DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3C. Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Ca. Asexual reproduction 無性生殖
i. binary fission in bacteria 細菌的二分裂
ii. vegetative propagation in flowering plants 有花植物的營養繁殖

3Cb. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants 有花植物的有性生殖

i. structure 結構
ii. process and agent of pollination 傳粉過程及媒介
iii. self pollination 自花授粉
iv. fate of structure after fertilization 受精後各結構的去向

3Cc. Reproduction in humans 人的生殖

i. structure 結構
ii. puberty 青春期
iii. menstrual cycle 月經週期
iv. transfer of gametes and fertilization 配子的傳送 及 受精
v. identical twins and fraternal twins 同卵孿生 及 異卵孿生
vi. development of a zygote 合子的發育
vii. birth process and parental care 分娩 及 親代撫育
viii. birth control and infertility 節育 及 不育

3Cd. Growth and development 生長 及 發育

i. concept 概念
ii. seed dispersal 種子的傳播
iii. seed germination 種子的萌發
iv. growth in plants 植物的生長
v. growth curves 生長曲線
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cai. Asexual reproduction – binary fission in bacteria

無性生殖 – 細菌的二分裂

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

1. no fertilization 1. have fertilization
2. no gamete 2. two gametes
3. only mitosis 3. meiosis and mitosis
4. offspring genetically identical to 4. offspring genetically different from
parent parents
5. only 1 parent 5. usually 2 parents (except bisexual
organism and self-fertilization)

無性繁殖 有性繁殖
1. 沒有受精 1. 有受精
2. 沒有配子 2. 兩個配子
3. 只有有絲分裂 3. 減數分裂及有絲分裂
4. 子代與親代遺傳上完全相同 4. 子代與親代遺傳上完全不同
5. 只有一個親代 5. 通常是兩個親代
(雌雄同體 和 自花受精 除外)

Binary fission in bacteria is a process of mitosis (Refer Question type 1e)

1. Two daughter cells are formed in each fission.
2. The newly-formed daughter cell are smaller in size than their parent.
3. other similar asexual reproduction
a. binary fission in amoeba,
b. spore formation in bread mould,
c. budding in yeast
細菌的二分裂是有絲分裂的過程
1. 每次分裂產生兩隻子細胞。
2. 新生的子細胞較親體細小。
3. 其他類似無性繁殖
a. 變形蟲的二體分裂、
b. 麪包黴的孢子形成、
c. 酵母菌的出芽生殖
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Caii. Asexual reproduction – vegetative propagation in flowering plants

無性生殖 – 有花植物的營養繁殖

Vegetative propagation
- is any form of asexual reproduction (mitosis) occurring in plants in which a new
plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant or a specialized reproductive
structure
- many flowering plants can reproduce by vegetative propagation
營養繁殖
- 是任何一種由母株的一部分或特定繁殖結構
生長出新植物的無性繁殖 (有絲分裂)。
- 很多有花植物可以通過營養繁殖去繁殖
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Caii. Asexual reproduction – vegetative propagation in flowering plants

無性生殖 – 有花植物的營養繁殖

Example of vegetative propagation:

1. by stem tubers e.g. Potato
2. by rhizomes e.g. Ginger
3. by bulbs e.g. Onion, African Violets
4. by corms e.g. Garlic, Taro
5. by roots e.g. Lotus
6. by other method e.g. Peanut, Rice grains
營養繁殖的例子 :
1. 通過塊莖 例︰馬鈴薯
2. 通過根莖 例︰薑
3. 通過鱗莖 例︰洋蔥、非洲紫蘿蘭
4. 通過球莖 例︰大蒜、芋頭
5. 通過根部 例︰蓮花
6. 通過其他方法 例︰花生、米粒
(Note : all plants carry out vegetative propagation can also carry out sexual reproduction
注意︰所有進行營養繁殖的植物都可以進行有性生殖)

Food stored in the (stem tuber / rhizome / bulb / corm / …) will develop buds and
grow into a new plant, after the leaves has grown, it will carry out photosynthesis.
Excess food will be stored again in a NEW (stem tuber / rhizome / bulb / corm / …)
for future use.
儲存於 (塊莖 / 根莖 / 鱗莖 / 球莖 / …) 的食物發芽及生長為新的植物
當葉子生長後，它便會進行光合作用
剩餘的食物會再次被儲藏於新的 (塊莖 / 根莖 / 鱗莖 / 球莖 / …) 作未來之用
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Caii. Asexual reproduction – vegetative propagation in flowering plants

無性生殖 – 有花植物的營養繁殖

Advantages 好處 :
1. This method is a faster / surer way of producing daughter plants
2. The desirable characteristics of the parent can be retained in the daughter
plants
3. The offspring are adapted to their parents’ natural environment
4. It helps the plant to pass over unfavourable season (e.g. winter)
1. 這個製造子株的方法較快捷 / 較穩妥
2. 母株優良的特徵可保留在子株
3. 後代適應於其親本的自然環境
4. 幫助植物過渡困難的季節，例︰冬天

