Chapter 4

Spatial referencing and positioning

In the early days of GIS, users were mainly handling spatially referenced data
from a single country. This data was usually derived from paper maps pub-
lished by the country’s mapping organization. Nowadays, GIS users are com-
bining spatial data from a given country with global spatial data sets, reconcil-
ing spatial data from published maps with coordinates established with satellite
positioning techniques and integrating their spatial data with that from neigh-
bouring countries. To perform these kinds of tasks successfully, GIS users need
to understand basic spatial referencing concepts.
This chapter is two parts. In Section 4.1, we discuss the relevance and actual use
of reference surfaces, coordinate systems and coordinate transformations. In
Section 4.2 we look more closely at satellite-based positioning. The introduction
of global positioning techniques has made it possible to unambiguously deter-

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 190
mine a position in space. These developments have laid the foundation for the
integration of all spatial data within a single global 3D spatial reference system,
which we may see emerge within the next 10-15 years.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 191
4.1 Spatial referencing

One of the defining features of GIS is their ability to combine spatially referenced
data. A frequently occurring issue is the need to combine spatial data from dif-
ferent sources that use different spatial reference systems. This section provides
a broad background of relevant concepts relating to the nature of spatial refer-
ence systems and the translation of data from one spatial referencing system into
another.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 192
4.1.1 Reference surfaces for mapping

The surface of the Earth is anything but uniform. The oceans can be treated
as reasonably uniform, but the surface or topography of the land masses ex-
hibits large vertical variations between mountains and valleys. These variations
make it impossible to approximate the shape of the Earth with any reasonably
simple mathematical model. Consequently, two main reference surfaces have The Geoid and ellipsoid
been established to approximate the shape of the Earth. One reference surface is
called the Geoid, the other reference surface is the ellipsoid. These are illustrated
in Figure 4.1. Below, we look at and discuss the respective uses of each of these
surfaces.
Figure 4.1: The Earth’s
surface, and two reference
surfaces used to approx-
Geoid separation (N) imate it: the Geoid, and
Earth’s surface (undulation)
a reference ellipsoid. The
Sea surface
Geoid separation (N) is
Geoid
the deviation between the
Geoid and a reference el-
Ellipsoid
lipsoid.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 193
The Geoid and the vertical datum

We can simplify matters by imagining that the entire Earth’s surface is covered
by water. If we ignore tidal and current effects on this ‘global ocean’, the resul-
tant water surface is affected only by gravity. This has an effect on the shape of
this surface because the direction of gravity–more commonly known as plumb Plumb line
line–is dependent on the mass distribution inside the Earth. Due to irregularities
or mass anomalies in this distribution the ‘global ocean’ results in an undulated
surface. This surface is called the Geoid (Figure 4.2). The plumb line through
any surface point is always perpendicular to it.

Figure 4.2: The Geoid,

exaggerated to illustrate
the complexity of its sur-
face.

The Geoid is used to describe heights. In order to establish the Geoid as refer-
ence for heights, the ocean’s water level is registered at coastal places over sev-
eral years using tide gauges (mareographs). Averaging the registrations largely
eliminates variations of the sea level with time. The resulting water level rep-
resents an approximation to the Geoid and is called the mean sea level. For

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4.1. Spatial referencing 194
the Netherlands and Germany, the local mean sea level is realized through the Mean sea level
Amsterdam tide-gauge (zero height). We can determine the height of a point in
Enschede with respect to the Amsterdam tide gauge using a technique known
as geodetic levelling (Figure 4.3). The result of this process will be the height
above local mean sea level for the Enschede point. The height determined with
respect to a tide-gauge station is known as the orthometric height (height H above
the Geoid) .
Obviously, there are several realizations of local mean sea levels (also called local
vertical datums) in the world. They are parallel to the Geoid but offset by up to
a couple of metres. This offset is due to local phenomena such as ocean currents,
tides, coastal winds, water temperature and salinity at the location of the tide-
gauge. Care must be taken when using heights from another local vertical datum
. For example, this might be the case in the border area of adjacent nations. Even Local vertical datums
within a country, heights may differ depending on to which tide gauge, mean
sea level point, they are related. As an example, the mean sea level from the
Atlantic to the Pacific coast of the USA increases by 0.6 to 0.7 m. The tide gauge
(zero height) of the Netherlands differs -2.34 metres from the tide gauge (zero
height) of the neighbouring country Belgium.
The local vertical datum is implemented through a levelling network (see Fig-
ure 4.3(a)). A levelling network consists of benchmarks, whose height above
mean sea level has been determined through geodetic levelling . The implemen- Geodetic levelling
tation of the datum enables easy user access. The surveyors do not need to start
from scratch (i.e. from the Amsterdam tide-gauge) every time they need to de-
termine the height of a new point. They can use the benchmark of the levelling
network that is closest to the point of interest (Figure 4.3(b)).

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4.1. Spatial referencing 195

Amsterdam
Figure 4.3: A levelling
Tide-gauge network implements a
local vertical datum:
(a) network of levelling
lines starting from the
Amsterdam tide-gauge,
point whose height
is to be determined
showing some of the
benchmarks; (b) how the
nearest benchmark of
orthometric height (H)
levelling line the levelling network is determined for some
point, working from the
Benchmark of the levelling network
(a) (b) nearest benchmark.

As a result of satellite gravity missions, it is currently possible to determine the

height (H) above the Geoid with centimetre level accuracy. It is foreseeable that
a global vertical datum may become ubiquitous in the next 10-15 years. If all
published maps are also using this global vertical datum by that time, heights
will become globally comparable, effectively making local vertical datums re-
dundant for GIS users.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 196
The ellipsoid

Above, we have defined a physical surface, the Geoid, as a reference surface for
heights. We also need a reference surface for the description of the horizontal
coordinatesof points of interest. Since we will later project these horizontal coor-
dinates onto a mapping plane, the reference surface for horizontal coordinates
requires a mathematical definition and description. The most convenient geo- Oblate ellipsoid
metric reference is the oblate ellipsoid (Figure 4.4). It provides a relatively simple
figure which fits the Geoid to a first order approximation, though for small scale
mapping purposes a sphere may be used. An ellipsoid is formed when an ellipse
is rotated about its minor axis. This ellipse which defines an ellipsoid or spheroid
is called a meridian ellipse.1

Polesemi-minor
axis

a Equatorial
semi-major axis plane

Figure 4.4: An oblate el-

lipse, defined by its semi-
major axis a and semi-
minor axis b.

The shape of an ellipsoid may be defined in a number of ways, but in geode-

tic practice the definition is usually by its semi-major axis and flattening (Fig-
1
Notice that ellipsoid and spheroid are used here to refer to the same thing.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 197
ure 4.4). Flattening f is dependent on both the semi-major axis a and the semi-
minor axis b.

(a − b)
f= .
a

The ellipsoid may also be defined by its semi-major axis a and its eccentricity e,
which is given by:

b2 (a2 − b2 )
e2 = (1 − ( )) = = 2f − f 2 .
a2 a2

Given one axis and any one of the other three parameters, the other two can be
derived. Typical values of the parameters for an ellipsoid are:

1
a = 6378135.00 m, b = 6356750.52 m, f = , e = 0.08181881066
298.26

Many different ellipsoids have been defined. Local ellipsoids have been estab-
lished to fit the Geoid (mean sea level) well over an area of local interest, which
in the past was never larger than a continent. This meant that the differences Local ellipsoids
between the Geoid and the reference ellipsoid could effectively be ignored, al-
lowing accurate maps to be drawn in the vicinity of the datum (Figure 4.5).
With increasing demands for global surveying, work is underway to develop
global reference ellipsoids. In contrast to local ellipsoids, which apply only to a

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4.1. Spatial referencing 198
Ellipsoid globally best
fitting to the geoid

Figure 4.5: The Geoid, a

globally best fitting ellip-
soid for it, and a region-
Region of Ellipsoid regionally ally best fitting ellipsoid for
best fit best fitting to the
geoid it, for a chosen region.
Adapted from: Ordnance
Survey of Great Britain. A
Guide to Coordinate Sys-
The geoid
tems in Great Britain.

specific country or localised area of the Earth’s surface, global ellipsoids approx- Global ellipsoids
imate the Geoid as a mean earth ellipsoid. The International Union for Geodesy
and Geophysics (IUGG) plays a central role in establishing these reference fig-
ures.
In 1924, the general assembly of the IUGG in Madrid introduced the ellipsoid de-
termined by Hayford in 1909 as the international ellipsoid. However, according
to present knowledge, the values for this ellipsoid give an insufficient approxi-
mation. At the general assembly 1967 of the IUGG in Luzern, the 1924 reference
system was replaced by the Geodetic Reference System 1967 (GRS 1967). It rep-
resents a good approximation (as of 1967) to the mean Earth figure.
For some time, the Geodetic Reference System 1967 was used in the planning of
new geodetic surveys. For example, the Australian Datum (1966) and the South
American datum (1969) are based upon this ellipsoid. However, at its general as-
sembly 1979 in Canberra the IUGG recognized that the GRS 1967 no longer rep-

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4.1. Spatial referencing 199
resented the size and shape of the Earth to an adequate accuracy. Consequently,
it was replaced by the Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80) ellipsoid.

