the researcher is
willing to take as much as a 5 percent risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H 0)
happens to be true.
● The null hypothesis cannot be accepted because the lack of evidence only means that the
relationship is not proven. It doesn’t prove that something doesn’t exist, but it just means
that there are not enough shreds of evidence and the study might have missed it.
Null hypothesis examples
The following are some examples of null hypothesis:

1. If the hypothesis is that “the consumption of a particular medicine reduces the chances
of heart arrest”, the null hypothesis will be “the consumption of the medicine doesn’t
reduce the chances of heart arrest.”
2. If the hypothesis is that, “If random test scores are collected from men and women, does
the score of one group differ from the other?” a possible null hypothesis will be that the
mean test score of men is the same as that of the women.
H0: µ1= µ2
H0= null hypothesis
µ1= mean score of men
µ2= mean score of women
Alternative hypothesis definition
An alternative hypothesis is a statement that describes that there is a relationship between
two selected variables in a study.

● An alternative hypothesis is usually used to state that a new theory is preferable to the
old one (null hypothesis).
● This hypothesis can be simply termed as an alternative to the null hypothesis.
● The alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis that is to be proved that indicates that the
results of a study are significant and that the sample observation is not results just from
chance but from some non-random cause.
● If a study is to compare method A with method B about their relationship and we
assume that the method A is superior or the method B is inferior, then such a statement
is termed as an alternative hypothesis.
● Alternative hypotheses should be clearly stated, considering the nature of the research
problem.
Alternative hypothesis symbol

The symbol of the alternative hypothesis is either

H1 or Ha while using less than, greater than or not equal signs.

Alternative hypothesis purpose

● An alternative hypothesis provides the researchers with some specific restatements and
clarifications of the research problem.
● An alternative hypothesis provides a direction to the study, which then can be utilized by
the researcher to obtain the desired results.
● Since the alternative hypothesis is selected before conducting the study, it allows the test
to prove that the study is supported by evidence, separating it from the researchers’
desires and values.
● An alternative hypothesis provides a chance of discovering new theories that can
disprove an existing one that might not be supported by evidence.
● The alternative hypothesis is important as they prove that a relationship exists between
two variables selected and that the results of the study conducted are relevant and
significant.

Unit-V Report writing

Once the data collection and analysis work is over, the researcher will start writing
the research report. Social and development research reports need to have a logical, clear
structure be to the point use simple language, and have a pleasant layout Just as an
architect has to draw a layout plan for a house that is being designed, you first have to
make an outline for your report.

Before you start writing, it is essential to group and review the data you have
analyzed by objective. Check whether all data has indeed been processed and analyzed as
you planned in the research protocol/proposal which is duly approved. Draw major
conclusions and relate these to the research literature. Again, you may be inspired to go
back to your raw data and refine your analysis, or to search for additional literature to
answer questions that the analysis of your data may evoke. Compile the major conclusions
and tables or quotes from qualitative data related to each specific objective. You are now
ready to draft the report.
Research Report Writing
Dr Shlesinger and M Stephenson in the encyclopedia of Social Sciences define
Research as the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend correct or verify knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the
practice of an art writing the Research Report is the last step of Research Process
Significance of Report Writing
❖ Major component
❖ Findings are brought in to light
❖ Medium to communicate research work with relevant people.
❖ Contributes to the body of knowledge
❖ Effective way of conveying the research work
❖ Reference material
❖ Aid for decision making
Significance of report writing
Report writing is a critical skill that can have a significant impact on individuals,
and organizations. In fact, a report by the National Association of Colleges and Employers
found that the ability to communicate effectively, including report writing, was the most
important skill sought by employers.
 ❖ Reports provide decision-makers with the information they need to make informed
decisions.
❖ Effective report writing demonstrates professionalism and attention to detail, which
can help to build trust and credibility with clients.
❖ Reports can inform planning processes by providing data and insights that can be
used to develop strategies and allocate resources.
❖ Reports often include recommendations or suggestions for future
action, which can help to improve processes, procedures, or
outcomes.
What are the 5 steps of report writing
Analysis of the Subject matter

Making of the Final Outline

Making Rough Draft

Polishing the Rough Draft

Making of Bibliography

Writing the Final Draft

The five steps of report writing, are as follows:

1. Planning: This involves defining the purpose of the report, determining the audience,
and conducting research to gather the necessary information.
2. Structuring: This step involves deciding on the structure of the report, such as the
sections and subsections, and creating an outline.
3. Writing: This is the stage where the actual writing of the report takes place, including
drafting and revising the content.
4. Reviewing: In this step, the report is reviewed for accuracy, coherence, and
effectiveness, and any necessary changes are made.
5. Presenting: This final step involves presenting the report in a clear and professional
manner, such as through the use of headings, visuals, and a table of contents.