Disadvantages 壞處︰
1. offspring produced will have the same genetic make-up as their parents
this provides limited raw materials for the selection of a resistant strain
/ if parent genotype is susceptible to the pathogen attack, the whole population
will be susceptible.
2. Overcrowded and cannot colonize a new habitat
since offspring cannot be dispersed far away from parents
1. 產生的後代其遺傳構成與親代相同
這提供有限的原料供選擇抗性品系 / 若親代的基因型容易受病原體攻擊，
則整個種群都是一樣
2. 過度擁擠 及 不能進佔新的生境
因為後代的散播不能離親代太遠
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cbi. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants – structure

有花植物的有性生殖 – 結構

1 – sepal : protects the flower at the bud stage

2 – anther : a. produces pollen grains carrying male gametes
so pollen grains is NOT male gametes
b. pollen grains are produced in great numbers to
compensate for wastage during pollination
3 – ovary : produces the ovule and develops into fruit after fertilization
4 – ovule : contains the female gametes
5 – style : supports the stigma in order to get the pollen
6 – stigma : receives the pollen
7 – petal : a. provides colour and scent to attract insects
b. protect inner parts of flower
8 – nectary : provide sugary secretion / nectar to attract insects
9 – filament : support the anther
3+5+6 = carpel
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cbi. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants – structure

有花植物的有性生殖 – 結構

1 – 萼片 : 於萌芽階段時保護花朵
2 – 花藥 : a. 產生載有雄配子的花粉粒
所以花粉粒不是雄配子
b. 花粉粒生產一大堆以補償傳粉時的浪費
3 – 子房 : 產生胚珠，及在受精後發育成為果實
4 – 胚珠 : 包含雌性配子
5 – 花柱 : 支持柱頭以接收花粉
6 – 柱頭 : 接收花粉
7 – 花瓣 : a. 提供顏色和香味吸引昆蟲
b. 保護花的內部結構
8 – 蜜腺 : 產生含糖的分泌物 / 花蜜來吸引昆蟲
9 – 花絲 : 支持花藥
3+5+6 =心皮
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cbii. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants – process and agent of pollination

有花植物的有性生殖 – 傳粉過程 及 媒介

Fertilization is the fusion of male and female gametes.

受精是指雄性和雌性配子的融合

Process of pollination
After pollination, pollen grain reach the stigma of a plant of the same species
Pollen grain (develops to form a pollen tube / germinate the pollen tube)
Pollen tube carries the male gametes down the style to the ovary / and digests the
tissues of the style and releases the male gametes into the ovule.

傳粉過程
傳粉後，花粉粒到達相同品種的植物的柱頭
花粉粒 (發育形成花粉管 / 萌發出花粉管)
花粉管攜帶雄配子
沿花柱向下延伸至子房 / 並消化花柱的組織
釋放雄配子至胚珠

W : hard, dry coat 硬及乾的外殼

X : pollen grain 花粉
Y : pollen tube 花粉管
Z : male gamete 雄性配子
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cbii. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants – process and agent of pollination

有花植物的有性生殖 – 傳粉過程 及 媒介

Wind-pollinated
1. Stigma is feathery
2. Stigma and anther hangs outside the flower
3. Pollen grains is relatively small in size but relative large amount

風媒花
1. 柱頭是羽狀
2. 柱頭和花藥伸出花外
3. 花粉粒的體積相對較細粒，但數量相對多

Insect-pollinated
1. Stigma is club-shaped / has a broad tip to receive pollen grains on the insect
body
2. Stigma and anther lie within the flower / petal
3. Presence of the nectary which produces sugary secretion / nectar to attract
insects
4. Petal is relatively large in size and brightly coloured to attract insects
5. Presence of insect guide
6. The spikes on the surface / rough surface of the pollen grain helps its
attachment onto the body of the insect
7. Pollen grains is relatively large in size but relative small amount
8. e.g. Bee

蟲媒花
1. 柱頭成棍棒狀 / 有寬闊的頂尖 以接受附在昆蟲身體的花粉
2. 柱頭及花藥藏在花 / 花瓣 中
3. 擁有蜜腺以產生含糖的分泌物/花蜜來吸引昆蟲
4. 擁有相對較大的及具顯著顏色的花瓣以吸引昆蟲
5. 具有昆蟲指示 / 具斑紋吸引昆蟲
6. 花粉上的刺 / 粗糙表面幫助它附在昆蟲的身體上
7. 花粉粒的體積相對較大粒，但數量相對少
8. 例︰蜜蜂
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cbiii. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants – self pollination