Name a(m) b(m) f Table 4.1: Three global el-

lipsoids defined by a semi-
International (1924) 6378388. 6356912. 1 : 297.000
major axis a, semi-minor
GRS 1967 6378160. 6356775. 1 : 298.247
axis b, and flattening f .
GRS 1980 and WGS84 6378137. 6356752. 1 : 298.257 The GRS80 and WGS84
can be considered iden-
tical for all practical pur-
poses.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 200
The local horizontal datum

Ellipsoids have varying position and orientations. An ellipsoid is positioned and

oriented with respect to the local mean sea level by adopting a latitude (φ) and
longitude (λ) and ellipsoidal height (h) of a so-called fundamental point and an
azimuth to an additional point. We say that this defines a local horizontal datum.
Notice that the term horizontal datum and geodetic datum are being treated as
equivalent and interchangeable words.
Several hundred local horizontal datums exist in the world. The reason is ob-
vious: Different local ellipsoids with varying position and orientation had to
be adopted to best fit the local mean sea level in different countries or regions.
An example is the Potsdam Datum, the local horizontal datum used in Germany.
The fundamental point is in Rauenberg and the underlying ellipsoid is the Bessel
ellipsoid (a = 6,377, 397.156 m, b = 6,356, 079.175 m). We can determine the lati-
tude and longitude (φ, λ) of any other point in Germany with respect to this local
horizontal datum using geodetic positioning techniques, such as triangulation
and trilateration. The result of this process will be the geographic (or horizontal)
coordinates (φ, λ) of the new point in the Potsdam Datum.
A local horizontal datum is realized through a triangulation network. Such a
network consists of monumented points forming a network of triangular mesh
elements (Figure 4.6). The angles in each triangle are measured in addition to
at least one side of a triangle; the fundamental point is also a point in the trian- Triangulation networks
gulation network. The angle measurements and the adopted coordinates of the
fundamental point are then used to derive geographic coordinates (φ, λ) for all
monumented points of the triangulation network.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 201
Within this framework, users do not need to start from scratch (i.e. from the
fundamental point) in order to determine the geographic coordinates of a new
point. They can use the monument of the triangulation network that is closest to
the new point. The extension and re-measurement of the network is nowadays
done through satellite measurements.

Figure 4.6: The old

primary triangulation
network in the Nether-
lands made up of 77
Amersfoort
points (mostly church
towers). The extension
and re-measurement of
the network is nowadays
done through satellite
measurements. Adapted
from original figure by
‘Dutch Cadastre and Land
0 50km
Registers’ now called het
Kadaster.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 202
The global horizontal datum

Local horizontal datums have been established to fit the Geoid well over the
area of local interest, which in the past was never larger than a continent. With
increasing demands for global surveying activities are underway to establish
global reference surfaces. The motivation is to make geodetic results mutually
comparable and to provide coherent results also to other disciplines like astron-
omy and geophysics.
The most important global (geocentric) spatial reference system for the GIS com-
munity is the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) . It is a three-
dimensional coordinate system with a well-defined origin (the centre of mass ITRS
of the Earth) and three orthogonal coordinate axes (X, Y, Z). The Z-axis points
towards a mean Earth north pole. The X-axis is oriented towards a mean Green-
wich meridian and is orthogonal to the Z-axis. The Y -axis completes the right-
handed reference coordinate system (Figure 4.7a).

Figure 4.7: (a) The Inter-

n
idia

national Terrestrial Refer-

mer

ence System (ITRS), and;

greenwich

(b) the International Ter-

Y restrial Reference Frame
r (ITRF) visualized as a dis-
equato
tributed set of ground con-
trol stations (represented
X
(a) (b) by red points).

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4.1. Spatial referencing 203
The ITRS is realized through the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF),
a distributed set of ground control stations that measure their position continu-
ously using GPS (Figure 4.7b). Constant re-measuring is needed because of the
involvement of new control stations and ongoing geophysical processes (mainly
tectonic plate motion) that deform the Earth’s crust at measurable global, re-
gional and local scales. These deformations cause positional differences in time,
and have resulted in more than one realization of the ITRS. Examples are the ITRF
ITRF96 or the ITRF2000. The ITRF96 was established at the 1st of January, 1997.
This means that the measurements use data up to 1996 to fix the geocentric co-
ordinates (X, Y and Z in metres) and velocities (positional change in X, Y and
Z in metres per year) at the different stations. The velocities are used to prop-
agate the measurements to other epochs (times). The trend is to use the ITRF
everywhere in the world for reasons of global compatibility.
GPS uses the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) as its reference system. It
has been refined on several occasions and is now aligned with the ITRF to within
a few centimetres worldwide. Global horizontal datums, such as the ITRF2000
or WGS84, are also called geocentric datums because they are geocentrically po- Geocentric datums
sitioned with respect to the centre of mass of the Earth. They became available
only recently (roughly after the 1960’s), with advances in extra-terrestrial posi-
tioning techniques.2
Since the size and shape of satellite orbits is directly related to the centre of mass
of the Earth, observations of natural or artificial satellites can be used to pinpoint
2
Extra-terrestrial positioning techniques include Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR), Lunar Laser
Ranging (LLR), Global Positioning System (GPS), and Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI),
among others.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 204
the centre of mass of the Earth, and hence the origin of the ITRS.3 This technique
can also be used for the realization of the global ellipsoids and datums at the
accuracy level required for large-scale mapping.
To implement the ITRF in a region, a densification of control stations is needed
to ensure that there are enough coordinated reference points available in the re-
gion. These control stations are equipped with permanently operating satellite
positioning equipment (i.e. GPS receivers and auxiliary equipment) and commu-
nication links. Examples for (networks consisting of) such permanent tracking
stations are the AGRS in the Netherlands and the SAPOS in Germany.
We can easily transform ITRF coordinates (X, Y and Z in metres) into geo-
graphic coordinates (φ, λ, h) with respect to the GRS80 ellipsoid without the loss
of accuracy. However, the ellipsoidal height h, obtained through this straight-
forward transformation, has no physical meaning and does not correspond to
intuitive human perception of height. We therefore use the height H, above 3D spatial referencing
the Geoid (see Figure 4.8). It is foreseeable that global 3D spatial referencing,
in terms of (φ, λ, H), could become ubiquitous in the next 10–15 years. If all
published maps are also globally referenced by that time, the underlying spa-
tial referencing concepts will become transparent and hence redundant for GIS
users.
Hundreds of existing local horizontal and vertical datums are still relevant be-
cause they form the basis of map products all over the world. For the next few
years we will be required to deal with both local and global datums until the
former are eventually phased out. During the transition period, we will require
tools to transform coordinates from local horizontal datums to a global hori-
3
In the case of an idealized spherical Earth it is one of the focal points of the elliptical orbits.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 205
topography topography
h H

b Figure 4.8: Height h

above the geocentric
geocentre
ellipsoid, and height H
geocentre a
above the Geoid. The first
is measured orthogonal to
the ellipsoid, the second
ellipsoid geoid
orthogonal to the Geoid.

zontal datum and vice versa (see Section 4.1.4). The organizations that usually
develop transformation tools and make them available to the user community
are provincial or National Mapping Organizations (NMOs) and cadastral au-
thorities.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 206
4.1.2 Coordinate systems

As mentioned before, the special nature of spatial data obviously lies in it being
spatially referenced. Different kinds of coordinate systems are used to position
data in space. Here we distinguish between spatial and planar coordinate sys-
tems. Spatial (or global) coordinate systems are used to locate data either on the
Earth’s surface in a 3D space, or on the Earth’s reference surface (ellipsoid or Spatial and planar
sphere) in a 2D space. Below we discuss the geographic coordinate system in a coordinate systems
2D and 3D space and the geocentric coordinate system, also known as the 3D
Cartesian coordinate system. Planar coordinate systems on the other hand are
used to locate data on the flat surface of the map in a 2D space. We will discuss
the 2D Cartesian coordinate system and the 2D polar coordinate system.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 207
2D Geographic coordinates (φ, λ)

The most widely used global coordinate system consists of lines of geographic
latitude (phi or φ or ϕ) and longitude (lambda or λ). Lines of equal latitude are
called parallels. They form circles on the surface of the ellipsoid4 . Lines of equal Latitude and longitude
longitude are called meridians and they form ellipses (meridian ellipses) on the
ellipsoid. (Figure 4.9)

N
90°
north
latitude 55°

40°

20°

0° 55°
equ
ator 45° 0°

45°W west east de

longitude longitu

south Figure 4.9: The latitude

latitude
(φ) and longitude (λ) an-
90°
gles represent the 2D ge-
S
ographic coordinate sys-
tem.

The latitude (φ) of a point P (Figure 4.10) is the angle between the ellipsoidal
4
The concept of geographic coordinates can also be applied to a sphere.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 208
normal through P ’ and the equatorial plane. Latitude is zero on the equator
(φ = 0◦ ), and increases towards the two poles to maximum values of φ = +90◦
(N 90◦ ) at the North Pole and φ = -90◦ (S 90◦ ) at the South Pole.
The longitude (λ) is the angle between the meridian ellipse which passes through
Greenwich and the meridian ellipse containing the point in question. It is mea-
sured in the equatorial plane from the meridian of Greenwich (λ = 0◦ ) either
eastwards through λ = + 180◦ (E 180◦ ) or westwards through λ = -180◦ (W 180◦ ).
Latitude and longitude represent the geographic coordinates (φ, λ) of a point
P ’ (Figure 4.10) with respect to the selected reference surface. They are always
given in angular units. For example, the coordinates for City hall in Enschede
are:5

φ = 52◦ 130 26.200 N, λ = 6◦ 530 32.100 E

The graticule on a map represents the projected position of the geographic co-
ordinates (φ, λ) at constant intervals, or in other words the projected position Graticule
of selected meridians and parallels (Figure 4.13). The shape of the graticule de-
pends largely on the characteristics of the map projection and the scale of the
map.