Contents of the Research Report

The research report will have, broadly, three parts.
 Part I : The Preliminary Pages
Part II : The Main Text of the Research Report
Part III : The End Matter
⮚ Title and cover page
⮚ A foreword (Certificate)
⮚ Preface Declaration)
⮚ Acknowledgements
⮚ Table of contents
⮚ List of tables
⮚ List of figures
⮚ Introduction
⮚ Objectives
⮚ Literature review
⮚ Research Methodology
⮚ Data analysis and interpretation
⮚ Conclusion
⮚ Bibliography
⮚ Appendix/Annexure
i) Title and Cover page
The cover page should contain the title, the names of the authors with their
designations, the institution that is publishing the report with its logo, the month, and the
year of publication. The title could consist of a challenging statement or question,
followed by an informative subtitle covering the content of the study and indicating the
area where the study was implemented.

It would be appropriate if the cover page is designed by an expert in computer

graphics who may be suggested to include some important photograph related to identity
of organization or problem under study or from the field within the background.

Title of the research report

A study on Customer Satisfaction Towards Samsung Mobiles
With Special Reference in Salem City
Acknowledgements
It is good practice to thank those who supported you technically or financially in the
design and implementation of your study. You should not forget to thank your research
guide and your employer, too, who has allowed you to invest time in the study; and, the
respondents may be acknowledged. You should not forget to acknowledge the
contribution of computer professionals, library staff, local officials, and the community at
large that provided the information.
Table of Contents
A table of contents is essential. It provides the reader a quick overview of the
chapters with major sections and sub sections of your report, and page references, so that
the reader can go through the report in a different order, or skip certain sections. The
sections and sub sections within each chapter may be given numbers that are specific to
the chapter
Content
S. No. Contents Pages

1 Introduction of the Study

2 History of the industry

Company Profile

3 Review of Literature

4 Research Methodology

5 Data Analysis and Interpretation

6 Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion

References (Bibliography)

Appendix/Annexure

List of Tables
 If you have many tables or figures, it is essential to list these also in a table of
contents with formatted with page numbers. The initial letters of the key words in the title
are capitalized and no terminal punctuation is used. An example is given below.

List of Tables
S. No Name of the Table Pages

5.1 “Gender” wise Classification of the Respondents

5.2 “Age Wise Classification of the Respondents

5.3 The Table showing Income wise Classification of the

Respondents

References
1.Ackoff, R. L. (1961), The Design of Social Science Research, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2.Bailey, K. D. (1978), Methods of Social Research, New York.
Layout of the Report
A good physical layout is important, as it will help your report

⮚ make a good initial impression

⮚ encourage the readers
⮚ give them an idea of how the material has been organised so the reader can
make a quick determination of what he will read first.
Particular attention should be paid to make sure there is
⮚ An attractive layout for the title page and a clear table of contents
⮚ consistency in margins and spacing
⮚ consistency in headings and subheadings, e.g.: Font size 16 or 18 bold, for headings
of chapters; size 14 bold for headings of major sections; size 12 bold, for headings
of sub-sections, etc.
⮚ good quality printing and photocopying
❖ correct drafts carefully with spell check as well as critical reading for clarity by
other team-members, your facilitator and, if possible, outsiders
❖ Numbering of figures and tables, provision of clear titles for tables, and clear
headings for columns and rows, etc.
 ❖ Accuracy and consistency in quotations and references.

Precautions in Writing Research Report

The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be prepared strictly
in accordance with the techniques of composition of report-writing such as the use of
quotations, footnotes, documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in
footnotes and the like.

Report writing can be considered as an art which is learn through practicing and
experience. While preparing project/research report, following precautions should be
taken by the researcher:
1) Accuracy:
A research report should contain accurate information about the research problem and
research objectives as inaccurate information may mislead the managers and can cause
problems in decision-making.
2) Simplicity:
An Ideal research report should be simple in every aspect. The layout, wording.
grammar, phasing, sequencing, tabulation, etc., should be developed with full attention to
keep it simple.
3) Clear and Completeness:
A research report should be clear and complete. These two terms are complementary
to each other. Researchers should not use ambiguous words or sentences while preparing a
research report. The report should be clearly defined in terms of its objective, scope,
sources, findings, etc. The concepts and techniques of the report should be explained
appropriately, to make the research report complete in every sense.
4) Conciseness:
The research reports should be concise and brief enough to represent all the
information needed by the executives as they want the facts and results only. But this
feature of research report should not be compromised with the clarity and completeness of
the report. The report should be able to highlight the essential points briefly without
damaging its quality.
5) Comprehensibility and Readability:
 Research report should be comprehensive and easily readable. There should be no
confusion in the language or grammar of the contents. Technical language or terms should
be avoided in the preparation of questionnaire. The language and content of the report
should be in such a way that it can be understood by everyone.
6) Reliability:
The information included in the research report should be reliable and valid. It is also
essential that all important facts should be included so that readers may understand it
easily. Researchers should prepare the report with special care such that the erroneous
information should not be included, as it confuses the readers.
7) Timelines:
The unique feature of research report is that it should be prepared within a stipulated
time. Timeframe is the crucial aspect of a report, as data included in the report may
become obsolete or irrelevant after certain period time.
8) Logical Content:
All the contents of a research report should be written in a logical way. None of the
information should be included without proper investigation and analysis. There should be
a sequence applied to all the components of report. The entire report should be categorized
into server parts containing district facts and information and should facilitate the case to
locate the concerned topic in a report.
9) Original Content:
The contents of a research report should be original and specific. The research report
should address some specific problem. The researcher should attempt to provide a solution
to the problem being addressed.
10) Free from Errors:
The report should not contain any errors such as spelling errors, missing data,
grammatical errors, incorrect calculations, etc. Researchers should ensure the report to be
error- free before presenting it finally.
11) Good Appearance:
Research reports should be well typed, neat and clean. It should maintain this
consistency throughout the report, to catch the attention of readers.
❖ Communicate research finding Length of research report
 ❖ Curiosity with in reader Objective style of writing
❖ Use of charts, graphs and tables Appropriate layout
❖ Avoid grammatical mistakes Logical analysis
❖ Appendices Bibliography of necessary sources
❖ Appearance Policy implications
❖ Originality Objectives of study