有花植物的有性生殖 – 自花授粉

Self pollination is when pollen grain reach at the stigma of the same plant
自花授粉是當花粉粒到達同一植物的柱頭上

Self-fertilization / Self-cross is sexual reproduction,

since it involves the fusion of two gametes / fertilization
自花受精 / 自交是有性生殖，因為這項自交涉及兩性配子的融合 / 受精作用

Method of making self pollination

1. covering the flower with a plastic bag
to prevent any unwanted pollination / fertilization from other plants
2. Use a brush to dust pollen grains of flower onto the stigma of the same flower
Cover the flower with a plastic bag to prevent further pollination
製造自花授粉的方法
1. 將一膠袋包著花奔
防止任何由其他植物傳來不想有的花粉 / 受精
2. 利用小毛刷在它的柱頭上撒上同一朵花的花粉
再以膠袋把該朵花蓋封以防再度傳粉

Method of preventing self pollination

1. Stigma is located above anther / Stigma and anther locate at different position
2. Remove the anthers from the flower before they are mature
3. Use a brush to dust pollen grains of another flower onto the stigma of this
flower.
Cover the flower with a plastic bag to prevent further pollination
防止自花授粉的方法
1. 柱頭位於花藥之上 / 柱頭和花藥位於不同位置
2. 在花朵成熟前除去花藥
3. 利用小毛刷在它的柱頭上撒上別朵花的花粉
再以膠袋把該朵花蓋封以防再度傳粉
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cbiii. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants – self pollination

有花植物的有性生殖 – 自花授粉

Self-fertilization (vs. Cross-fertilization)

1. The chance of pollination / fertilization is higher,
since it no need to depend on external agents for pollination
2. Less wastage of pollen grains
3. Desirable characters of the parent are more likely to be transmitted to the
offspring
4. Less genetic variation
自花受精 (vs. 異花受精)
1. 傳粉 / 受精的機會較高
因為無需外間媒介幫助傳粉
2. 浪費較少花粉
3. 親代的優良特徵有較大機會傳給子代
4. 遺傳變異較少
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cbiv. Sexual reproduction in flowering plants – fate of structure after fertilization

有花植物的有性生殖 – 受精後各結構的去向

After fertilization
1. Ovary → Swallow
2. Ovary wall → Fruit wall, Fruit flesh / Fruit pulp
To protect the seeds and help in seed dispersal
3. Ovule for supplying food and oxygen to the embryo
→ Seed
a. To form a new plant
b. To store food for the development of new plants
c. Different genotype with the other part of flower
d. Seeds of the same fruit are not genetically identical
e. It helps the plant to pass over unfavourable season
(e.g. winter)
4. Anther → Wither / fall off
5. Style → Wither / fall off
6. Stigma → Wither / fall off
7. Petal → Wither / fall off

受精後
1. 子房 → 腫脹
2. 子房壁 → 果壁、果肉
保護種子並協助種子散播
3. 胚珠 給胚胎供應食物和氧
→ 種子
a. 形成一棵新的植株
b. 貯存食物供新植株發育之用
c. 基因型與花的其他部分不相同
d. 同一果實的種子，遺傳上有差異
e. 幫助植物過渡困難的季節，例︰冬天
4. 花藥 → 凋謝 / 脫落
5. 花柱 → 凋謝 / 脫落
6. 柱頭 → 凋謝 / 脫落
7. 花瓣 → 凋謝 / 脫落
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cci. Reproduction in humans – structure 人的生殖 – 結構

DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cci. Reproduction in humans – structure 人的生殖 – 結構

Urinary bladder - For storing urine

Urethra - Involved in both reproduction and excretion
- For transmitting urine
Prostate gland / Seminal vesicle / Cowper’s gland
- For producing and secreting seminal fluid that assist the
mobility of sperms
Testis - For producing sperms / gametes and hormones
Epididymis - For storing sperms
Sperm duct - For transferring sperms
Penis - During sexual intercourse, the size increase significantly
- Erect for facilitating the transfer of sperm / semen
into the female reproduction tract

膀胱 - 貯存尿液
尿道 - 與生殖及排泄都有關連
- 運送尿液
前列腺 /儲精囊 / 高柏氏腺
- 生產及分泌精液，協助精子移動
睾丸 - 生產精子/配子 及 激素
附睾 - 貯存精子
輸精管 - 輸送精子
陰莖 - 性交時，大小會顯著增加
- 直立去協助輸送精子 / 精液到女姓的生殖管道
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cci. Reproduction in humans – structure 人的生殖 – 結構

Ovary a for producing eggs / ova

b. for secreting hormones
Oviduct a. muscle of oviduct contracts to force the egg to move to the site of
fertilization
b. the site of fertilization
c. for transporting eggs / ova from ovaries to uterus by cilia
Uterus a. the site of implantation of the embryo
b. the site of formation of placenta after implantation
c. for supplying food and oxygen to the embryo
Vagina a. the position for semen is discharged
(ova = plural form of ovum)
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cci. Reproduction in humans – structure 人的生殖 – 結構