5
This latitude and longitude refers to the Amersfoort datum. The use of a different reference
surface will result in a different latitude and longitude angle.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 209
3D Geographic coordinates (φ, λ, h)

3D geographic coordinates (φ, λ, h) are obtained by introducing the ellipsoidal

height h to the system. The ellipsoidal height (h) of a point is the vertical distance
of the point in question above the ellipsoid. It is measured in distance units along
the ellipsoidal normal from the point to the ellipsoid surface. 3D geographic
coordinates can be used to define a position on the surface of the Earth (point P
in Figure 4.10).

n
P
ridia

P’ h
h me

φ
greenwic

Figure 4.10: The latitude

r
λ at o (φ) and longitude (λ) an-
equ
gles and the ellipsoidal
height (h) represent the
3D geographic coordinate
system.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 210
3D Geocentric coordinates (X, Y, Z)

An alternative method of defining a 3D position on the surface of the Earth is

by means of geocentric coordinates (X, Y, Z), also known as 3D Cartesian coordi-
nates. The system has its origin at the mass-centre of the Earth with the X and
Y axes in the plane of the equator. The X-axis passes through the meridian of
Greenwich, and the Z-axis coincides with the Earth’s axis of rotation. The three
axes are mutually orthogonal and form a right-handed system. Geocentric coor-
dinates can be used to define a position on the surface of the Earth (point P in
Figure 4.11).
It should be noted that the rotational axis of the earth changes its position over
time (referred to as polar motion). To compensate for this, the mean position of Polar motion
the pole in the year 1903 (based on observations between 1900 and 1905) has
been used to define the so-called ‘Conventional International Origin’ (CIO).

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4.1. Spatial referencing 211

Z
CIO

n
idia
P
mer

Zp
greenwich

Y
Xp
Yp Figure 4.11: An illustra-
r
equato tion of the 3D geocentric
coordinate system (see
text for further explana-
X
tion).

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4.1. Spatial referencing 212
2D Cartesian coordinates (X, Y )

A flat map has only two dimensions: width (left to right) and length (bottom
to top). Transforming the three dimensional Earth into a two-dimensional map
is subject of map projections and coordinate transformations (Section 4.1.3 and
Section 4.1.4). Here, like in several other cartographic applications, two-dimensio-
nal Cartesian coordinates (x, y), also known as planar rectangular coordinates, are
used to describe the location of any point unambiguously.
The 2D Cartesian coordinate system is a system of intersecting perpendicular
lines, which contains two principal axes, called the X- and Y -axis. The hori-
zontal axis is usually referred to as the X-axis and the vertical the Y -axis (Note
that the X-axis is also sometimes called Easting and the Y -axis the Northing). Eastings, Northings and
The intersection of the X and Y -axis forms the origin. The plane is marked at map grid
intervals by equally spaced coordinate lines, called the map grid .

y
P (244,249)

Figure 4.12: An illustra-

tion of the 2D Cartesian
coordinate system (see
origin text for further explana-
x tion).

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4.1. Spatial referencing 213
Given two numerical coordinates x and y for point P , one can now precisely and
objectively specify any location P on the map (Figure 4.12).
Normally, the coordinates x=0 and y=0 are given to the origin. However, some-
times large positive values are added to the origin coordinates.This is to avoid
negative values for the x and y coordinates in case the origin of the coordinate False origin
system is located inside the area of interest. The point which then has the coor-
dinates x=0 and y=0 is called the false origin.
An example is the coordinate system used in the Netherlands. It is called Rijks-
driehoekstelsel (RD). The system is based on the azimuthal stereographic projec-
tion (see Section 4.1.3) and the Bessel ellipsoid is used as reference surface. The
origin of the coordinate system has been shifted (false origin) from the projec-
tion centre (Amersfoort) towards the south-west to avoid negative coordinates
inside the country (see Figure 4.13).
The grid on a map represents lines having constant 2D Cartesian coordinates
(Figure 4.13). It is almost always a rectangular system and is used on large and
medium scale maps to enable detailed calculations and positioning. The map
grid is usually not used on small scale maps (about one to a million or smaller).
Scale distortions that result from transforming the Earth’s curved surface to the
map plane are so great on small-scale maps that detailed calculations and posi-
tioning are difficult.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 214

600
Y

500
Amsterdam Amersfoort
52°N

400

Brussel Bonn
300

50°N
200

Figure 4.13: The co-

ordinate system of the
Paris
100 Netherlands represented
by the map grid and the
graticule map grid
graticule. The origin of
48°N 0
the coordinate system has
X been shifted (false origin)
from the projection centre
0 100 200 300
(Amersfoort) towards the
2°30’E 5°E 7°30’E
South-West.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 215
2D Polar coordinates (α, d)

Another possibility of defining a point in a plane is by polar coordinates. This

is the distance d from the origin to the point concerned and the angle α between
a fixed (or zero) direction and the direction to the point. The angle α is called Bearing or azimuth
azimuth or bearing and is measured in a clockwise direction. It is given in angular
units while the distance d is expressed in length units.

Initial bearing

P1(45°, 345)

α = 45°
d=345 Figure 4.14: An illustra-
tion of the 2D Polar coor-
dinate system (see text for
Origin further explanation).

Bearings are always related to a fixed direction (initial bearing) or a datum line.
In principle, this reference line can be chosen freely. However, in practice three
different directions are widely used: True North, Grid North and Magnetic North.
The corresponding bearings are called: true (or geodetic) bearing, grid bearing
and magnetic (or compass) bearing.
Polar coordinates are often used in land surveying. For some types of survey-
ing instruments it is advantageous to make use of this coordinate system. The

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4.1. Spatial referencing 216
development of precise remote distance measurement techniques has led to the
virtually universal preference for the polar coordinate method in detailed sur-
veys.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 217
4.1.3 Map projections

Maps are one of the world’s oldest types of document. For quite some time
it was thought that our planet was flat, and during those days, a map simply
was a miniature representation of a part of the world. Now that we know that
the Earth’s surface is curved in a specific way, we know that a map is in fact a
flattened representation of some part of the planet. The field of map projections
concerns itself with the ways of translating the curved surface of the Earth into
a flat map.

A map projection is a mathematically described technique of how to repre-

sent the Earth’s curved surface on a flat map.

To represent parts of the surface of the Earth on a flat paper map or on a com-
puter screen, the curved horizontal reference surface must be mapped onto the
2D mapping plane. The reference surface for large-scale mapping is usually an
oblate ellipsoid, and for small-scale mapping, a sphere.6 Mapping onto a 2D
mapping plane means transforming each point on the reference surface with ge-
ographic coordinates (φ, λ) to a set of Cartesian coordinates (x, y) representing
positions on the map plane (Figure 4.15).

The actual mapping cannot usually be visualized as a true geometric projection,

directly onto the mapping plane (Figure 4.15). This is achieved through map-
ping equations. A forward mapping equation transforms the geographic coordi- Mapping equations
6
In practice, maps at scale 1:1,000,000 or smaller can use the mathematically simpler sphere
without the risk of large distortions. At larger scales, the more complicated mathematics of
ellipsoids are needed to prevent these distortions in the map.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 218

Map plane
Y

P(x,y)
P'(x,y)

P’(φ,λ)
X
Figure 4.15: Example of
φ a map projection where
the reference surface with
λ geographic coordinates
(φ, λ) is projected onto the
2D mapping plane with
Reference surface 2D Cartesian coordinates
(x, y).

nates (φ, λ) of a point on the curved reference surface to a set of planar Cartesian
coordinates (x, y), representing the position of the same point on the map plane:

(x, y) = f (φ, λ)

The corresponding inverse mapping equation transforms mathematically the pla-

nar Cartesian coordinates (x, y) of a point on the map plane to a set of geographic

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4.1. Spatial referencing 219
coordinates (φ, λ) on the curved reference surface:

(φ, λ) = f (x, y)

An example is the mapping equations used for the Mercator projection (spheri-
cal assumption) [51]. The forward mapping equation for the Mercator projection
is:7

x = R(λ − λ0 )

π φ
y = R(ln(tan( + )))
4 2

The inverse mapping equation for the Mercator projection is:

π −y
φ= − 2 arctan(e R )
2

x
λ= + λ0
R

7
The equations are considerably more complicated than those introduced here when an ellip-
soid is used as reference surface. R is the radius of the spherical reference surface at the scale of
the map; φ and λ are given in radians; λ0 is the central meridian of the projection; e = 2.7182818,
the base of the natural logarithms, not the eccentricity.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 220
Classification of map projections

Hundreds of map projections have been developed, each with its own specific
qualities. These qualities in turn make resulting maps useful for certain pur-
poses. By definition, any map projection is associated with scale distortions.
There is simply no way to flatten out a piece of ellipsoidal or spherical surface Scale distortions
without stretching some parts of the surface more than others. The amount and
which kind of distortions a map will have depends on the type of the map pro-
jection that has been selected.
Some map projections can be visualized as true geometric projections directly
onto the mapping plane, in which case we call it an azimuthal projection, or Intermediate surfaces
onto an intermediate surface, which is then rolled out into the mapping plane.
Typical choices for such intermediate surfaces are cones and cylinders. Such
map projections are then called conical, and cylindrical, respectively. Figure 4.16
shows the surfaces involved in these three classes of projections.
The planar, conical, and cylindrical surfaces in Figure 4.16 are all tangent sur-
faces; they touch the horizontal reference surface in one point (plane) or along a
closed line (cone and cylinder) only. Another class of projections is obtained if
the surfaces are chosen to be secant to (to intersect with) the horizontal reference
surface; illustrations are in Figure 4.17. Then, the reference surface is intersected
along one closed line (plane) or two closed lines (cone and cylinder). Secant
map surfaces are used to reduce or average out scale errors because the line(s)
of intersection are not distorted on the map.
In the geometric depiction of map projections in Figures 4.16 and 4.17, the sym-
metry axes of the plane, cone and cylinder coincide with the rotation axis of the