Types of Research Report Writing

There are various types of research report writing, each serving a specific purpose
and designed for different audiences. Here are some common types of reports writing:
1) Experimental Research Report:
This type of research report presents the findings of an experiment or controlled
study. It includes information about the research question, hypothesis, methodology, data
collection methods, statistical analysis, results, and interpretation. Experimental research
reports aim to provide a detailed account of the research process and its outcomes.
2) Descriptive Research Report:
Descriptive research reports focus on describing a particular phenomenon,
population, or situation. These reports provide a comprehensive overview of the subject
under investigation, including its characteristics, demographics, behaviors, or other
relevant factors. Descriptive research reports often involve the collection and analysis of
data through surveys, observations, or interviews.
3) Analytical Research Report:
Analytical research reports involve the examination and analysis of existing data,
literature, or information to draw conclusions or generate insights. These reports may
involve the synthesis of various sources, the comparison of different studies, or the
application of statistical methods to analyze data. Analytical research reports aim to
provide a critical evaluation and interpretation of existing knowledge.
4) Case Study Report:
Case study reports focus on in-depth analysis of a particular case or situation, often
within a specific context. These reports provide a detailed examination of an individual,
group, organization, or event, aiming to understand and explore unique circumstances,
processes, or outcomes. Case study reports may involve qualitative data collection
methods, such as interviews, observations, or document analysis.
5) Literature Review Report:
Literature review reports summarize and synthesize existing research studies and
scholarly publications on a specific topic. These reports provide an overview of the
current state of knowledge, identify gaps or inconsistencies, and highlight key findings or
trends. Literature review reports often involve extensive reading, analysis, and critical
evaluation of relevant literature.
6) Comparative Research Report:
Comparative research reports involve the comparison of multiple variables, groups,
or situations to identify similarities, differences, or patterns. These reports aim to explore
relationships, make cross-cultural or cross-contextual comparisons, or examine the impact
of different factors on a particular outcome. Comparative research reports may use
quantitative or qualitative data collection methods and involve statistical analysis or
thematic comparisons.
7) Action Research Report:
Action research reports focus on the process and outcomes of a research study
conducted in collaboration with practitioners or stakeholders to address specific problems
or improve practices. These reports often involve cycles of planning, action, observation,
and reflection, aiming to generate practical knowledge and inform decision-making within
a specific context.

Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of

the report. good research report is one which doe this task efficiently and effectively.
Research report must be prepared by keeping the following precautions in view:
Length of the report: While determining the length of the report (since research reports
vary greatly in length), one should keep in view the fact that it should be long enough to
cover the subject but short enough to maintain interest. In fact, report writing should not
be a means to learning more and more about less and less.
Interesting: A research report should not, if this can be availed, be dull, it should be such
as to sustain reader's interest.
Use of abstract terminology and Jargon: Abstract terminology and technical Jargon
should be avoided in research report. The report should be able to convey the matter as
simply as possible. This in other words, means that report should be written in and
objective style in simple language, avoiding, expression such as, "it seems", "There may
be" and the like.
Presentation of the findings: Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge
of the main findings and as such the report must provide a ready availability of the
findings. for this purpose, charts, graphs and the statistical tables may be used for the
various results in the main report in addition to the summary of important findings.
Presentation of the report: The layout of the report should be well though out and must
be appropriate and in accordance with objective of the research problems.
Writing of the Report: The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be
prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of composition footnotes,
documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in footnotes.
Logical presentation of the report: The report must present the logical analysis of the
subject matter. it must reflect a structure wherein the different pieces of analysis relating
to the research problem fit well.
Originality in writing report: A research report should show originality and should
necessarily be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem. it must contribute to the
solution of a problem and must add to the store of knowledge.
Plan for future research and implications: Towards the end, the report must also state
the policy implications relating to the problem under consideration. It is usually
considered desirable if the report makes a forecast of the probable future of the subject
concerned and indicates the kinds of research still needs to be done in that particular field.
Appendices: Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in the
report.
Bibliography: Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and must
necessarily be given.
Index: Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such must be
prepared and appended at the end.
Appearance: Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether types or
printed.
Stating confidence limits: Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the
various constraints experienced in conducting the research study may also be stated in the
report.

Introduction: Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed
and the analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the beginning of the
report in the form of introduction.