卵巢 a. 製造卵子
b. 分泌激素
輸卵管 a. 輸卵管的肌肉收縮，使卵子移到受精的地點
b. 發生受精的地點
c. 利用纖毛將卵子由卵巢輸送到子宮
子宮 a. 胚胎植入的地點
b. 植入後，形成胎盤的地點
c. 給胚胎供應食物和氧
陰道 a. 釋放精液的位置
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Ccii. Reproduction in humans – puberty 人的生殖 – 青春期

After puberty 青春期後

Male 男性
- Prostate gland / Seminal vesicle / Cowper’s gland
Start to secrete seminal fluid
- Testis
Start to secrete male sex hormones
- 前列腺 / 儲精囊 / 高柏氏腺
開始分泌精液
- 睾丸
開始分泌雄激素

Female 女性
- Start the Menstrual cycle
- 開始月經週期

Male secondary sexual characteristics 男性第二性徵

- development of stronger muscles
- growth of beard
- broadening of shoulders
- enlargement of larynx
- the growth of public hair
- 肌肉的加強發育
- 生長鬍子
- 肩膀增闊
- 喉的增大
- 恥毛生長

Female secondary sexual characteristics 女性第二性徵

- breast develop
- fat deposits making the hips widen
- the growth of public hair
- 乳房發育
- 臂部積聚脂肪及變寛
- 恥毛生長
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cciii. Reproduction in humans – menstrual cycle 人的生殖 – 月經週期

menstrual cycle : from puberty to menopause

Uterine lining

Day 0 to Day 9 : Growth of the uterine lining

- to repair the uterine wall / the uterine lining will get thicker
- to prepare for implantation of the embryo
Day 9 : Ovulation - only 1 egg is released in each cycle
Day 9 to Day 23 : Ready for implantation
Day 23 to Day 28 : Menstruation
- uterine wall decreased in thickness
/ the uterine lining shed off
Day 0 to Day 28 : Finish 1 cycle

Day 9 is the highest chance of pregnancy

1. Ovulation → higher chance of fertilization
2. Uterine lining is ready for the implantation of the embryo
3. If implantation take place
→ no menstruation → the thickness of uterine will increase
→ uterine develop to placenta
4. If fertilization is not success → unfertilized egg is removed when menstruation
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cciii. Reproduction in humans – menstrual cycle 人的生殖 – 月經週期

月經週期︰由青春期至更年期

子宮內膜

第 0 日 至 第 9 日: 子宮內膜生長
- 修復子宮壁 / 子宮內膜會加厚
- 預備胎兒的植入
第9日 : 排卵 - 每個循環只會釋出一顆卵子
第 9 日 至 第 23 日 : 備妥作植入
第 23 日 至 第 28 日 : 月經
- 子宮壁厚度減少 / 子宮內膜會脫落
第 0 日 至 第 28 日 : 完成 1 個循環

第 9 日是最有機會懷孕
1. 排卵 → 更高機會受精
2. 子宮內膜於這時段已備妥作胚胎植入之用
3. 若植入發生
→ 沒有月經 → 子宮壁的厚度會增加 → 子宮壁會發展為胎盤
4. 若受精失敗 → 未受精的卵子會在月經時排出
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cciv. Reproduction in humans – transfer of gametes and fertilization

人的生殖 – 配子的傳送 及 受精

P = head
Q = nucleus - carrying male gamete
R = middle piece
- contain much mitochondria to carry out respiration to release energy for
swimming
S = tail - beating action to propel sperm for swimming

P = 頭部
Q = 細胞核 - 攜帶雄配子
R = 中段
- 有大量腺粒體進行呼吸作用釋出能量供游泳
S = 尾部 - 攞動推動精子游泳

Human egg and sperm 人類卵子和精子

1. sperm is male gamete and egg is female gamete
both have 23 chromosomes (haploid), so cannot further undergo meiosis
2. egg may have more gene, if sperm has Y chromosome
[egg must have X-chromosome, sperm may has X- or Y-chromosome]
3. egg has more cytoplasm and food reserve than sperm
4. egg has more mitochondria, but has lower density of mitochondria
5. sperm has higher mobility / sperm is motile
1. 精子是雄性配子而卵子是雌性配子
皆有 23 條染色體 (單倍體)，所以不能再進行減數分裂
2. 若精子有 Y 染色體，卵子有更多的基因數目
[卵子一定有 X 染色體、而精子可能是 X 或 Y 染色體]
3. 卵子比精子有更多細胞質及食物貯備
4. 卵子有較多的腺粒體，但較低腺粒體密度
5. 精子的可動性較高 / 精子是可動的
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cciv. Reproduction in humans – transfer of gametes and fertilization