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4.1. Spatial referencing 221

Figure 4.16: Classes of

Cylindrical Conical Azimuthal map projections

Figure 4.17: Three secant

Cylindrical Conical Azimuthal projection classes

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4.1. Spatial referencing 222

Figure 4.18: A transverse

Transverse cylindrical Oblique conical and an oblique projection

ellipsoid or sphere, i.e. a line through N and S pole. In this case, the projection
is said to be a normal projection. The other cases are transverse projections (sym- Normal, transverse, and
metry axis in the equator) and oblique projections (symmetry axis is somewhere oblique projections
between the rotation axis and equator of the ellipsoid or sphere). These cases are
illustrated in Figure 4.18.
The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) uses a transverse cylinder, secant to
the horizontal reference surface. UTM is an important projection used world-
wide. The projection is a derivation from the Transverse Mercator projection
(also known as Gauss-Kruger or Gauss conformal projection). The UTM divides UTM
the world into 60 narrow longitudinal zones of 6 degrees, numbered from 1 to
60. The narrow zones of 6 degrees (and the secant map surface) make the distor-
tions small enough for large scale topographic mapping.
Normal cylindrical projections are typically used to map the world in its entirety.
Conical projections are often used to map the different continents, while the nor-
mal azimuthal projection may be used to map the polar areas. Transverse and
oblique aspects of many projections can be used for most parts of the world.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 223
It is also of importance to consider the shape of the area to be mapped. Ideally,
the general shape of the mapping area should match with the distortion pattern
of a specific projection. If an area is approximately circular it is possible to cre-
ate a map that minimises distortion for that area on the basis of an azimuthal
projection. The cylindrical projection is best for a rectangular area and a conic
projection for a triangular area.
So far, we have not specified how the curved horizontal reference surface is pro-
jected onto the plane, cone or cylinder. How this is done determines which kind
of distortions the map will have compared to the original curved reference sur-
face. The distortion properties of a map are typically classified according to what
is not distorted on the map:

• In a conformal map projection the angles between lines in the map are iden-
tical to the angles between the original lines on the curved reference sur-
face. This means that angles (with short sides) and shapes (of small areas)
are shown correctly on the map.
• In an equal–area (equivalent) map projection the areas in the map are -
identical to the areas on the curved reference surface (taking into account Distortion properties
the map scale), which means that areas are represented correctly on the
map.
• In an equidistant map projection the length of particular lines in the map are
the same as the length of the original lines on the curved reference surface
(taking into account the map scale).

A particular map projection can have any one of these three properties. No map
projection can be both conformal and equal–area, for example.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 224
The most appropriate type of distortion property for a map depends largely on
the purpose for which it will be used. Conformal map projections represent an-
gles correctly, but as the region becomes larger, they show considerable area dis-
tortions (Figure 4.19). Maps used for the measurement of angles (e.g. aeronau-
tical charts, topographic maps) often make use of a conformal map projection
such as the UTM projection.

Figure 4.19: The Merca-

tor projection, a cylindrical
map projection with a con-
formal property. The area
distortions are significant
towards the polar regions.

Equal-area projections on the other hand, represent areas correctly, but as the
region becomes larger, it shows considerable distortions of angles and conse-
quently shapes (Figure 4.20). Maps which are to be used for measuring area

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4.1. Spatial referencing 225
(e.g. distribution maps) often make use of an equal-area map projection.

Figure 4.20: The cylindri-

cal equal-area projection,
a cylindrical map projec-
tion with an equal-area
property. The shape dis-
tortions are significant to-
wards the polar regions.

The equidistant property is achievable only to a limited degree. That is, true
distances can be shown only from one or two points to any other point on the
map or in certain directions. If a map is true to scale along the meridians (i.e.
no distortion in North-South direction) we say that the map is equidistant along
the meridians (e.g. the equidistant cylindrical projection) (Figure 4.21). If a map
is true to scale along all parallels we say the map is equidistant along the parallels
(i.e. no distortion in East-West direction). Maps which require reasonable area
and angle distortions (several thematic maps) often make use of an equidistant
map projection.
Based on these discussions, a particular map projection can be classified. An ex-
ample would be the classification ‘conformal conic projection with two standard
parallels’ having the meaning that the projection is a conformal map projection,
that the intermediate surface is a cone, and that the cone intersects the ellipsoid
(or sphere) along two parallels; i.e. the cone is secant and the cone’s symme-
try axis is parallel to the rotation axis. (This would amount to the projection of
Figure 4.17, middle.)
Often, a particular type of map projection is also named after its inventor (or

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4.1. Spatial referencing 226
Figure 4.21: The equidis-
tant cylindrical projection
(also called Plate Carrée
projection), a cylindrical
map projection with an
equidistant property. The
map is equidistant (true
to scale) along the merid-
ians. Both shape and area
are reasonably well pre-
served.

first publisher). For example, the ‘conformal conic projection with two standard
parallels’ is also referred to as ‘Lambert’s conical projection’ [24].

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4.1. Spatial referencing 227
4.1.4 Coordinate transformations

Map and GIS users are mostly confronted in their work with transformations
from one two-dimensional coordinate system to another. This includes the trans-
formation of polar coordinates delivered by the surveyor into Cartesian map
coordinates or the transformation from one 2D Cartesian (x, y) system of a spe-
cific map projection into another 2D Cartesian (x0 , y 0 ) system of a defined map
projection.
Datum transformations are transformations from a 3D coordinate system (i.e.
horizontal datum) into another 3D coordinate system. These kinds of transfor-
mations are also important for map and GIS users. They are usually collecting
spatial data in the field using satellite navigation technology and need to repre-
sent this data on published map on a local horizontal datum.
We may relate an unknown coordinate system to a known coordinate system
on the basis of a set of selected points whose coordinates are known in both
systems. These points may be ground control points (GCPs) or common points
such as corners of houses or road intersections, as long as they have known
coordinates in both systems. Image and scanned data are usually transformed
by this method. The transformations may be conformal, affine, polynomial, or
of another type, depending on the geometric errors in the data set. These type of
2D Cartesian transformations are not covered in this textbook, but are discussed
in Principles of Remote Sensing [53].

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4.1. Spatial referencing 228
2D Polar to 2D Cartesian transformations

The transformation of polar coordinates (α, d), into Cartesian map coordinates
(x, y) is done when field measurements, angular and distance measurements are
transformed into map coordinates. The equation for this transformation is:

x = d(sin(a))

y = d(cos(a))

The inverse equation is:

x
a = tan−1 ( )
y

d 2 = x2 + y 2

A more realistic case makes use of a translation and a rotation to transform one
system to the other.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 229
Changing map projection

Forward and inverse mapping equations are normally used to transform data
from one map projection to another. The inverse equation of the source projec-
tion is used first to transform source projection coordinates (x, y) to geographic
coordinates (φ, λ). Next, the forward equation of the target projection is used
to transform the geographic coordinates (φ, λ) into target projection coordinates
(x0 , y 0 ). The first equation takes us from a projection A into geographic coordi-
nates. The second takes us from geographic coordinates (φ, λ) to another map
projection B. These principles are illustrated in Figure 4.22.
Historically, a GIS has handled data referenced spatially with respect to the (x, y)
coordinates of a specific map projection. For GIS application domains requiring
3D spatial referencing, a height coordinate may be added to the (x, y) coordinate
of the point. The additional height coordinate can be a height H above mean sea
level, which is a height with a physical meaning. These (x, y, H) coordinates can
be used to represent the location of objects in a 3D GIS.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 230

North pole

ian
rid
me
ich
f equator

greenw
l
R

Cartesian reference Cartesian reference

coordinate system I coordinate system II

y y
P (244,249)
P (208,309)

Figure 4.22: The principle

origin
x origin
x of changing from one map
Projection A Projection B projection into another.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 231
Datum transformations

A change of map projection may also include a change of the horizontal datum.
This is the case when the source projection is based upon a different horizon-
tal datum than the target projection. If the difference in horizontal datums is
ignored, there will not be a perfect match between adjacent maps of neighbour-
ing countries or between overlaid maps originating from different projections.
It may result in up to several hundred metres difference in the resulting coordi-
nates. Therefore, spatial data with different underlying horizontal datums may
need a so-called datum transformation.
Suppose we wish to transform spatial data from the UTM projection to the Dutch
RD system, and that the data in the UTM system are related to the European
Datum 1950 (ED50), while the Dutch RD system is based on the Amersfoort
datum. In this example the change of map projection should be combined with a
datum transformation step for a perfect match. This is illustrated in Figure 4.23.
The inverse equation of projection A is used first to take us from the map coor-
dinates (x, y) of projection A to the geographic coordinates (φ, λ, h) in datum A.
A height coordinate (h or H) may be added to the (x, y) map coordinates. Next,
the datum transformation takes us from these coordinates to the geographic co-
ordinates (φ, λ, h) in datum B. Finally, the forward equation of projection B is
used to take us from the geographic coordinates (φ, λ, h) in datum B to the map
coordinates (x0 , y 0 ) of projection B.
Mathematically a datum transformation is feasible via the geocentric coordi-
nates (x, y, z), or directly by relating the geographic coordinates of both datum
systems. The latter relates the ellipsoidal latitude (φ) and longitude (λ), and

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4.1. Spatial referencing 232

z z

Datum A Datum B

b b
h h
y y

a a

x x

Figure 4.23: The principle

of changing from one pro-
jection into another, com-
bined with a datum trans-
formation from datum A to
datum B.

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4.1. Spatial referencing 233
possibly also the ellipsoidal height (h), of both datum systems [28].
We can easily transform geographic coordinates (φ, λ, h) into geocentric coor-
dinates (x, y, z), and the other way around. The datum transformation via the
geocentric coordinates implies a 3D similarity transformation. Essentially, this is
a transformation between two orthogonal 3D Cartesian spatial reference frames
together with some elementary tools from adjustment theory. The transforma-
tion is usually expressed with seven parameters: three rotation angles (α, β, γ),
three origin shifts (X0 , Y0 , Z0 ) and one scale factor (s). The input in the process
are coordinates of points in datum A and coordinates of the same points in da-
tum B. The output is an estimate of the seven transformation parameters and a
measure of the likely error of the estimate.
Datum transformation parameters have to be estimated on the basis of a set of
selected points whose coordinates are known in both datum systems. If the co-
ordinates of these 5 points are not correct–often the case for points measured on
a local datum system–the estimated parameters may be inaccurate. As a result
the datum transformation will be inaccurate. This is often the case when we Datum transformation
transform coordinates from a local horizontal datum to a global geocentric da- parameters
tum. The coordinates in the local horizontal datum may be distorted by several
tens of metres because of the inherent inaccuracies of the measurements used in
the triangulation network. These inherent inaccuracies are also responsible for
another complication: the transformation parameters are not unique. Their esti-
mate will depend on which particular common points are chosen, and they also
will depend on whether all seven transformation parameters, or only a sub-set
of them, are estimated.
Here is an illustration of what we may expect. The example below is concerned

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4.1. Spatial referencing 234
Parameter National set Provincial set NIMA set Table 4.2: Three different
sets of datum transforma-
scale s 1 − 8.3 · 10−6 1 − 9.2 · 10−6 1
tion parameters from three
angles α +1.0400 +0.3200
different organizations for
β +0.3500 +3.1800 transforming a point from
γ −3.0800 −0.9100 ITRF to the Potsdam da-
shifts X0 −581.99 m −518.19 m −635 m tum.
Y0 −105.01 m −43.58 m −27 m
Z0 −414.00 m −466.14 m −450 m

with the transformation of the Cartesian coordinates of a point in the state of Ba-
den-Württemberg, Germany, from ITRF to Cartesian coordinates in the Potsdam
Datum. Sets of numerical values for the transformation parameters are available
from three organizations:

1. The set provided by the federal mapping organization of Germany (la-

belled ‘National set’ in Table 4.2) was calculated using common points dis-
tributed throughout Germany. This set contains all seven parameters and
is valid for all of Germany.

2. The set provided by the mapping organization of Baden-Württemberg (la-

belled ‘Provincial set’ in Table 4.2) has been calculated using common points
distributed throughout the province of Baden-Württemberg. This set con-
tains all seven parameters and is valid only within the borders of that
province.

3. The set provided by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA)
of the USA (labelled ‘NIMA set’ in Table 4.2) has been calculated using

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4.1. Spatial referencing 235
common points distributed throughout Germany and based on the ITRF.
This set contains a coordinate shift only (no rotations, and scale equals
unity). It is valid for all of Germany.

The three sets of transformation parameters vary by several tens of metres, for
the aforementioned reasons. These sets of transformation parameters have been
used to transform the ITRF cartesian coordinates of a point in the state of Baden-
Württemberg. The ITRF (X, Y, Z) coordinates are:

(4, 156, 939.96 m, 671, 428.74 m, 4, 774, 958.21 m).

The three sets of transformed coordinates in the Potsdam datum are given in
Table 4.3. It is obvious that the three sets of transformed coordinates agree at the
level of a few metres. In a different country, the agreement could be at the level
of centimetres, or tens of metres and this depends primarily on the quality of
implementation of the local horizontal datum. It is advisable that GIS users act
with caution when dealing with datum transformations and that they consult
with their national mapping organization, wherever appropriate.

Potsdam coordinates National set Provincial set NIMA set Table 4.3: Three sets of
transformed coordinates
X 4, 156, 305.32 m 4, 156, 306.94 m 4, 156, 304.96 m
for a point in the state of
Y 671, 404.31 m 671, 404.64 m 671, 401.74 m
Baden-Württemberg.
Z 4, 774, 508.25 m 4, 774, 511.10 m 4, 774, 508.21 m

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 236
4.2 Satellite-based positioning

The previous section has noted the importance of satellites in spatial referencing.
Sattelites have allowed us to realize geocentric reference systems, and increase
the level of spatial accuracy substantially. They are critical tools in geodetic en-
gineering for the maintenance of the ITRF. They also play a key role in mapping,
surveying, and in a growing number of applications requiring positioning tech-
niques. Nowadays, for fieldwork that includes spatial data acquisition, the use
of satellite-based positioning is considered indispensable.
Satellite-based positioning was developed and implemented to address military
needs, somewhat analogously to the early development of the internet. The
technology is now widely available for civilians use. The requirements for the
development of the positioning system were:

• Suitability for all kinds of military use: ground troops and vehicles, aircraft
and missiles, ships;

• Requiring only low-cost equipment with low energy consumption at the

receiver end;

• Provision of results in real time for an unlimited number of users concur-

rently;

• Support for different levels of accuracy (military versus civilian);

• Around-the-clock and weather-proof availability;

• Use of a single geodetic datum;

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 237
• Protection against intentional and unintentional disturbance, for instance,
through a design allowing for redundancy.

A satellite-based positioning system set-up involves implementation of three

hardware segments:

1. The space segment, i.e. the satellites that orbit the Earth, and the radio sig-
nals that they emit,

2. The control segment, i.e. the ground stations that monitor and maintain the
space segment components, and

3. The user segment, i.e. the users with their hard- and software to conduct
positioning.

In satellite positioning, the central problem is to determine values (X, Y, Z) of

a receiver that receives satellite signals, i.e. to determine the position of the re-
ceiver with a stated accuracy and precision. Required accuracy and precision
depends on the application; timeliness, i.e. are the position values required in
real time or can they be determined later during post-processing, also varies be-
tween applications. Finally, some applications like navigation require kinematic
approaches, which take into account the fact that the receiver is not stationary,
but is moving.
In the remainder of this section, we discuss some of the fundamentals of satellite-
based positioning, having in mind especially the geoscientist that wants to make
use of it.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 238
4.2.1 Absolute positioning

The working principles of absolute, satellite-based positioning are fairly simple:

1. A satellite, equipped with a clock, at a specific moment sends a radio mes-

sage that includes

(a) the satellite identifier,

(b) its position in orbit, and
(c) its clock reading.

2. A receiver on or above the planet, also equipped with a clock, receives the
message slightly later, and reads its own clock.

3. From the time delay observed between the two clock readings, and know-
ing the speed of radio transmission through the medium between (satel-
lite) sender and receiver, the receiver can compute the distance to the sender,
also known as the satellite’s pseudorange.

The pseudorange of a satellite with respect to a receiver, is its apparent

distance to the receiver, computed from the time delay with which its radio
signal is received.

Such a computation determines the position of the receiver to be on a sphere

of radius equal to the computed pseudorange (refer to Figure 4.24(a)). If the

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 239
receiver instantaneously would do the same with a message of another satel-
lite that is positioned elsewhere, the position of the receiver is restricted to an-
other sphere. The intersection of the two spheres, which have different cen-
tres, determines a circle as the set of possible positions of the receiver (refer to
Figure 4.24(b)). If a third satellite message is taken into consideration, the inter- Trilateration
section of three spheres determines at most two positions, one of which is the
actual position of the receiver. In most, if not all, practical situations where two
positions result, one of them is a highly unlikely position for a signal receiver.
The overall procedure is known as trilateration: the determination of a position
based on three distances.
Figure 4.24:
Pseudorange positioning:
(a) With just one satellite
the position is determined
by a sphere, (b) With two
satellites, it is determined
by the intersection of two
spheres, a circle. Not
shown: with three satel-
lites, it is the intersection
(a) (b) of three spheres.