人的生殖 – 配子的傳送 及 受精

Process
1. meiosis
2. copulation
The penis becomes erect and
it is inserted into the vagina
Semen is then ejaculated
3. Only 1 sperm swim into egg
Action to assist the sperm to get into the uterus
a. contraction of the uterus
b. contraction of sperm duct
c. beating action of the sperm tail
Reason of failure of the other sperms
a. sperms are trapped by the mucus in the vagina.
b. sperms are killed by the acidity of the vagina. (semen is alkaline)
c. sperms are defective and immotile.
d. sperms swim slower than the others.
(once a sperm enter the egg, the egg’s membrane becomes impenetrable)
4. only head of sperm enter egg
5. fertilization : fusion of male and female gametes
6. development into the (>100) cells by mitosis
a. use the nutrients from the cytoplasm of the egg in these few days
b. Action to assist the zygote move from oviduct to uterus
- muscle of oviduct contracts to force the zygote to move
7. implantation of zygote in uterus : uterus will increase greatly in size
8. formation of placenta
9. development into a foetus
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cciv. Reproduction in humans – transfer of gametes and fertilization

人的生殖 – 配子的傳送 及 受精

過程
1. 減數分裂
2. 交配 : 陰莖勃起、插入陰道、然後射精
3. 只有 1 條精子游到卵子
協助精子進入子宮的行為
a. 子宮收縮
b. 輸精管收縮
c. 精子尾部擺動
其他精子失敗的原因
a. 精子被陰道的黏液所困。
b. 精子因陰道的酸度而被殺死。 (精液是鹼性)
c. 精子有缺陷及不能游動。
d. 精子游動較慢。
(一旦有精子進入卵子，卵子壁會變成不能穿透)
4. 只有精子的頭部進入卵子
5. 受精︰雄性和雌性配子的融合
6. 透過有絲分裂 發育成一團 (>100) 細胞
a. 這數天會利用卵子內細胞質的營養
b. 協助合子由輸卵管移至子宮
- 輸卵管的肌肉收縮使合子移動
7. 合子植入子宮︰子宮的體積會顯著增加
8. 形成胎盤
9. 發育成胎兒
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Ccv. Reproduction in humans – identical twins and fraternal twins

人的生殖 – 同卵孿生 及 異卵孿生

1. identical twins :
a. 1 sperm + 1 egg = 1 zygote (fertilized egg)
b. zygote (fertilized egg) split into 2 parts
c. twins are genetically identical / have the same genotype
d. twins may have different continuous variation : e.g. height, weight, IQ
2. fraternal twins / non-identical twins :
a. 2 sperms + 2 eggs (from 2 ovaries) = 2 zygotes (fertilized eggs)
b. twins are genetically different / have different genotypes
c. twins may have different discontinuous variation : e.g. tongue rolling ability
d. twins may have different continuous variation : e.g. height, weight, IQ

1. 同卵孿生︰
a. 1 精子 + 1 卵子 = 1 合子 (受精卵)
b. 合子 (受精卵) 分裂為兩部分
c. 雙胞胎具相同的遺傳物質 / 有相同的基因型
d. 雙胞胎可能出現不同的連續變異︰e.g. 高度、重量、智商
2. 異卵孿生︰
a. 2 精子 + 2 卵子 (由 2 個卵巢) = 2 合子 (受精卵)
b. 雙胞胎具不同的遺傳物質 / 有不同的基因型
c. 雙胞胎可能出現不同的不連續變異︰e.g. 捲舌能力
d. 雙胞胎可能出現不同的連續變異︰e.g. 高度、重量、智商
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Ccvi. Reproduction in humans – development of a zygote

人的生殖 – 合子的發育

1. Placenta 胎盤
a. exchange of materials between the foetal blood and maternal blood by
diffusion
b. foetal blood and maternal blood must be separated
i. to avoid clumping of blood in case their blood types are incompatible
ii. to prevent the entry of some pathogens / toxins from maternal blood
directly
iii. to avoid breakage of foetal blood vessels by the high blood pressure of
maternal blood
c. allows the passage of antibodies, alcohol and nicotine in cigarette smoke
from the mother’s blood to the foetal blood,
but not allows the passage of platelets, enzyme, haemoglobin from the
mother’s blood to the foetal blood
a. 胎兒血液和母親血液中的物質通過擴散進行交換
b. 胎兒血液和母親血液必需分開
i. 避免在血型不相容時出現血液凝集
ii. 防止母親血液內的某些病原體/毒素直接進入
iii. 避免母親血液的高血壓令胎兒血管破裂
c. 容許抗體、酒精和香煙中的尼古丁從母親血液到達胎兒血液，
但不容許血小板、酶、血紅蛋白從母親血液到達胎兒血液
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Ccvi. Reproduction in humans – development of a zygote