It would appear therefore that the signals of three satellites would suffice to de-
termine a positional fix for our receiver. In theory this is true, but in practice it is
not. The reason is that we have made the assumption that all satellite clocks as
well as our receiver clock are fully synchronized, where in fact they are not. The
satellite clocks are costly, high-precision, atomic clocks that we can consider syn- Clock bias
chronized for the time being, but the receiver typically has a far cheaper, quartz

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 240
clock that is not synchronized with the satellite clocks. This brings into play an
additional unknown parameter, namely the synchronization bias of the receiver
clock, i.e. the difference in time reading between it and the satellite clocks.
Our set of unknown variables has now become (X, Y, Z, ∆t) representing a 3D
position and a clock bias. By including the information obtained from a fourth
satellite message, we can solve the problem (see Figure 4.25). This will result 3D positioning
in the determination of the receiver’s actual position (X, Y, Z), as well as its re-
ceiver clock bias ∆t, and if we correct the receiver clock for this bias we effec-
tively turn it into a high-precision, atomic clock as well!
Obtaining a high-precision clock is a fortunate side-effect of using the receiver, as
it allows the design of experiments distributed in geographic space that demand
high levels of synchrony. One such application is the use of wireless sensor net-
works for various natural phenomena like earthquakes, meteorological patterns
or in water management.
Another application is in the positioning of mobile phone users making an emer-
gency call. Often the caller does not know their location accurately. The tele-
phone company can trace back the call to the receiving transmitter mast, but
this may be servicing an area with a radius of 300 m to 6 km. That is too inac-
curate a position for an emergency ambulance to go to. However, if all masts
in the telephony network are equipped with a satellite positioning receiver (and
thus, with a very good, synchronized clock) the time of reception of the call at
each mast can be recorded. The time difference of arrival of the call between two
nearby masts determines a hyperbola on the ground of possible positions of the
caller; if the call is received on three masts, we would have two hyperbolas, al-
lowing intersection, and thus ‘hyperbolic positioning’. With current technology

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 241
the (horizontal) accuracy would be better than 30 m.
Returning to the subject of satellite-based positioning, when only three and not
four satellites are ‘in view’, the receiver is capable of falling back from the above
3D positioning mode to the inferior 2D positioning mode. With the relative abun- 2D positioning mode
dance of satellites in orbit around the earth, this is a relatively rare situation, but
it serves to illustrate the importance of 3D positioning.
If a 3D fix has already been obtained, the receiver simply assumes that the height
above the ellipsoid has not changed since the last 3D fix. If no fix had yet been
obtained, the receiver assumes that it is positioned at the geocentric ellipsoid
adopted by the positioning system, i.e. at height h=0.8 In the receiver compu-
tations, the ellipsoid fills the slot of the missing fourth satellite sphere, and the
unknown variables can therefore still be determined. Clearly in both of these
cases, the assumption for this computation is flawed and the positioning results
in 2D mode will be unreliable—much more so if no previous fix had been ob-
tained and one’s receiver is not at all near the surface of the geocentric ellipsoid.

8
Any receiver is capable of transforming a triad (X, Y, Z), using a straightforward mathemat-
ical transformation, into an equivalent triad (φ, λ, h), where h is the height above the geocentric
ellipsoid.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 242

Figure 4.25: Four satel-

lites are needed to ob-
tain a 3D position fix.
Pseudoranges are indi-
Pseudo-
Range cated for each satellite as
dashed circles represent-
ing a sphere, as well as
Receiver the actual range as a nor-
Clock Bias
mal circle, being the pseu-
dorange plus the range
error caused by receiver
clock bias.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 243
Time, clocks and world time

During most of human history, the determination of time and position have gone
hand in hand. This was probably true of many civilizations in Asia and Arabia
before the Christian calendar as witnessed by remnants of various time keeping
constructions, as well as for early civilizations in Latin America; it was certainly
true for the European seafarer explorers of the 15th through to the 18th century.
While latitude was determined with a sextant from the position of the Sun in the
sky, they carried clocks with them to determine the longitude of their position.
Early ship clocks were notoriously unreliable, having a drift of multiple seconds
a day, which could result in positional error of a few kilometres.
Before any notion of standard time existed, villages and cities simply kept track
of their local time determined from position of the Sun in the sky. When trains
became an important means of transportation, these local time systems became
problematic as the schedules required a single time system. Such a time system
needed the definition of time zones: typically as 24 geographic strips between Greenwich mean time
certain longitudes that are multiples of 15◦ . This all gave rise to Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT). GMT was the world time standard of choice. It was a system based
on the mean solar time at the meridian of Greenwich, United Kingdom, which
is the conventional 0-meridian in geography.
GMT was later replaced by Universal Time (UT), a system still based on merid-
ian crossings of stars, but now of far away quasars as this provides more accu-
racy than that of the Sun. It is still the case that the rotational velocity of our
planet is not constant and the length of a solar day is increasing. So UT is not
a perfect system either. It continues to be used for civil clock time, but it is offi-
cially now replaced by International Atomic Time (TAI). UT actually has various

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 244
versions, amongst which are UT0, UT1 and UTC. UT0 is the Earth rotational time
observed in some location. Because the Earth experiences polar motion as well,
UT0 differs between locations. If we correct for polar motion, we obtain UT1,
which is identical everywhere. It is still a somewhat erratic clock because of the
earlier mentioned varying rotational velocity of the planet. The uncertainty is
about 3 msec per day.
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is used in satellite positioning, and is main-
tained with atomic clocks. By convention, it is always within a margin of 0.9 sec
of UT1, and twice annually it may be given a shift to stay within that margin.
This occasional shift of a leap second is applied at the end of June 30 or preferably
at the end of December 31. The last minute of such a day is then either 59 or UTC
61 seconds long. So far, adjustments have always been to add a second. UTC
time can only be determined to the highest precision after the fact, as atomic
time is determined by the reconciliation of the observed differences between a
number of atomic clocks maintained by different national time bureaus.
In recent years we have learned to measure distance, therefore also position,
with clocks using satellite signals. The conversion factor is the speed of light,
approximately 3 · 108 m/s in vacuum. No longer can multiple seconds of clock
bias be allowed, and this is where atomic clocks come in. They are very accurate Atomic clocks
time keepers, based on the exactly known frequency with which specific atoms
(Cesium, Rubidium and Hydrogen) make discrete energy state jumps. Posi-
tioning satellites usually have multiple clocks on board; ground control stations
have even better quality atomic clocks.
Atomic clocks, however, are not flawless: their timing tends to drift away from
true time somewhat, and they too need to be corrected. The drift, and the change

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 245
in drift over time, are monitored, and are part of the satellite’s navigation mes-
sage, so that they can be corrected for.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 246
4.2.2 Errors in absolute positioning

Before we continue discussing other modes of satellite-based positioning, let us

take a close look at the potential for error in absolute positioning. Receiver users
are required to be sufficiently familiar with the technology in order to avoid
true operating blunders such as bad receiver placement or incorrect receiver
software settings, which can render the results virtually useless. We will skip
over many of the physical and mathematical details underlying these errors, but
they are mentioned here to raise awareness and understanding with users of
this technology. For background information on the calculation of positional er-
ror ( specifically, the calculation of RMSE or root mean square error), readers are
referred to Section 5.2.2.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 247
Errors related to the space segment

As a first source of error, the operators of the control segment may intentionally
deteriorate radio signals of the satellites to the general public, to avoid optimal
use of the system by the enemy, for instance in times of global political tension
and war. This selective availability—meaning that the military forces allied with
the control segment will still have access to undisturbed signals—may cause er-
ror that is an order of magnitude larger than all other error sources combined.9
Secondly, the satellite message may contain incorrect information. Assuming
that it will always know its own identifier, the satellite may make two kinds of
error:

1. Incorrect clock reading: Even atomic clocks can be off by a small margin,
and since Einstein, we know that travelling clocks are slower than resident
clocks, due to a so-called relativistic effect. If one understands that a clock
that is off by 0.000001 sec causes an computation error in the satellite’s
pseudorange of approximately 300 m, it is clear that these satellite clocks
require very strict monitoring.

2. Incorrect orbit position: The orbit of a satellite around our planet is easy to
describe mathematically if both bodies are considered point masses, but
in real life they are not. For the same reasons that the Geoid is not a sim-
ply shaped surface, the Earth’s gravitation field that a satellite experiences
9
Selective availability was stopped at the beginning of May 2000, and in late 2007 the White
House decided to remove selective availability capabilities completely. However, the US gov-
ernment still has a range of capabilities and technology to implement regional denial of service
of civilian GPS signals when needed in an area of conflict, effectively producing the same result.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 248
in orbit is not simple either. Moreover, it is disturbed by solar and lunar
gravitation, making its flight path slightly erratic and difficult to forecast
exactly.

Both types of error are strictly monitored by the ground control segment, which
is responsible for correcting any errors of this nature, but it does so by apply-
ing an agreed upon tolerance. A control station can obviously compare results
of positioning computations like discussed above with its accurately known po-
sition, flagging any unacceptable errors, and potentially labelling a satellite as
temporarily ‘unhealthy’ until errors have been corrected, and brought to within
the tolerance. This may be done by uploading a correction on the clock or orbit
settings to the satellite.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 249
Errors related to the medium

Thirdly, the medium between sender and receiver may be of influence to the radio
signals. The middle atmospheric layers of strato- and mesosphere are relatively
harmless and of little hindrance to radio waves, but this is not true of the lower
and upper layer. They are, respectively:

• The troposhere: the approximate 14 km high airspace just above the Earth’s
surface, which holds much of the atmosphere’s oxygen and which en-
velopes all phenomena that we call the weather. It is an obstacle that delays
radio waves in a rather variable way.

• The ionosphere: the most outward part of the atmosphere that starts at an
altitude of 90 km, holding many electrically charged atoms, thereby form-
ing a protection against various forms of radiation from space, including to
some extent radio waves. The degree of ionization shows a distinct night
and day rhythm, and also depends on solar activity.

The latter is a more severe source of delay to satellite signals, which obviously
means that pseudoranges are estimated larger than they actually are. When
satellites emit radio signals at two or more frequencies, an estimate can be com-
puted from differences in delay incurred for signals of different frequency, and
this will allow for the correction of atmospheric delay, leading to a 10–50% im-
provement of accuracy. If this is not the case, or if the receiver is capable of
receiving just a single frequency, a model should be applied to forecast the (es-
pecially ionospheric) delay, typically taking into account the time of day and
current latitude of the receiver.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 250
Errors related to the receiver’s environment

Fourth in this list is the error occurring when a radio signal is received via two or
more paths between sender and receiver, some of which typically via a bounce
off of some nearby surface, like a building or rock face. The term applied to this Multi-path error
phenomenon is multi-path; when it occurs the multiple receptions of the same
signal may interfere with each other (see Figure 4.26). Multi-path is a difficult to
avoid error source.

Figure 4.26: At any point

in time, a number of satel-
lites will be above the re-
ceiver’s horizon. But not
all of them will be ‘in view’
(like the left and right satel-
lites), and for others multi-
path signal reception may
occur.

All of the above error sources have an influence on the computation of a satel-
lite’s pseudorange. In accumulation, they are called the user equivalent range error
(UERE). Some error sources may be at work for all satellites being used by the re- Range error
ceiver, for instance, selective availability and the atmospheric delay, while others

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 251
may be specific to one satellite, for instance, incorrect satellite information and
multi-path.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 252
Errors related to the relative geometry of satellites and receiver

There is one more source of error that is unrelated to individual radio signal
characteristics, but that rather depends on the combination of the satellite sig-
nals used for positioning. Of importance is their constellation in the sky from
the receiver perspective. Referring to Figure 4.27, one will understand that the
sphere intersection technique of positioning will provide more precise results
when the four satellites are nicely spread over the sky, and thus that the satel-
lite constellation of Figure 4.27(b) is preferred over the one of 4.27(a). This error
source is know as geometric dilution of precision (GDOP). GDOP is lower when Geometric dilution of
satellites are just above the horizon in mutually opposed compass directions. precision
However, such satellite positions have bad atmospheric delay characteristics, so
in practice it is better if they are at least 15◦ above the horizon. When more than
four satellites are in view, modern receivers use ‘least-squares’ adjustment to cal-
culate the best positional fix possible from all of the signals. This gives a better
solution that just using the “best four”, as was done previously.

satellite clock 2m Table 4.4: Indication of

typical magnitude of errors
satellite position 2.5 m
in absolute satellite-based
ionospheric delay 5m
positioning
tropospheric delay 0.5 m
receiver noise 0.3 m
multi-path 0.5 m
Total
q
RMSE Range error:
22 + 2.52 + 52 + 0.52 + 0.32 + 0.52 = 5.97 m

These errors are not all of similar magnitude. An overview of some typical val-

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 253

Figure 4.27: Geometric

dilution of precision. The
four satellites used for po-
sitioning can be in a bad
constellation (a) or in a
(a) (b) better constellation (b).

ues (without selective availability) is provided in Table 4.4. GDOP functions

not so much as an independent error source but rather as a multiplying factor,
decreasing the precision of position and time values obtained.
The procedure that we discussed above is known as absolute, single-point posi-
tioning based on code measurement. It is the fastest and simplest, yet least accurate
way of determining a position using satellites. It suffices for recreational pur-
poses and other applications that require horizontal accuracy not under 5–10 m.
Typically, when encrypted military signals can also be used, on a dual-frequency
receiver the achievable horizontal accuracy is 2–5 m. Below, we discuss other
satellite-based positioning techniques with better accuracies.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 254
4.2.3 Relative positioning

One technique of trying to remove errors from positioning computations is to

perform many position computations, and to determine the average over the
solutions. Many receivers allow the user to do so. It should however be clear
from the above that averaging may address random errors like signal noise, selec-
tive availability (SA) and multi-path to some extent, but not systematic sources
of error, like incorrect satellite data, atmospheric delays, and GDOP effects.10 Random and systematic
These sources should be removed before averaging is applied. It has been shown error
that averaging over 60 minutes in absolute, single-point positioning based on
code measurements, before systematic error removal, leads only to a 10–20%
improvement of accuracy. In such cases, receiver averaging is therefore of lim-
ited value, and requires long periods under near-optimal conditions. Averaging
is a good technique if systematic errors have been accounted for.
In relative positioning, also known as differential positioning, one tries to remove
some of the systematic error sources by taking into account measurements of
these errors in a nearby stationary reference receiver with an accurately known
position. By using these systematic error findings at the reference, the position
of the target receiver of interest will become known much more precisely.
In an optimal setting, reference and target receiver experience identical condi-
tions and are connected by a direct data link, allowing the target to receive cor-
rectional data from the reference. In practice, relative positioning allows refer-
ence and target receiver to 70–200 km apart, and they will essentially experience
similar atmospheric signal error. For each satellite in view, the reference receiver
10
Please refer to section 5.2.2 for more detail on measurement error.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 255
will determine its pseudorange error. After all, its position is known with high
accuracy, so it can solve any pseudorange equations to determine the error. Sub-
sequently, the target receiver, having received the error characteristics will apply
the correction for each of the four satellite signals that it uses for positioning. In
so doing, it can narrow down its accuracy to the 0.5–5 m range.
The above sketch assumes we needed positioning information in real time, which
called for the data link between reference and target receiver. But various uses
of satellite-based positioning do not need the real time data, and allow post-
processing of the recorded positioning data. If the target receiver records time
and position accurately, correctional data can later be used to improve the origi-
nally recorded data.
Finally, there is also a notion of inverted relative positioning. The principles are still
as above, but in this technique the target receiver does not correct for satellite
pseudorange error either, but uses a data link to upload its positioning/timing
information to a central repository, where the corrections are applied. This can
be useful in cases where many target receivers are needed and budget does not
allow them to be expensive.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 256
4.2.4 Network positioning

After discussing the advantages of relative positioning, we can move on to the

notion of network positioning: an integrated, systematic network of reference re-
ceivers covering a large area like a continent or even the whole globe.
The organization of such a network can take different shapes, augmenting an
already existing satellite-based system. Here we discuss a general architecture,
consisting of a network of reference stations, strategically positioned in the area to
be covered, each of which is constantly monitoring signals and their errors for
all positioning satellites in view. One or more control centres receive the reference
station data, verify this for correctness, and relay (uplink) this information to
a geostationary satellite. The satellite will retransmit the correctional data to the
area that it covers, so that target receivers, using their own approximate position,
can determine how to correct for satellite signal error, and consequently obtain
much more accurate position fixes.
With network positioning, accuracy in the submetre range can be obtained. Typ-
ically, advanced receivers are required, but the technology lends itself also for
solutions with a single advanced receiver that functions in the direct neighbour-
hood as a reference receiver to simple ones.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 257
4.2.5 Code versus phase measurements

Up until this point, we have assumed that the receiver determines the range of
a satellite by measuring time delay on the received ranging code. There exists a
more advanced range determination technique known as carrier phase measure-
ment. This typically requires more advanced receiver technology, and longer
observation sessions. Carrier phase measurement can currently only be used
with relative positioning, as absolute positioning using this method is not yet
well developed.
The technique aims to determine the number of cycles of the (sine-shaped) radio
signal between sender and receiver. Each cycle corresponds to one wavelength
of the signal, which in the applied L-band frequencies is 19–24 cm. Since this
number of cycles cannot be directly measured, it is determined, in a long obser-
vation session, from the change in carrier phase with time. This happens because
the satellite is orbiting itself. From its orbit parameters and the change in phase
over time, the number of cycles can be derived.
With relative positioning techniques, a horizontal accuracy of 2 mm–2 cm can
be achieved. This degree of accuracy makes it possible to measure tectonic plate
movements, which can be as big as 10 cm per year in some locations on the
planet.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 258
4.2.6 Positioning technology

We include this section to provide the reader with a little information on cur-
rently available satellite-based positioning technology. It should be noted that
this textbook will easily outlive the currency of the information contained within
it, as our technology is constantly evolving.
At present, two satellite-based positioning systems are operational (GPS and
GLONASS), and a third is in the implementation phase (Galileo). Respectively,
these are American, Russian and European systems. Any of these, but especially
GPS and Galileo, will be improved over time, and will be augmented with new
techniques.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 259
GPS

The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) was declared operational in

1994, providing Precise Positioning Services (PPS) to US and allied military forces
as well as US government agencies, and Standard Positioning Services (SPS) to
civilians throughout the world. Its space segment nominally consists of 24 satel-
lites, each of which orbit our planet in 11h58m at an altitude of 20,200 km. There
can be any number of satellites active, typically between 21 and 27. The satel- Orbital planes
lites are organized in six orbital planes, somewhat irregularly spaced, with an
angle of inclination of 55–63◦ with the equatorial plane, nominally having four
satellites each (see Figure 4.28). This means that a receiver on Earth will have
between five and eight (sometimes up to twelve) satellites in view at any point
in time. Software packages exist to help in planning GPS surveys, identifying
expected satellite set-up for any location and time.
GPS’s control segment has its master control in Colorado, US, and monitor sta-
tions in a belt around the equator, namely in Hawaii, Kwajalein Atoll in the
Marshall Islands, Diego Garcia (British Indian Ocean Territory) and Ascension
Island (UK, southern Atlantic Ocean).
The NAVSTAR satellites transmit two radio signals, namely the L1 frequency at
1575.42 MHz and the L2 frequency at 1227.60 MHz. There are also a third and
fourth signal, but they are not important for our discussion here. The first two
signals consist of:

• The carrier waves at the given frequencies,

• A coarse ranging code, known as C/A, modulated on L1,

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 260

Figure 4.28: Constellation

of satellites, four shown in
only one orbit plane, in the
GPS system.