人的生殖 – 合子的發育

2. Umbilical cord 臍帶
a. (mother lung) → pulmonary vein → heart → aorta → artery to uterus →
placenta → umbilical vein → (foetus) → umbilical arteries → placenta
b. umbilical arteries (vs. umbilical vein)
Thicker muscle wall and smaller lumen
Lower oxygen content
Lower glucose content
Lower amino acid content
Higher carbon dioxide content
c. genetically identical with the foetus
a. (母親肺部) → 肺靜脈 → 心臟 → 大動脈 → 往子宮的動脈 → 胎盤
→ 臍靜脈 → (胎兒) → 臍動脈 → 胎盤 → 母親
b. 臍動脈 (vs.臍靜脈)
較厚肌肉壁和較細內腔
較低的含氧量
較低的含葡萄糖量
較低的含氨基酸量
較高的含二氧化碳量
c. 與胎兒是遺傳上完全相同
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Ccvi. Reproduction in humans – development of a zygote

人的生殖 – 合子的發育

3. Amniotic fluid 羊水
a. contain foetal cells,
if amniotic fluid is used for karyotyping, we can determine
i. the sex of baby
ii. whether it has chromosome mutation or not e.g. Down syndrome
iii. but it cannot determine gene mutation e.g. sickle-cell anaemia
b. protect the foetus from shock / acts a shock absorber
c. give a stable environment for the development of the foetus
d. water in amniotic fluid can prevent foetus from desiccation and sudden
change in temperature
e. allow movement of the foetus in uterus
a. 含有胎兒細胞
若羊水進行染色體組型鑒別，可以判斷
i. 胎兒的姓名
ii. 有否染色體突變，例︰唐氏綜合症
iii. 但不能判斷基因突變，例︰鐮狀細胞性貧血
b. 保護胎兒免受震盪 / 吸收振盪
c. 提供一個穩定的環境供胎兒生長
d. 羊水中的水分可保護胎兒免於乾化和溫度突然改變
e. 容許胎兒在子宮內活動

4. Amnion 羊膜
- genetically identical with the foetus
- 與胎兒是遺傳上完全相同
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Ccvii. Reproduction in humans – birth process and parental care

人的生殖 – 分娩 及 親代撫育

Sequence of birth process

(1) onset of labour
(2) dilation of cervix
(2) breaking of amnion
- This results in the discharge of the amniotic fluid which lubricates the
passage of the foetus through the vagina
(3) push the baby out
- the muscular wall of uterus will contract rhythmically and powerfully
(4) cutting of umbilical cord
(5) expulsion of placenta - by the contraction of the uterus
(6) few weeks after birth, the thickened uterine lining is shed, woman discharges
bloody fluid from her uterus

分娩過程的次序
(1) 陣痛開始
(2) 子宮頸擴張
(2) 羊膜穿破 - 這引致羊水的流出，羊水潤滑陰道以便推出胎兒
(3) 推出胎兒 - 子宮的肌肉有規律和強烈地收縮
(4) 切斷臍帶
(5) 排出胎盤 - 通過子宮收縮
(6) 產後數星期，加厚了的子宮內膜脫落，血水從子宮排出

Advantages of breast-feeding
a. Mother’s milk contains the right amount of protein and fat
b. Mother’s milk contains antibodies that provide immunity to the baby
餵哺母乳的好處
a. 母乳含有適量的蛋白質和脂肪
b. 母乳含有抗體，為嬰兒提供免疫力
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Ccviii. Reproduction in humans – birth control and infertility

人的生殖 – 節育 及 不育

Birth control / contraception 節育 / 避孕

1. Rhythm method / safe period method
Egg and sperms are viable for only a few days once they are released.
The rhythm method is to avoid sexual intercourse around the time of ovulation,
so that sperms and egg will have no chance of meeting each other.
Unreliable : since the duration of the menstrual cycle may vary and the day of
ovulation may vary from cycle to cycle as well.
安全期避孕法
卵子和精子於釋出後只能存活數天。
安全期避孕法是避免在排卵期附近進行性交，
從而令卵子沒有機會和精子遇上。
不可靠︰ 在不同週期內的排卵日可能不同，
每名婦人月經週期的長短可能改變

2. Use condom / diaphragm during sexual intercourse

a. It forms a physical barrier to prevent sperms from meeting the ovum
b. It helps prevent AIDS / sexually transmitted diseases / blood borne diseases
c. Diaphragm is placed at cervix to stop the sperms from entering the uterus
性交時使用避孕套 / 子宮帽
a. 它形成一道物理屏障，防止精子與卵子相遇
b. 有助預防 AIDS / 性傳染病 / 血液傳染病
c. 子宮帽放於子宮頸防止精子進入子宮