• An encrypted precision ranging code, known as P(Y), modulated on L1

and L2, and
• A navigation message modulated on both L1 and L2.

The role of L2 is to provide a second radio signal, thereby allowing (the more
expensive) dual-frequency receivers a way of determining fairly precisely the
actual ionospheric delay on satellite signals received. The role of the ranging
codes is two-fold:

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 261
1. To identify the satellite that sent the signal, as each satellite sends unique
codes, and the receiver has a look-up table for these codes, and

2. To determine the signal transit time, and thus the satellite’s pseudorange.

The navigation message contains the satellite orbit and satellite clock error in-
formation, as well as some general system information. GPS also carries a fifth,
encrypted military signal carrying the M-code. GPS uses WGS84 as its reference
system. It has been refined on several occasions and is now aligned with the WGS84 and ITRF
ITRF at the level of a few centimetres worldwide. (See also Section 4.1.1.) GPS
has adopted UTC as its time system.
In the civil market, GPS receivers of varying quality are available, their quality
depending on the embedded positioning features: supporting single- or dual-
frequency, supporting only absolute or also relative positioning, performing
code measurements or also carrier phase measurements. Leica and Trimble are
two of the well-known brands in the high-precision, professional surveying do- GPS manufacturers
main; Magellan and Garmin, for instance, operate in the lower price, higher
volume consumer market range, amongst others for recreational use in outdoor
activities. Many of these are single frequency receivers, doing only code mea-
surements, though some are capable of relative positioning. This includes the
new generation of GPS-enabled mobile phones.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 262
GLONASS

What GPS is to the US military, is GLONASS to the Russian military, specifically

the Russian Space Forces. Both systems were primarily designed on the basis of
military requirements. The big difference between the two is that GPS generated
a major interest in civil applications, thus having an important economic impact.
This cannot be said of GLONASS.
The GLONASS space segment consists of nominally 24 satellites, organized in
three orbital planes, with an inclination of 64.8◦ with the equator. Orbiting al-
titude is 19,130 km, with a period of revolution of 11 hours 16 min. GLONASS
uses the PZ–90 as its reference system, and like GPS uses UTC as time reference,
though with an offset for Russian daylight.
GLONASS radio signals are somewhat similar to that of GPS, but differ in the
details. Satellites use different identifier schemes, and their navigation message
use other parameters. They also use different frequencies: GLONASS L1 is at
approximately 1605 MHz (changes are underway), and L2 is at approximately
1248 MHz. Otherwise, the GLONASS system performance is rather comparable
to that of GPS.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 263
Galileo

In the 1990’s, the European Union (EU) judged that it needed to have its own
satellite-based positioning system, to become independent of the GPS monopoly
and to support its own economic growth by providing services of high reliability
under civilian control.
Galileo is the name of this EU system. The vision is that satellite-based position-
ing will become even bigger due to the emergence of mobile phones equipped
with receivers, perhaps with some 400 million users by the year 2015. Develop-
ment of the system has experienced substantial delays, and at the time of writing
European ministers insist that Galileo should be up and running by the end of
2013. The completed system will have 27 satellites, with three in reserve, orbit-
ing in one of three, equally spaced, circular orbits at an elevation of 23,222 km,
inclined 56◦ with the equator. This higher inclination, when compared to that of
GPS, has been chosen to provide better positioning coverage at high latitudes,
such as northern Scandinavia where GPS performs rather poorly.
In June 2004, the EU and the US agreed to make Galileo and GPS compatible by
adoption of interchangeable satellite signal set-ups. The effect of this agreement
is that the Galileo/GPS tandem satellite system will have so many satellites in
the sky (close to 60) that a receiver can almost always find an optimal constel-
lation in view. This will be especially useful in situations where in the past bad
signal reception happened: in built-up areas and forests, for instance. It will
also bring the implementation of a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
closer as positional accuracy and reliability will improve. With such a system,
eventually one expects to implement fully automated air and road traffic. Auto-
matic aircraft landing, for instance, requires horizontal accuracy in the order of

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 264
4 m, and vertical accuracy below 1 m: these requirements can currently not be
achieved reliably.
The Galileo Terrestrial Reference Frame (GTRF) will be a realization of the ITRS
independently set up from that of GPS, so that one system can back-up for the
other. Positional differences between the WGS84 and the GTRF will be at worst a
few centimetres. The Galileo System Time (GST) will closely follow International TAI
Atomic Time (TAI) with a time offset of less than 50 nsec for 95 % of the time over
any period of a year. Information on the actual offset between GST and TAI,
and between GST and UTC (as used in GPS) will be broadcasted in the Galileo
satellite signal.

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 265
Satellite-based augmentation systems

Satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS) aim to improve accuracy and re-

liability of satellite-based positioning (see the section on network positioning,
page 256) in support of safety-critical navigation applications such as aircraft
operations near airfields. The typical technique is to provide an extra, now geo-
stationary, satellite that has a large service area like a continent, and which sends
differential data about standard positioning satellites that are currently in view
in its service area. If multiple ground reference stations are used, the quality of
the differential data can be quite good and reliable. Signals typically use the fre-
quency already in use by the positioning satellites, so that receivers can receive
the differential code without problem.
Not all advantages of satellite augmentation will be useful for all receivers. For
consumer market receivers, the biggest advantage, as compared to standard rel-
ative positioning, is that SBAS provides an ionospheric correction grid for its
service area, from which a correction specific for the location of the receiver can
be retrieved. This is not true in relative positioning, where the reference station
determines the error it experiences, and simply broadcasts this information for
nearby target receivers to use. With SBAS, the receiver obtains information that
is best viewed as a geostatistical interpolation of errors from multiple reference
stations. More advanced receivers will be able to deploy also other differential
data such as corrections on satellite position and satellite clock drift.
Currently, three systems are operational: for North America WAAS (Wide-Area
Augmentation System) is in place, EGNOS (European Geostationary Navigation
Overlay Service) for Europe, and MSAS (Multi-functional Satellite Augmenta-
tion System) for eastern Asia. The ground segment of WAAS consists of 24 con-

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4.2. Satellite-based positioning 266
trol stations, spread over North America; that of EGNOS has 34 stations. These
three systems are compatible, guaranteeing international coverage.
Signals of the respective satellites (under various names like AOR, Artemis, IOR,
Inmarsat, MTSAT) can usually be received outside their respective service areas,
but the use of these signals is be discouraged, as they will not help improve
positional accuracy. Satellite identifiers, as shown in the receiver, have numbers
above 30, setting them apart from standard positioning satellites.

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Summary 267
Summary

This chapter focuses upon locating objects and events on the Earth’s surface. In
this context, a number of principles related to spatial reference systems, includ-
ing vertical and horizontal datums were discussed in Section 4.1.11
To summarise, each projection and datum has particular characteristics that make
it useful for specific mapping purposes. A projection is chosen to minimize the
errors for the area and relevant to the scale of the mapping project being un-
dertaken, and the required distortion property, which in turn depends on the
purpose for which the map will be used. We need to be aware of issues brought
about by the combination of spatial data from different sources that use different
reference systems. This issue is becoming increasingly important, as more and
more data is being shared. Often, transformations are necessary to enable the
combination of disparate data layers.
Section 4.2 discussed the various methods of satellite-based positioning, from
basic principles to characteristics of current implementations, and the different
levels of accuracy associated with each of these methods. This included a discus-
sion of sources of error in the context of both absolute and relative positioning.
Key aspects of positional accuracy are dealt with in more detail in the following
chapter, in the context of data quality.

11
This section is accompanied by a website at http://kartoweb.itc.nl/geometrics. Here, inter-
ested readers can find more background information and a list of frequently asked questions.

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Questions 268
Questions

1. You wish to reconcile spatial data from two neighbouring countries to re-
solve a border dispute. Published maps in the two countries are based on
different local horizontal datums and map projections. Which steps should
you take to render the data sets spatially compatible?

2. On page page 196 we mentioned that in geodetic practice the definition of

an ellipsoid is usually by its semi-major axis a and flattening f . Flatten-
ing is dependent on both the semi-major axis a and the semi-minor axis
b. Assume that the semi-major axis a of an ellipsoid is 6378137 m and the
flattening f is 1:298.257. Using these facts determine the semi-minor axis b
(make use of the given equations).

3. You are required to match GPS data with some map data. The GPS data
and the map layer are based on different horizontal datums. Which steps
should you take to make the GPS data spatially compatible with the map
data?

4. Suppose you wish to produce a small scale thematic map of your country.
The map should show the population densities for the different regions (or
provinces). What would be a good map projection for the representation
of the population densities of your country? Consider the class of the pro-
jection, the projection property and the line(s) of intersection or the point
or line of tangency.

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Questions 269

5. In section 4.2.1, we discussed the principles of absolute positioning. To a

large extent, there is an analogy with how human beings assess the risks
of a thunder storm with lightning. Explain that analogy, and discuss the
‘measuring errors’.

6. Estimate a realistic distance between a GPS satellite that is in view and

the receiver that you are holding, clarifying your assumptions. Indicate
minimum and maximum values. Finally, compute the time delay a satel-
lite message incurs before being received, again clarifying the assumptions
made.

7. On page 247 we mentioned size of the pseudorange error with respect to

satellite clock error. Think up why the estimates were as given. Also anal-
yse, using geometric arguments, what positioning error might result from
a single satellite clock error of 0.000001 sec.

8. How could one force a GPS receiver to operate in 2D positioning mode?

How would one set up an experiment to determine positioning accuracy
in this mode and the relation to actual height of the receiver?

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