3. Contraceptive pills - inhibit ovulation

避孕丸 - 抑制排卵

4. Use Intra-uterine device (IUD) - IUD prevents the implantation of the embryo
使用子宮環 - 子宮環防止胚胎植入
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Ccviii. Reproduction in humans – birth control and infertility

人的生殖 – 節育 及 不育

Birth control / contraception 節育 / 避孕

5. Oviducts are tied or cut

a. sperm cannot meet with egg
b. sex hormones can still be produced by ovaries
and being transported by blood to the target organs to exert their effects
so no effect on secondary sexual characteristics
切斷並結紮輸卵管
a. 精子無法遇上卵子
b. 卵巢依然能夠製造性激素，經血液運送至各目標器官，
發揮其影響，所以第二性徵不會受到影響

6. Sperm ducts tied and cut

a. no sperm in the semen, but sperms still have chance to leak out of the
body
b. sex hormones can still be produced by testis
and being transported by blood to the target organs to exert their effects
so no effect on secondary sexual characteristics
輸精管結紮及切斷
a. 精液中沒有精子，但精子仍有機會會漏出體外
b. 睾丸依然能夠製造性激素，經血液運送至各目標器官，
發揮其影響，所以第二性徵不會受到影響
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Ccviii. Reproduction in humans – birth control and infertility

人的生殖 – 節育 及 不育

Reason of Infertility / sterile

1. Time of intercourse does not necessarily fall in the period around ovulation.
2. Gametes produced may not be viable / may be defective
e.g. poor sperm mobility, sperms with structural defects
3. Oviducts is blocked.
4. Sperm duct is blocked
5. The sperm count of the husbands may be too low.
6. Unsuccessful implantation
7. No or few ovulation

不育的理由
1. 性交的時間未必處於排卵期附近
2. 所產生的配子未必是存活的/可能有缺陷
例如︰精子活動能力低、精子構造上有缺陷
3. 輸卵管閉塞
4. 輸精管閉塞
5. 男士的精子數目可能太少
6. 植入失敗
7. 沒有或少排卵

Solution of infertility : in vitro fertilization → test-tube baby

a. woman is given hormones to stimulate a large number of eggs
b. several eggs are collected
c. eggs transferred to a petri dish with a nutrient solution and semen
d. fertilized eggs are allowed to develop for 2 or 3 days
e. fertilized eggs have reached 8- to 16-cell stage
f. several of these embryos are placed into the woman’s uterus

不育的解決方法︰體外受精 → 試管嬰兒
a. 婦人須接受激素以刺激大量卵子
b. 抽取數顆卵子
c. 卵子放入載有養料的培養皿中，並加入精液樣本
d. 受精卵發展兩三日
e. 受精卵達到八或十六個細胞的階段
f. 數個胚胎放入該婦人的子宮內
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cdi. Growth and development – concept 生長及發育 – 概念

Growth 生長︰ Cell division 細胞分裂

Cell enlargement 細胞增大
Development 發育︰ Cell differentiation 細胞分化

Cell division – increase the number of cell, but the size of cell decrease
a. zygote in human : after the egg fertilized, cell division begin
b. region 3 in root : carry out mitotic cell division
c. tip of stem
Cell enlargement – increase the size of cell
a. zygote in human : cell enlargement only occur after the implantation,
or else it will be trapped in oviduct
b. region 2 in root : cell enlarge due to absorption of nutrients and water
Cell differentiation – change the cell type
a. zygote in human : from 16 cells → more cells
b. region 1 in root : differentiate into different tissues e.g. xylem, phloem

細胞分裂 – 增加細胞數目、但細胞大小下降
a. 人類的合子︰當卵子受精後就會開始細胞分裂
b. 根部的區域 3︰進行有絲細胞分裂
c. 莖的末端
細胞增大 - 增加細胞大小
a. 人類的合子︰未植入前，細胞不會增大，否則會困於輸卵管
b. 根部的區域 2︰由於吸收營養和水分令細胞增大
細胞分化 – 轉變細胞類型
a. 人類的合子︰由 16 個細胞→更多細胞
b. 根部的區域 1︰分化出不同的組織，例︰木質部、韌皮部

[region 4 : root cap 根冠]

DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cdii. Growth and development – seed dispersal

生長及發育 – 種子的傳播

Animal dispersal 動物傳播

1. by eating
a. Some seeds escape the chewing action of the teeth / the seed coat protect
seeds from being digested in the alimentary canal.
Thus, intact seeds are egested in the faeces.
b. Reason why fruit can help in the dispersal mechanism
i. The fruit has fleshy portion
ii. The fruit has a good smell / taste
iii. The outer skin of the fruit is in bright colour to attract animals to eat
tile fruit
2. by carrying
The fruit has hook
1. 通過進食
a. 有些種子未被牙齒嚼碎 / 種皮保護種子，
使它在消化道內未有被消化
因此完整的種子混在糞便中排遺而出
b. 果實幫助傳播機制的原因
i. 果實有多肉的部分
ii. 該果實帶有香氣/的味道很好
iii. 該果實外皮的顏色鮮艷以吸引動物進食該果實
2. 通過攜帶
果實有勾

Advantages of seed dispersal

1. It reduces competition within a species
2. It prevents the spread of diseases
3. It allows the species to explore new environments
種子傳播的好處
1. 可以減低種內的競爭
2. 防止疾病散播
3. 容許物種探索新環境
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cdiii. Growth and development – seed germination

生長及發育 – 種子的萌發

Flower change to fruit 花轉為果

1. flower stalk 花柄 → stalk scar 果柄
2. style 花柱 → style scar 果篤
3. sepal 萼片 → leave of fruit 果葉

Structure of seed 種子的結構

1. Coat : a. for protection

b. not formed from fertilized egg
2. Plumule: to develop into (shoot / stem and leaf) of the new plant
3. Radicle: to develop into root of the new plant
4. Cotyledon: a. to store food for developing new plant
b. food stored in form of starch and oil
1. 表皮 : a. 作保護之用
b. 不是由受精卵形成
2. 胚芽 : 生長成新植株的 (莖部 / 莖和葉)
3. 胚根 : 生長成新植株的根部
4. 子葉 : a. 儲存食物供新植株的生長
b. 食物以澱粉和油貯存
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cdiii. Growth and development – seed germination

生長及發育 – 種子的萌發

Process of seed germinate 種子萌發的過程

1. Water is needed
- to soften the seed coat for the emergence of the radicle.
- to swell the seed to rupture seed coat
- to activate the enzymes needed for germination.
- to hydrolyse the stored food (e.g. starch) for use in respiration to provide
the energy needed.
- to provide a medium for transporting the soluble food to growing parts for
use.
需要水
- 軟化種皮讓胚根穿過種子表皮
- 令種子腫脹使種皮爆裂
- 激活萌發所需要的酶
- 將儲存的食物水解，用作呼吸作用及提供能量
- 作為媒介提供運輸可溶解的食物到生長部分使用
2. Radicle is the first part that grows through the coat and grow downward
胚根最先穿過表皮長出 及 向下生長
3. Plumule grows through afterward and grow upward
胚芽繼而長出 及 向上生長
4. After the plumule grow out of the soil and leaves appear
胚芽長出泥土後，葉片出現
5. Before the leaves appear, all nutrient is come from cotyledon,
and the dry mass of the whole plant is decreasing
while the dry mass of radicle and plumule is increasing
After the leaves appear, it will carry out photosynthesis and produce food.
Once the rate of photosynthesis is higher than the rate of respiration,
the dry mass of the whole plant is increasing
葉片出現前，所有營養來自子葉，
整株植物乾質量會下降而胚根和胚芽的乾質量上升。
葉片出現後，它會進行光合作用及生產食物，
一旦光合作用速率比呼吸作用速率高，整株植物乾質量會上升。
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cdiii. Growth and development – seed germination

生長及發育 – 種子的萌發

[air = 空氣、wet soil = 濕潤泥土、stage = 階段、radicle = 胚根、

Seed coat = 種皮、white cotyledon = 白色的子葉、
green cotyledon = 綠色的子葉、first leaf = 第一塊葉]
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cdiv. Growth and development – growth in plants 生長及發育 – 植物的生長

Method to measure the growth 生長的量度方法

1. Size : e.g. length, area
2. Fresh mass
a. advantage : the plant still alive
b. disadvantage : measurement shows greater variation, water content is
affected by different environmental conditions
3. Dry mass
a. mass without water / actual biomass
b. advantage :
more accurate measurement of the amount of organic matter present
c. Experiment : how to determine the dry mass
- dry the harvested plant in an oven at around 100 C
until a constant mass is obtained upon repeated weighing
1. 大小︰例 長度、面積
2. 鮮質量
a. 好處︰植物仍然存在
b. 壞處︰量度結果會有較大差異，不同的環境條件會影響水的份量
3. 乾質量
a. 沒有水份的質量 / 實在的生物量
b. 好處︰更準確量度有機物質的存在數量
c. 實驗︰如何測定乾質量
- 將收割的植物放置在接近 100 C 的焗爐內焗乾
直至重覆量重時獲得不變的重量

[*Biomass 生物量 - the mass of organic matters, e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, fats
有機物質的質量，例如︰碳水化合物、蛋白質、脂肪]
DSE Biology Chapter 3C –Reproduction, growth and development 生殖、生長和發育

3Cdv. Growth and development – growth curves 生長及發育 – 生長曲線

[Relative size attained (%) = 可達到的相對體積 (%)、Age (years) = 年齡 (歲)]

I : Head 頭部 II : Whole body 整個身體 III : Reproductive system 生殖系統